'/ •1 HB ' ' THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST SECOND THIRD FOURTH FIFTH SIXTH SEVENTH EIGHTH NINTH TENTH ELEVENTH edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771. ten 1777—1784. eighteen 1788 — 1797. twenty 1801 — 1810. twenty 1815 — 1817. twenty 1823 — 1824. twenty-one 1830 — 1842. twenty-two 1853 — 1860. twenty-five 1875—1889. ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in ajl countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XVI L to LORD ADVOCATE Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West jand Street 1911 •E3 Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XVI. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,^ WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. B. Ch. A. B. CHATWOOD, B.Sc., A.M.lNST.C.E., M.INST.ELEC.E. j j^,,,^ A. B. R. ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. f Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of Text Book on Classifi- -I Leaf. cation of Flowering Plants, &fc. \_ A. C. F. ALEXANDER CAMPBELL FRASER, LL.D. See the biographical article: FRASER, A. C. A. C. S. ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. J _ . See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, A. C. \ l«anaor. A. D. HENRY AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D. See the biographical article: DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN. A. Fi. PIERRE MARIE AUGUSTE FILON. See the biographical article : FILON, P. M. A. I L80I( ne* A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A. , F.R.Hisx.Soc. Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls' Lambert Francis* College, Oxford. Assistant editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-^ ¥ ' M. . , ' 1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of LamM", Nicholson. England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c. [ A. Gl. ARNOLD GLOVER, M.A., LL.B. (d. 1905) r Trinity College, Cambridge ; Joint-editor of Beaumont and Fletcher for the Cam- -{ Layard. bridge University Press. A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. f Laurentius, Paul; Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester. \ Libertines. A. G. D. ARTHUR GEORGE DOUGHTY, C.M.G., M.A.,LiTT.D., F.R. HiST.S., F.R.S.(Canada). ( Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of Canada. J Author of The Cradle of New France; &c. Joint editor of Documents relating to the 1 Constitutional History of Canada. I A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, Lrrr.D., LL.D. f See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H. \ A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. f Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent ] » „„ , / • A/,.,\ College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of 1 lu)gos Uw ran>- Mysore Educational Service. L A. J. L. ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX. . r Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Editor of the Rio News -i Lima (Peru). (Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901. A. L. ANDREW LANG. J _ See the biographical article : LANG, ANDREW. |_ ^a Cloche. A. M. An. ADELAIDE MARY ANDERSON, M.A. r H.M. Principal Lady Inspector of Factories, Home Office. Clerk to the Royal Commission on Labour, 1892-1894. Gamble Gold Medallist, Girton College, Cam- i Labour Legislation. bridge, 1893. Author of various articles on Industrial Life and Legislation, &c. [ A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE. / Lagrange; Laplace; See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. ^ Leverrier. A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. / Lammergeyer; Lapwing; See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. I Lark; Linnet; Loom. A. P. C. ARTHUR PHILEMON COLEMAN, M.A., PH.D., F.R.S. f Professor of Geology in the University of Toronto. Geologist, Bureau of Mines, -\ Labrador (in part). Toronto, 1893-1910. Author of Reports of the Bureau of Mines of Ontario. *A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. V 1935 vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES A. P. Lo. ALBERT PETER Low. [ Deputy Minister of Department of Mines, Canada. Member of Geological Survey 4 Labrador (in part). of Canada. Author of Report on the Exploration in the Labrador Peninsula ; &c. I A. Se.* ADAM SEDGWICK, M.A., F.R.S. f Professor of Zoology at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London. J ¥ , ,, Fellow, and formerly Tutor, of Trinity College, Cambridge. Professor of Zoology 1 L>arval *orms. in the University of Cambridge, 1907-1909. I A. SI. ARTHUR SHADWELL, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.C.P. f Member of Council of Epidemiplogical Society. Author of The London Water- -I Liquor Laws. Supply; Industrial Efficiency, Drink, Temperance and Legislation. A. So. ALBRECHT SOCIN, PH.D. (1844-1899). f Formerly Professor of Semitic Philology in the Universities of Leipzig and Tubingen, -j Lebanon (in part). Author of Arabische Grammatik; &c. I A. S. C. ALAN SUMMERLY COLE, C.B. f Assistant Secretary for Art, Board of Education, 1900-1908. Author of Ancient] Lace. Needle Point and Pillow Lace; Embroidery and Lace; Ornament in European Silks; \ &c. A. St H. G. ALFRED ST HILL GIBBONS. [ Major, East Yorkshire Regiment. Explorer in South Central Africa. Author of "j Lewanika. Africa from South to North through Marotseland. I A. S. M. ALEXANDER STUART MURRAY, LL.D. f T See the biographical article: MURRAY, ALEXANDER STUART. j LamP- A. S. W. AUGUSTUS SAMUEL WILKINS, M.A., LL.D., Lrrr.D. (1843-1905). r Professor of Latin, Owens College, Manchester, 1869-1905. Author of Roman} Latin Language (in part). Literature; &c. A. T. T. A. T. THORSON. f rife-boat- /7«;W Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London. duke of. C. M. CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.Tn. r Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik \ Lateran Councils. im Zeitalter Gregor VII. ; Quellen zur Geschichte des Papstthums ; &c. C. Mo. C R. B. DeB. D. F. T. D. G. H. D. H. D. LI. T. D. Mn. D. M. W. E. B.* E. C. B. E. Da. E. D. J. W. E.G. E. Ga. E.He. E. J. D. E.G.* E. Pr. E. R. L. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES WILLIAM COSMO MONKHOUSE. J Leighton, Lord. See the biographical article : MONKHOUSE, W. C. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lrrr., F.R.G S., F.R.Hisx.S. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow I Lei{ Ericsson; of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography.^ L Johannes. Lothian Prizemln, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer Boston, 1908. Author of Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c. HENRI G. S. A. DE BLOWITZ. See the biographical article: BLOWITZ, H. DE. vii -J Lesseps, Ferdinand de. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. . _» J Lasso, Orlando. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The^ Goldberg Variations, and analysis of many other classical works. DAVKeeGper°of3 the^Sofean^Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford Latakia; Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis iSggand S Lebanon (in part). 1903- Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907; Director, British School at Athens, 1897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. L ^^ ^^ o{. DA7orlAeTBVitish Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal j Launa oR°f ' ** . Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. t Lepanto, Battle Of, Lissa. Rhondda. Inn. Stipendiary Magistrate at Pontypridd and Llantwit Major. Author of Constructive 4 Leighton, Robert (in REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Congregational Ideals; &c. SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O. Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director ot the Foreign Department of The Times, 1891-1899. Member of the Institut de Droit Inter- J Lobanov-Rostovskl national and Officier de 1'Instruction Publique (France). Joint-editor of New Volumes (loth ed.) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Author of Russia; Egypt and the Egyptian Question; The Web of Empire; &c. ERNEST CHARLES FRANCOIS BABELON. Professor at the College de France. Keeper of the department of Medals and Antiquities at the Bibliotheque Nationale. Member of the Academic des Inscrip- tions et de Belles Lettres, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author ot Descriptions Historiques des Monnaies de la Republique Romaine; Traites des MonnaiesGrecquesetRomaines; Catalogue des Camees de la Bibliotheque Nationale. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.LITT. (Dublin) Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of The Lausiac History ot Falladius, in Cambridge Texts and Studies, vol. vi. EDWARD GEORGE DANNREUTHER (1844-1905). Member of Board of Professors, Royal College of Music, 1895-1905. Conducted I LIszt> the first Wagner Concerts in London, 1873-1874. Author of The Music of the Future; &c. Editor of a critical edition of Liszt's Etudes. EDWARD D. J. WILSON. Formerly Leader-writer on The Times. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article : GOSSE, EDMUND. part). Leo, Brother. -[ Londonderry, 2nd Marquess of. -' Lampoon; Lie, Jonas L. E. I T Author of A. Scarlatti: his Life\ Leo, Leonardo. Liver: Surgery of Liver and Gall Bladder. EMILE GARCKE, M.lNST.E.E. J Lighting: Electric (Commercial Managing Director of British Electric Traction Co., Ltd. Author of Manual of 4 Aspects). Electrical Undertakings ; &c. {_ 5WGonvilleAand0Caius College, Cambridge. Librarian of the Royal Geographical -j Livingstone Mountains. Society, London. • EDWARD JOSEPH DENT, M.A., Mus.Bac. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. and Works. EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D Sc. Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children s Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late Examiner -< in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author ot A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. EDGAR PRESTAGE. .. Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Examiner in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Com- < mendador, Portuguese. Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society, &c. Author of Letters of a Portuguese Nun ; Azurara's Chronicle of Guinea ;&c. SIR EDWIN RAY LANKESTER, K.C.B., F.R.S., D.Sc. Hon. Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. Director of the Natural History Depart- ments of the British Museum, 1898-1907. President of the British Association, 1006. Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in University College, London, 1874-1890. Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy at Oxford, 1891-1898. Vice-President of the Royal Society, 1896. Romanes Lecturer at Oxford, 1905. Author of Degeneration; The Advancement of Science; The King- dom of Man ; &c. Lobo, F. R.; Lopes, Fernao. Lamellibranchia (in part). viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES E. V. L. EDWARD VERRALL LUCAS. f Editor of Works of Charles Lamb. Author of Life of Charles Lamb. \ Lamb, Charles. F. E. B. FRANK EVERS BEDDARD, M.A., F.R.S. f Prosector of Zoological Society, London. Formerly Lecturer in Biology at Guy's w Hospital, London. Naturalist to " Challenger " Expedition Commission, 1882- 1884. Author of Monograph of the Oligochaeta; Animal Colouration; &c. I F. E. W. REV. FREDERICK EDWARD WARREN, M.A., B.D., F.S.A. f Lection, Lectionary; Rector of Bardwell, Bury St Edmunds. Fellow of St John's College, Oxford, Lector* 1865-1882. Author of The Old Catholic Ritual done into English and compared with 1 i •*.„ '. the Corresponding Offices in the Roman and Old German Manuals; The Liturgy and *"'any> Ritual of the Celtic Church; &c. [ Liturgy. F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. f. . , ,. •, Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. \ LomDarOS (in part). F. G. P. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. I" Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on I Liver: Anatomy Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. | Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. I F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HA VERFIELD, M.A. , LL.D., F.S.A. f . .. , Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of J Legion (in part) ; Brasenose College. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Fellow of the British Academy. | Limes Germanicus. Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain ; &c. F. L.* SIR FRANKLIN LUSHINGTON, M.A. f t^ Formerly Chief Police Magistrate for London. Author of Wagers of Battle. \ ' F. V. B. F. VINCENT BROOKS. j Lithography. F. v. H. BARON FRIEDRICH VON HUGEL. Member of Cambridge Philological Society ; Member of Hellenic Society. Author -\ Loisy . of The Mystical Element of Religion. F. Wa. FRANCIS WATT, M.A. f Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Author of Law's Lumber Room; Scotland o/-j Law, John. to-day; &c. F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Labradorite* Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. ~\ , , ,'. President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. ( **P1S ^»zuu- F. W. Ra. FRANCIS WILLIAM RAIKES, K.C., LL.D. (1842-1906). f Judge of County Courts, Hull, 1898-1906. Joint-author of The New Practice; &c. \ tllen> G. A. Gr. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D., D.LITT. (Dubl.). Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of -i Lahnda. the Royal Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of The Languages of India ; &c. G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON. M.A., F.R.HiST.S. r . Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909- J i jmhunr 1910. Employed by British Government in preparation of the British Case in the ] British Guiana- Venezuelan and British Guiana-Brazilian boundary arbitrations. [ G. F. B. GEORGE FREDERICK BARWICK. ( Assistant- Keeper of Printed Books and Superintendent of Reading-room, British \ Lavigerie. Museum. G. F. K. GEORGE FREDERICK KUNZ, A.M., PH.D., D.Sc. Gem Expert to Messrs Tiffany & Co., New York. Hon. Curator of Precious Stones, American Museum of Natural History, New York. Fellow of Geological Society of ^ Lapidary and Gem-cutting. America. Author of Precious Stones of North America; &c. Senior Editor of Book of the Pearl. \_ G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc. f Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: < Lepidoptera. Their Structure and Life. [_ G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURV, D.C.L., LL.D. J JUS? L* T0^nB' See the biographical article: SAINTSBURV, GEORGE E. B. [ HZchefoucauld; Le Sage. G. S. L. GEORGE SOMES LA YARD. f Trinity College, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Author of Charles J Linton, William James. Keene ; Shirley Brooks ; &c. G. W. T.« REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. r Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old •} Labid. Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. H. A. L. HENDRIK ANTOON LORENTZ. r Professor of Physics in the University of Leiden. Author of La theorie electro- < Light: Nature of. magnetique de Maxwell et son application aux corps mouvanls. H. B. W.* HENRY BENJAMIN WHEATLEY, F.S.A. f Assistant Secretary, Royal Society of Arts, 1879-1909. President of the Samuel J London: History. Pepys Club, 1903-1910. Vice-President of the Bibliographical Society, 1908-1910. | Author of The Story of London ; London Past and Present ; &c. L H. B. Wo. HORACE BOLINGBROKE WOODWARD, F.R.S. , F.G.S. [Logan, Sir William E.; Formerly Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of England and Wales. •! Lonsdale William President Geologists' Association, 1893-1894. Wollaston Medallist, 1908. I INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition of i Lloyd George, D. the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the loth edition. L H. De. REV. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J. S Lawrence, St; Bollandist. Joint-author of the Acta Sanctorum. I Linus. H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, M.A., F.R.S., PH.D. [ Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge, "j Lizard. Author of Amphibia and Reptiles (Cambridge Natural History). L H. F. P. HENRY FRANCIS PELHAM, LL.D. /Livy (in part}. See the biographical article: PELHAM, H. F. L H. H. J. SIR HENRY HAMILTON JOHNSTON, K.C.B., G.C.M.G. /Liberia See the biographical article : JOHNSTON, SIR HENRY HAMILTON. L H. M. S. HENRY MORSE STEPHENS, M.A., LITT.D. f¥-« • Professor of History and Director of University Extension, University of California. •( Llttre. Author of History of the French Revolution ; Revolutionary Europe ; &c. L H. R. T. HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A. (Libraries (in part). Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. L H. St. HENRY STURT, M.A. J Lange Friedrich Albert. Author of Idola Theatri; The Idea of a Free Church; and Personal Idealism. I H. T. A. REV. HERBERT THOMAS ANDREWS. [ Professor of New Testament Exegesis, New College, London. Author of the J Loeia "Commentary on Acts," in the Westminster New Testament; Handbook on the] Apocryphal Books in the " Century Bible." H. W. B.* HERBERT WILLIAM BLUNT, M.A. f _ Student, Tutor, and Librarian, Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of All 1 Logic. History. Souls' College. H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. f T ._.„..„,. Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, J pn nc' 1895-1902. Author of Charlemagne; England under the Normans and Angevins; I Langton, Stephen. &c. H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I. /Lhasa (in See the biographical article : YULE, SIR HENRY. \ I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS. [ Lazarus, Emma; Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. J ¥_-_ Moses- Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short | J*011' ~°* History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. L Leon Of Modena. J. An. JOSEPH ANDERSON, LL.D. Keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh. Assistant Secretary to J Lake Dwellings. the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, and Rhind Lecturer, 1879-1882 and 1892. 1 Editor of Drummond's Ancient Scottish Weapons; &c. J. A. P. JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow of J Leyden Jar; University College, London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. 1 Lighting: Electric. Vice-President of the Institution of Electrical Engineers. Author of The Principles of Electric Wave Telegraphy ; Magnets and Electric Currents ; &c. J. A. F. M. JOHN ALEXANDER FULLER MAITLAND, M.A., F.S.A. Musical critic of The Times. Author of Life of Schumann ; The Musician's Pil- j grimage ; Masters of German Music ; English Music in the Nineteenth Century ; "j Lind, Jenny. The Age of Bach and Handel. Editor of Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians ; &c. I J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. [ Lias; Curator and Librarian of the Musi ~' D — '•'•"' ^ — ' * — ' — A"i! The Geology of Building Stones ; &c. Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of S Llandoverv Group J. Dr. SIR JAMES DEWAR, F.R.S. , LL.D. -f Liquid Gases. See the biographical article: DEWAR, SIR J. \ J. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. f King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe, j Torjssa Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of 1 Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. L J. D. Br. JAMES DUFF BROWN. f , Borough Librarian, Islington Public Libraries. Vice-President of the Library^ Libraries (in part). Association. Author of Guide to Librarianship; &c. J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HiST.S. f Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. La Cueva; Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. < Larra; Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Literature. Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; &c. J. F. St. JOHN FREDERICK STENNING, M.A. f Dean and Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Aramaic, •{ Leviticus. Lecturer in Divinity and Hebrew at Wadham College. f Lancaster, House of; J. Ga. JAMES GAIRDNER C.B., LL.D. J Leicester, Robert Dudley, earl See the biographical article: GAIRDNER, JAMES. j J. G. F. SIR JOSHUA GIRLING FITCH, LL.D. /Lancaster, Joseph. See the biographical article: FITCH, SIR J. G. L X J. 6. N. J. G. P.* 3. G. R. J. Hn. J. H. F. J. HI. R. J. J. L.* J. K. I. J. Le. J. L.M. J. L. W. J. Mu. J. M. C. J. M. G. J. P. E. J. P. P. J. P. Pe. J.S. J. Si. J. S. P. J. S. K. J. S. W. J. T. Be. J. T. Br. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES JOHN GEORGE NICOLAY (1832-1901). Marshal of the U.S. Supreme Court, 1872-1887. &c. Joint-author of A braham Lincoln: 4 Lincoln, Abraham (in part). JAMES GORDON PARKER, D.Sc., F.C.S. f Principal of Leathersellers Technical College, London. Gold Medallist, Society i Leather. of Arts. Author of Leather for Libraries ; Principles of Tanning ; &c. JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D. I" Professor of German Language and Literature, University of London. Editor of the J Lessine (in ttarft Modern Language Journal. Author of History of German Literature ; Schiller after \ a Century; &c. L JUSTUS HASHAGEN, PH.D. C Lang, Karl Heinrieh; Privat-dozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bonn. Author of -I Ledochowski; Das Rheinland unter der franzosische Herrschaft. [ Leo, Heinrich. JOHN HENRY FREESE, M.A. f •,.. v, , E- ..-_ /• ,». Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. \ Le° VL (EmPeror °1 the JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lirr.D. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local Lectures Syndicate. J Las Casas. Author of Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic Studies ; The Development of the European \ Nations; The Life of Pitt; &c. [_ REV. JOHN JAMES LIAS, M.A. Chancellor of Llandaff Cathedral. Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in Divinity and Lady Margaret Preacher, University of Cambridge. JOHN KELLS INGRAM, LL.D. See the biographical article: INGRAM, J. K. *. { Langen. - Leslie, Thomas E. C. REV. JAMES LEGGE, M.A. See the biographical article: LEGGE, JAMES. Lao-Tsze. JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. [ Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Formerly J Leleges; Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient Geography, University of j Logrj (Greece) Liverpool. Lecturer in Classical Archaeology in University of Oxford. •1 Lancelot. JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON. Author of Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory. SIR JOHN MURRAY, K.C.B., F.R.S. See the biographical article: MURRAY, SIR JOHN. REV. JAMES M. CROMBIE. Author of Braemar: its Topography and Natural History; Lichenes Britannici. JOHN MILLER GRAY (18505-1894). Art Critic and Curator of the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, 1884-1894. Author. of David Scott, R.S.A.; James and William Tassie. JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours elementaire d'histoire du droit ' franc/iis; &c. [ JOHN PERCIVAL POSTGATE, M.A., LITT.D. { Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of Trinity College, J Latin Literature (in part). Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Editor of the Classical Quarterly. J Editor-in-chief of the Corpus Poetarum Latinorum ; &c. L REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D.. D.D. f Canon Residentiary, P. E. Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professorof Hebrew in Lagash; * I , . . TT« . ~f T> __ ___ i ____ • i~\* ___ _ _ f il __ T T • _____ ;*.__ T"> _____ t* . • . _ . T»_V /Lake. -I Lichens (in part). \ Leech, John. Lettres de Cachet. the University of Pennsylvania. Director of the University Expedition to Baby- • Ionia, 1888-1895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates ; Scriptures, Hebrew and Christian. JAMES SULLY, LL.D. See the biographical article: SULLY, JAMES. JAMES SIME, M.A. (1843-1895). Author of A History of Germany ; &c. Larsa. •I Lewes, George Henry (in part). j Lessing (in part). JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. f Laccolite; Lamprophyres; Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in J Laterite; Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby | Leucite: Leucile Rocks; Medallist of the Geological Society of London. JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S., F.S.A. (Scot.). Secretary, Royal Geographical Society. Hon. i Limestone. Member, Geographical Societies I T ii/in. A British Exhibition, London. Author of History of "Punch"; British Portrait] Lme Engraving (in part). Painting to the Opening of the Nineteenth Century; Works of G. F. Watts, R.A.; British Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day; Henriette Ronner; &c. M. N. T. MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. f i~conia. Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. \ . Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. \_ Leomdas; Leotycnides. M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. f Leo I.-V, (Emperors of the Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham -< East) ; University, 1905-1908. [ Lesbos; Leuctra. M. P.* LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET. r Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Auxiliary of the Institute of J L'AubeSpine. France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences). N. G. G. NICHOLAS G. GEDYE. f¥. ,.,. , „ /• .\ Chief Engineer to the Tyne Improvement Commission. \ Llght 0. Hr. OTTO HENKER, Pn.D. f On the Staff of the Carl Zeiss Factory, Jena, Germany. \ Lens. [Ladoga (in part); P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. Lithuanians and Letts: See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A. -j Historv [Livonia (in part). Xll P. C. M. P. C. Y. P.O. P. Gi. P. G. H. R. A. S. M. R. G. R. I. P. R. J. M. R. K. D. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES R. L.* R. M'L. R. M. B. R. N. B. R. S. C. R.We. R. W. C. S. A. C. S. C. StC. S. D. F. S. S. N. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., D.Sc., LL.D. Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. Lecturer on Biology at Charing Cross Hospital, 1892-1894; at London Hospital, 1894. Examiner in Biology to the Royal College of Physicians, 1892-1896, 1901- 1903. Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903. PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford. PERCY GARDNER, Lrrr.D., LL.D., F.S.A. See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. Life; Longevity. f Laud, Archbishop; -i. Lauderdale, Duke of; [Leeds, 1st Duke of. Leochares. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., LiTT.D. r Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University I » Reader in Comparative Philology. Late Secretary of the Cambridge Philological | Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology ; &c. I PHILIP GILBERT HAMERTON. See the biographical article: HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora- tion Fund. RICHARD GARNETT, LL.D. See the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. RONALD JOHN McNEiLL, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the S/ James's Gazette, London. Line Engraving (in part). Lachish. -| Leopard!. f Leaf-insect; \ Locust (in part). f Lawn Tennis; Leicester, R. Sidney, earl of; Lockhart, George. SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS. Formerly Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at British Museum, 1892-1907. Member of the Chinese Consular - Service, 1858-1865. Author of The Language and Literature of China: Europe and the Far East; &c. RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Deer of all Lands; The Came Animals of Africa; &c. Li Hung Chang. Langur; Lemming (in part) ; Lemur; Leopard (in part); Lion (in part); Litopterna. ROBERT M'LACHLAN. Editor of the Entomologists' Monthly Magazine. ROBERT MICHAEL BALLANTYNE. See the biographical article: BALLANTYNE, R. M. I Locust part). Life-boat: British (in part). ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, 1613-1725 ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796; &c. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.Lirr. (Cantab.). Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. RICHARD WEBSTER, A.M. J Formerly Fellow in Classics, Princeton University. Editor of The Elegies of] Long Island Maximianus; &c. I Ladislaus I. and IV. ot Hungary; Laski. Latin Language (in part); Liguria: Archaeology and Philology. THE VERY REV. R. W. CHURCH, D.D. See the biographical article: CHURCH, R. W. STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and J Levites. Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic In- scriptions; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D. See the biographical article: COLVIN, SIDNEY. VISCOUNT ST CYRES. See the biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, IST EARL OF. REV. STEWART DINGWALL FORDYCE SALMON, M.A., D.D. (i Professor of Systematic Theology and Exegesis of the Epistles, Lf.F.C. College . Aberdeen, 1876-1905. Author of The Parables of our Lord; &c. Editor of The International Library of Theology; &c. f Lombards: \ The Kingdom in Italy. -{ Leonardo da Vinci. , Liguori. r Logos (in part). SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.Sc. See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON. [ Latitude; \Light: Velocity. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Xlll T. As. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LiTT., F.S.A. Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Corresponding Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1897. Author of The Classical Topo- graphy of the Roman Campagna ; &c. T. A. I. T. Ca. T. C. A. T. Da. T. F. C. T. F. H. T. H. H.* T. K. T. Mo. , T. M. L. T. Se. T. W. R. D. T. Wo. V. B. L. V. H. B. W. A. B. C. W. A. P. W. E. Co. W. F. I. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M. A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin. THOMAS CASE, M.A. President of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Formerly Waynflete Professor of Moral and Metaphysical Philosophy at Oxford and Fellow of Magdalen College. Author of Physical Realism ; &c. SIR THOMAS CLIFFORD ALLBUTT, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. f Regius Professor of Physic in the University of Cambridge. Physician to Adden- J i ,•,*-- brooke's Hospital, Cambridge. Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. 1 Editor of Systems of Medicine. \ THOMAS DAVIDSON, LL.D. Labicana, Via; Labici; Lampedusa; Lanciano; Lanuvium; Larino; Latina, Via; Latiurn; Laurentina, Via; Lavinium; Lecce; Leghorn; Leontini; Licodia Eubea; Ligures Baebiani; LLiguria: History; Locri: Italy. /Livery Companies; I London: Finance, Logic. THEODORE FREYLIN' IHUYSEN COLLIER, Pn.D. Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., U.S.A. THOMAS F. HENDERSON. Author of Mary Queen of Scots and the Casket Letters; &c. Longfellow. Laodieea, Synod of. Latimer. SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.G.S. Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892- 1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H.M. Commissioner for the Perso- -\ Ladakh and Baltistan. Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Gates of India; &c. THOMAS KIRKUP, M.A., LL.D. Author of An Inquiry into Socialism; Primer of Socialism; &c. Lassalle. THOMAS MOORE, F.L.S. (1821-1887). f Curator of the Garden of the Apothecaries Company at Chelsea, 1848-1087. Editor J '¥ of the Gardeners' Magazine of Botany; Author of Handbook of British Ferns; 1 Labyrinth. Index Filicum ; Illustrations of Orchidaceous Plants. REV. THOMAS MARTIN LINDSAY, LL.D., D.D. ( Principal of the United Free Church College, Glasgow. Formerly Assistant to the Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Author of " History of the Reformation ; Life of Luther ; &c. THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of Dictionary of National' Biography, 1891-1900. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c. THOMAS WILLIAM RHYS DAVIDS, LL.D., PH.D. Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester University. Professor of Pali and Buddhist Literature, University College, London, 1882-1904. President of the Pali Text Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of ' Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Buddhists; Early Buddhism; Buddhist India; Dialogues of the Buddha; &c. THOMAS WOODHOUSE. Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee. VIVIAN BYAM LEWES, F.I.C., F.C.S. Professor of Chemistry, Royal Naval College. Chief Superintendent Gas Examiner . to the Corporation of the City of London. VERNON HERBERT BLACKMAN, M.A., D.Sc. Professor of Botany in the University of Leeds. Formerly Fellow of St John's . College, Cambridge. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature ' and in History; &c. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1889. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, - Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; &c. THE RT. REV. WILLIAM EDWARD COLLINS, M.A., D.D. Bishop of Gibraltar. Formerly Professor of Ecclesiastical History, King's College, London. Lecturer of Selwyn and St John's Colleges, Cambridge. Author of The ' Study of Ecclesiastical History; Beginnings of English Christianity; &c. WILLIAM FERGUSSON IRVINE, HON. M.A. (Liverpool). Hon. Secretary and General Editor of Historical Society of Lancashire and Cheshire. Hon. Local Secretary for Cheshire of the Society of Antiquaries. Author of Liver- ' pool in the reign of Charles II.; Old Halls of Wirral; &c. Lollards. Lever, Charles. Lamaism. Linen and Linen Manu- factures. Lighting: Oil and Gas. Lichens (in part). Lausanne; Leuk; Liechtenstein; Linth; Locarno; Lode, Le. Laibach, Congress of; Lights, Ceremonial use of. Libellatici. Liverpool. XIV W. H. Be. W. H. F. W. M. R. W. P. T. W. R. So. W. R. S.-R. W. T. Ca. W. T. D. W. W. R.* W. W. S. W. Y. S. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Cantab.)- Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets ; &c. SIR WILLIAM HENRY FLOWER, F.R.S. See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. - Lamech. r Lemming (in part); •I Leopard (in part); I- Lion (in part), f Lely, Sir Peter; I Lippi. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL. WILLIAM PETERJ^IELD TRENT, LL.D., D.C.L. Professor of English Literature. Columbia University. Author of English < Lanier. Culture in Virginia; A Brief History of American Literature; &c. WILLIAM RITCHIE SORLEY, M.A., Lrrr.D., LL.D. . r Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Cambridge. Fellow of King's 1 College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of Trinity 1 College. Author of The Ethics of Naturalism ; The Interpretation of Evolution ; &c. I WILLIAM RALSTON SHEDDEN-RALSTON, M.A. (" Formerly Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British Museum. Author -j LermontOV. of Russian Folk Tales; &c. [_ WILLIAM THOMAS CALMAN, D.Sc., F.Z.S. Assistant in charge of Crustacea, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Author of " Crustacea" in A Treatise on Zoology, edited by Sir E. Ray Lankester. WILLIAM TREGARTHEN DOUGLASS, M.lNST.C.E., M.I.M.E. Consulting Engineer to Governments of Western Australia, New South Wales, Victoria, Cape of Good Hope, &c. Erected the Eddystone and Bishop Rock Light- houses. Author of The New Eddystone Lighthouse; &c. WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC.THEOL. Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. WALTER WILLIAM SKEAT, LiTT.D., LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article : SKEAT, W. W. WILLIAM YOUNG SELLAR, LL.D. See the biographical article: SELLAR, WILLIAM YOUNG. Lobster. Lighthouse (in part). j Leo XI. and XII. (popes). j Layamon. j Latin Literature (in part). PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Labiatae. Lancashire. Legitimacy. Lent. Lacrosse. Lantern. Leguminosae. Leprosy. Lagos. Lapland. Leicestershire. Libel. Lahore. Larceny. Leipzig. Liberal Party. Lake District. Larch. Leith. Liliaceae. Lambeth Conferences. Lead Poisoning. Lemnos. Lille. Lanarkshire. Leeds. Lemon. Lily. Limitation, Statutes of. Lincoln. Lincolnshire. Lippe. Lisbon. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XVI La letter which was the twelfth letter of the Phoenician alphabet. It has in its history passed through many changes of form, ending curiously enough in its usual manuscript form with a shape almost identical with that which it had about 900 B.C. ( ^ L ). As was the case with B and some other letters the Greeks did not everywhere keep the symbol in the position in which they had borrowed it \, . This, which was its oldest form in Attica and in the Chalcidian colonies of Italy, was the form adopted by the Romans, who in time converted it into the rectangle L, which passed from them to the nations of western Europe. In the Ionic alphabet, however, from which the ordinary Greek alphabet is derived it appeared as A. A still more common form in other parts of Greece was f> , with the legs of unequal length. The editors of Herodotus have not always recognized that the name of Labda, the mother of Cypselus, in the story (v. 92) of the founding of the great family of Corinthian despots, was derived from the fact that she was lame and so suggested the form of the Corinthian /* . Another form f* or h was practically confined to the west of Argolis. The name of the Greek letter is ordinarily given as Lambda, but in Herodotus (above) and in Athenaeus x. p. 453 e, where the names of the letters are given, the best authenticated form is Labda. The Hebrew name, which was probably identical with the Phoenician, is Lamed, which, with a final vowel added as usual, would easily become Lambda, b being inserted between m and another consonant. The pronunciation of / varies a great deal according to the point at which the tongue makes contact with the roof of the mouth. The contact, generally speaking, is at the same point as for d, and this accounts for an interchange between these sounds which occurs in various languages, e.g. in Latin lacrima from the same root as the Greek SaKpv and the English tear. The change in Latin occurs in a very limited number of cases and one ' explanation of their occurrence is that they are borrowed (Sabine) words. In pro- nunciation the breath may be allowed to escape at one or both sides of the tongue. In most languages / is a fairly stable sound. Orientals, however, have much difficulty in distinguishing between I and r. In Old Persian / is found in only two foreign words, and in Sanskrit different dialects employ r and / differently in the same words. Otherwise, however, the interchanges between r and / were somewhat exaggerated by the older philo- logists. Before other consonants / becomes silent in not a few languages, notably in French, where if is replaced by u, and in English where it has occasionally been restored in recent times, XVI. I e.g. in fault which earlier was spelt without / (as in French whence it was borrowed), and which Goldsmith could still rhyme with aught. In the isth century the Scottish dialect of English dropped / largely both before consonants and finally after a and u, a' =all, /a' = fall, />M' = pull, W = wool, bulk pronounced like book, &c., while after o it appears as w, row (pronounced ran) = roll, know— knoll, &c. It is to be observed that L = SO does not come from this symbol, but was an adaptation of ^, the western Greek form of x, which had no corresponding sound in Latin and was therefore not included in the ordinary alphabet. This symbol was first rounded into J, and then changed first to J. and ultimately to L. (P. Gi.) LAACHER SEE, a lake of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, 5 m. W. of Brohl on the Rhine, and N. of the village of Niedermendig. It occupies what is supposed to be a crater of the Eifel volcanic formation, and the pumice stone and basalt found in great quantities around it lend credence to this theory. It lies 850 ft. above the sea, is 5 m. in circumference and 160 ft. deep, and is surrounded by an amphitheatre of high hills. The water is sky blue in colour, very cold and bitter to the taste. The lake has no natural outlet and consequently is subjected to a considerable rise and fall. On the western side lies the Benedictine abbey of St Maria Laach (Abbatia Lacensis) founded in 1093 by Henry II., count palatine of the Rhine. The abbey church, dating from the I2th century, was restored in 1838. The history of the monastery down to modern times appears to have been uneventful. In 1802 it was abolished and at the close of the Napoleonic wars it became a Prussian state demesne. In 1863 it passed into the hands of the Jesuits, who, down to their expulsion in 1873, published here a periodical, which still appears, entitled Stimmen aus Maria Laach. In 1892 the monastery was again occupied by the Benedictines. LAAGER, a South African Dutch word (Dutch leger, Ger. lager, connected with Eng. " lair ") for a temporary defensive encampment, formed by a circle of wagons. The English word is " leaguer," an armed camp, especially that of a besieging or "beleaguering" army. The Ger. lager, in the sense of "store," is familiar as the name of a light beer (see BREWING). LAAS, ERNST (1837-1885), German philosopher, was born on the i6th of June 1837 at Furstenwalde. He studied theology and philosophy under Trendelenburg at Berlin, and eventually became professor of philosophy in the new university of Strass- burg. In Kant's Analogien der Erfahrung (1876) he keenly criticized Kant's transcendentalism, and in his chief work Idealismus und Positivismus (3 vols., 1879-1884), he drew a 5 LA BADIE— LABE clear contrast between Platonism, from which he derived trans cendentalism, and positivism, of which he considered Protagora the founder. Laas in reality was a disciple of Hume Throughout his philosophy he endeavours to connect meta physics with ethics and the theory of education. His chief educational works were Der deutsche Aufsatz in den obern Gymnasialklassen (1868; 3rd ed., part i., 1898, part ii., 1894) and Der deutsche Unterricht auf hohern Lehrans fallen (1872; 2nd ed 1886). He contributed largely to the Vierteljahrsschr. f. wiss. Philos (1880-1882); the Litterarischer NacMass, a posthumous collection was published at Vienna (1887). See Hanisch, Der Positivismus von Ernst Laas (1902); Gjurits, Die Erkennlnistheorie des Ernst Laas (1903); Falckenberg, Hist, of Mod. Philos. (Eng. trans., 1895). LA BADIE, JEAN DE (1610-1674), French divine, founder of the school known as the Labadists, was born at Bourg, not far from Bordeaux, on the i3th of February 1610, being the son ol Jean Charles de la Badie, governor of Guienne. He was sent to the Jesuit school at Bordeaux, and when fifteen entered the Jesuit college there. Jn 1626 he began to study philosophy and theology. He was led to hold somewhat extreme views about the efficacy of prayer and the direct influence of the Holy Spirit upon believers, and adopted Augustinian views about grace, free will and predestination, which brought him into collision with his order. He therefore separated from the Jesuits, and then became a preacher to the people, carrying on this work in Bordeaux, Paris and Amiens. At Amiens in 1640 he was appointed a canon and teacher of theology. The hostility of Cardinal Mazarin, however, forced him to retire to the Car- melite hermitage at Graville. A study of Calvin's Institutes showed him that he had more in common with the Reformed than with the Roman Catholic Church, and after various adventures he joined the Reformed Church of France and became professor ot theology at Montauban in 1650. His reasons for doing so he published in the same year in his Declaration de Jean de la Badit. His accession to the ranks of the Pro- testants was deemed a great triumph; no such man since Calvin himself, it was said, had left the Roman Catholic Church. He was called to the pastorate of the church at Orange on the Rhone in 1657, and at once became noted for his severity of discipline. He set his face zealously against dancing, card- playing and worldly entertainments. The unsettled state of the country, recently annexed to France, compelled him to leave Orange, and in 1659 he became a pastor in Geneva. He then accepted a call to the French church in London, but after various wanderings settled at Middelburg, where he was pastor to the French-speaking congregation at a Walloon church. His peculiar opinions were by this time (1666) well known, and he and his congregation found themselves in conflict with the ecclesiastical authorities. The result was that la Badie and his followers established a separate church in a neighbouring town. In 1669 he moved to Amsterdam. He had enthusiastic disciples, Pierre Yvon (1646-1707) at Montauban, Pierre Dulignon (d. 1679), Francois Menuret (d. 1670), Theodor Untereyk (d. 1603), F. Spanheim (1632-1701), and, more important than any, Anna Maria v. Schurman (1607-1678), whose book Eucleria is perhaps the best exposition of the tenets of her master. At the head of his separatist congregation, la Badie developed his views for a reformation of the Reformed Churches: the church is a communion of holy people who have been born again from sin; baptism is the sign and seal of this regeneration, and is to be administered only to believers; the Holy Spirit guides the regenerate into all truth, and the church possesses throughout all time those gifts of prophecy which it had in the ancient days; the community at Jerusalem is the continual type of every Christian congregation, therefore there should be a community of goods, the disciples should live together, eat together, dance together; marriage is a holy ordinance between two believers, and the children of the regenerate are born without original sin, marriage with an unregenerate person is not binding. They did not observe the Sabbath, because — so they said — their life was a continual Sabbath. The life and separatism of the community brought them into frequent collision with their neighbours and with the magistrates, and in 1670 they accepted the invitation of the princess Elizabeth, abbess of Herford in Westphalia, to take up their abode within her territories, and settled in Herford to the number of about fifty. Not finding the rest they expected they migrated to Bremen in 1672, and afterwards to Altona, where they were dispersed on the death of the leaders. Small communities also existed in the Rhineland, and a missionary settlement was established in New York. Jean de la Badie died in February 1674. La Badie's works include La Propheiie (1668), Manuel de piete (1669), Protestation de bonne foi et saine doctrine (1670), Brieve declaration de nos sentiments touchant I'Eglise (1670). See H. van Berkum, De Labadie en de Labadisten (Sneek, 1851); Max Gobel (1811-1857), Gesch. d. christl. Lebens in der rheinisch-westphalischen Kirche (Coblenz, 3 vols., 1849-1860) ; Heinrich Heppe (1820-1879), Geschichte des Pietismus (Leiden, 1879); Albrecht Ritschl, Geschichle des Pietismus, vol. i. (Bonn, 1880); and especially Peter Yvon, A brege precis de la vie et de la conduite et des vrais sentiments de feu Mr de Labadie, and Anna Maria v. Schurman, Eucleria (Altona, 1673, 1678). Cf. the article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie. LABARUM, the sacred military standard of the early Christian Roman emperors, first adopted by Constantine the Great after his miraculous vision in 312, although, according to Gibbon, he did not exhibit it to the army till 323. The name seems to have been known before, and the banner was simply a Christian- ized form of the Roman cavalry standard. Eusebius (Life of Const, i. 31) describes the first labarum as consisting of a long gilded spear, crossed at the top by a bar from which hung a square purple cloth, richly jewelled. At the upper extremity of the spear was a golden wreath encircling the sacred monogram, formed of the first two letters of the name of Christ. In later banners the monogram was sometimes embroidered on the cloth. A special guard of fifty soldiers was appointed to protect the sacred standard. The derivation of the word labarum is disputed; it appears to be connected with the Basque labarna, signifying standard. See FLAG. LAB6, LOUISE CHARLIN PERRIN (c. 1525-1366), French poet, called La Belle Cordiere, was born at Lyons about 1525, the daughter of a rich ropemaker, named Charley or Charlin. At the siege of Perpignan she is said to have fought on horse- back in the ranks of the Dauphin, afterwards Henry II. Some time before 1551 she married Ennemond Perrin, a ropemaker. She formed a library and gathered round her a society which included many of the learned ladies of Lyons, — Pernette du Guillet, Claudine and Sibylle Sceve and Clemence de Bourges, and the poets Maurice Sceve, Charles Fontaine, Pontus de Tyard; and among the occasional visitors were Clement Marot and his friend Melin de Saint-Gelais, with probably Bonaventure des Periers and Rabelais. About 1550 the poet Olivier de Magny passed through Lyons on his way to Italy in the suite of Jean d'Avanson, the French envoy to the Holy See. As the friend of Ronsard, " Prince of Poets," he met with an enthusiastic reception from Louise, who straightway fell in love with him. There seems little doubt that her passion for Magny inspired icr eager, sincere verse, and the elegies probably express her ;rief at his first absence. A second short visit to Lyons was 'ollowed by a second longer absence. Magny's influence is shown more decisively in her Sonnets, which, printed in 1555, quickly attained great popularity. During his second visit to taly Magny had apparently consoled himself, and Louise, despair- ng of his return, encouraged another admirer, Claude Rubys, when her lover returned unexpectedly. Louise dismissed ^ubys, but Magny's jealousy found vent in an ode addressed o the She Aymon (Ennemond), which ruined her reputation; tvhile Rubys, angry at his dismissal, avenged himself later in his Histmre veritable de Lyons (1573). This scandal struck a atal blow at Louise's position. Shortly afterwards her husband died, and she returned to her country house at Parcieu, where he died on the 25th of April 1566, leaving the greater part of he fortune she was left to the poor. Her works include, besides he Elegies and Sonnets mentioned, a prose Debal de folie et i' amour (.translated into English by Robert Greene in 1608). See editions of her CEuvres by P. Blanchemain (1875), and by C. Boy (2 vols., 1887). A sketch of Louise Lab6 and of the Lyonnese LABEL— LABIATAE Society is in Miss Edith Sichel's Women and Men of the French Renaissance (1901). See also J. Favre, Olivier de Magny (1885). LABEL (a French word, now represented by lambeau, possibly a variant ; it is of obscure origin and may be connected with a Teutonic word appearing in the English " lap," a flap or fold), a slip, ticket, or card of paper, metal or other material, attached to an object, such as a parcel, bottle, &c., and containing a name, address, description or other information, for the purpose of identification. Originally the word meant a band or ribbon of linen or other material, and was thus applied to the fillets (infulae) attached to a bishop's mitre. In heraldry the " label " is a mark of " cadency." In architecture the term " label " is applied to the outer projecting moulding over doors, windows, arches, &c., sometimes called " Dripstone " or " Weather Moulding," or " Hood Mould." The former terms seem scarcely applicable, as this moulding is often inside a building where no rain could come, and consequently there is no drip. In Norman times the label frequently did not project, and when it did it was very little, and formed part of the series of arch mouldings. In the Early English styles they were not very large, sometimes slightly undercut, sometimes deeply, sometimes a quarter round with chamfer, and very frequently a " roll " or " scroll-moulding," so called because it resembles the part of a scroll where the edge laps over the body of the roll. Labels generally resemble the string-courses of the period, and, in fact, often return horizontally and form strings. They are less common in Continental archi- tecture than in English. LABEO, MARCUS ANTISTIUS (c. 50 B.C.-A.D. 18), Roman jurist, was the son of Pacuvius Antistius Labeo, a jurist who caused himself to be slain after the defeat of his party at Philippi. A member of the plebeian nobility, and in easy circumstances, the younger Labeo early entered public life, and soon rose to the praetorship; but his undisguised antipathy to the new regime, and the somewhat brusque manner in which in the senate he occasionally gave expression to his republican sym- pathies— what Tacitus (Ann. iii. 75) calls his incorrupta libertas — proved an obstacle to his advancement, and his rival, Ateius Capito, who had unreservedly given in his adhesion to the ruling powers, was promoted by Augustus to the consulate, when the appointment should have fallen to Labeo; smarting under the wrong done him, Labeo declined the office when it was offered to him in a subsequent year (Tac. Ann. iii. 75; Pompon, in fr. 47, Dig. i. 2). From this time he seems to have devoted his whole time to jurisprudence. His training in the science had been derived principally from Trebatius Testa. To his knowledge of the law he added a wide general culture, devoting his attention specially to dialectics, philology (gram- matica), and antiquities, as valuable aids in the exposition, expansion, and application of legal doctrine (Cell. xiii. 10). Down to the time of Hadrian his was probably the name of greatest authority; and several of his works were abridged and annotated by later hands. While Capito is hardly ever referred to, the dicta of Labeo are of constant recurrence in the writings of the classical jurists, such as Gaius, Ulpian and Paul; and no inconsiderable number of them were thought worthy of preservation in Justinian's Digest. Labeo gets the credit of being the founder of the Proculian sect or school, while Capito is spoken of as the founder of the rival Sabinian one (Pomponius in fr. 47, Dig. i. 2); but it is probable that the real founders of the two scholae were Proculus and Sabinus, followers respectively of the methods of Labeo and Capito. Labeo's most important literary work was the Libri Posteriorum, so called because published only after his death. It contained a systematic exposition of the common law. His Libri ad Edictum embraced a commentary, not only on the edicts of the urban and peregrine praetors, but also on that of the curule aediles. His Probabihum (TriSavuv) lib. VIII., a collection of definitions and axiomatic legal propositions, seems to have been one of his most characteristic productions. See van Eck, " De vita, moribus, et studiis M. Ant. Labeonis " (Franeker, 1692), in Oelrichs's Thes. nmi., vol. i. ; Mascovius, De sectis Sabtmanor. et Proculianor. (1728); Pernice, M. Antistius Labeo. Das rom. Privatrecht im ersten Jahrhunderte der Kaizerzeit (Halle, 1873-1892). LABERIUS, DECIMUS (c. 105-43 B.C.), Roman knight and writer of mimes. He seems to have been a man of caustic wit, who wrote for his own pleasure. In 45 Julius Caesar ordered him to appear in one of his own mimes in a public contest with the actor Publilius Syrus. Laberius pronounced a dignified prologue on the degradation thus thrust on his sixty years, and directed several sharp allusions against the dictator. Caesar awarded the victory to Publilius, but restored Laberius to his equestrian rank, which he had forfeited by appearing as a mimus (Macrobius, Sat. ii. 7). Laberius was the chief of those who introduced the mimus into Latin literature towards the close of the republican period. He seems to have been a man of learning and culture, but his pieces did not escape the coarseness inherent to the class of literature to which they belonged; and Aulus Gellius (xvi. 7, i) accuses him of extravagance in the coining of new words. Horace (Sat. i. 10) speaks of him in terms of qualified praise. In addition to the prologue (in Macrobius), the titles of forty-four of his mimi have been preserved ; the fragments have been collected by O. Ribbeck in his Comicorum Latinorum reliquiae (1873). LABIATAE (i.e. " lipped," Lat. labium, lip), in botany, a natural order of seed-plants belonging to the series Tubiflorae of the dicotyledons, and containing about 150 genera with 2800 species. The majority are annual or perennial herbs FIG. I. — Flowering Shoot of Dead-nettle (Lamium album). 1, Flower cut lengthwise, enlarged; # calyx, enlarged; 3, floral diagram. inhabiting the temperate zone, becoming shrubby in warmer climates. The stem is generally square in section and the simple exstipulate leaves are arranged in decussating pairs (i.e. each pair is in a plane at right angles to that of the pairs immediately above and below it); the blade is entire, or toothed, lobed or more or less deeply cut. The plant is often hairy, and the hairs are frequently glandular, the secretion containing a scent characteristic of the genus or species. The flowers are borne in the axils of the leaves or bracts; they are rarely solitary as in Scutellaria (skull-cap), and generally form an apparent whorl (verticillaster) at the node, consisting of a pair of cymose inflorescences each of which is a simple three-flowered dichasium as in Brunella, Salvia, &c., or more generally a dichasium passing over into a pair of monochasial cymes as in Lamium (fig. i), Ballota, Nepeta, &c. A number of whorls may be crowded at the apex of the stem and the subtending leaves reduced to small bracts, the whole forming a raceme- or spike-like inflorescence as in Mentha (fig. 2, 5) Brunella, &c.; the bracts are sometimes large and coloured as in Monarda, species of Salvia, &c., in the latter the apex of the stem is sometimes occupied with a cluster of sterile coloured bracts. The plan of the flower is remarkably uniform (fig. i, 3); it is bisexual, and zygomorphic in the LABICANA, VIA— LABICHE median plane, with 5 sepals united to form a persistent cup- like calyx, 5 petals united to form a two-lipped gaping corolla, 4 stamens inserted on the corolla-tube, two of which, generally the anterior pair, are longer than the other two (didynamous arrangement) — sometimes as in Salvia, the posterior pair is aborted — and two superior median carpels, each very early divided by a constriction in a vertical plane, the pistil consisting of four cells each containing one erect anatropous ovule attached to the base of an axile placenta; the style springs from the centre of the pistil between the four segments (gynobasic), and is simple with a bifid apex. The fruit comprises four one-seeded nutlets included in the persistent calyx; the seed has a thin testa and the embryo almost or completely fills it. Although the general form and plan of arrangement of the flower is very uniform, there are wide variations in detail. Thus the calyx may be tubular, bell-shaped, or almost spherical, or straight or bent, and the length and form of the teeth or lobes varies also; it may be equally toothed as in mint (Mentha) (fig. 2, 3), and marjoram (Origanum), or two-lipped as in thyme (Thymus), Lamium (fig. i) and Salvia (fig. 2, 1); the number of nerves affords useful characters for distinction of genera, there are normally five main nerves between which simple or forked secondary nerves are more or less developed. The shape FIG. 2. — 1, Flower of Sage (Salvia offidnalis). %, Corolla of same cut open showing the two stamens; 8, flower of spearmint (Mentha viridis); 4< corolla of same cut open showing stamens; 5, flower- ing shoot of same, reduced ; 6, floral diagram of Salvia. of the corolla varies widely, the differences being doubtless intimately associated with the pollination of the flowers by insect- agency. The tube is straight or variously bent and often widens towards the mouth. Occasionally the limb is equally five-toothed, or forms, as in Mentha (fig. 2, 8, 4) an almost regular four-toothed corolla by union of the two posterior teeth. Usually it is two-lipped, the upper lip being formed by the two posterior, the lower lip by the three anterior petals (see fig. i, and fig. 2, 1,6); the median lobe of the lower lip is generally most developed and forms a resting-place for the bee or other insect when probing the flower for honey, the upper lip shows great variety in form, often, as in Lamium (fig. i), Slachys, &c., it is arched forming a protection from rain for the stamens, or it may be flat as in thyme. In the tribe Odmoideae the four upper petals form the upper lip, and the single anterior one the lower lip, and in Teucrium the upper lip is absent, all five lobes being pushed forward to form the lower. The posterior stamen is sometimes present as a staminode, but generally suppressed; the upper pair are often reduced to staminodes or more or less completely suppressed as in Salvia (fig. 2, 2, 6); rarely are these developed and the anterior pair reduced. In Coleus the stamens are monadelphous. In Nepeta and allied genera the posterior pair are the longer, but this is rare, the didynamous character being generally the result of the anterior pair being the longer. The anthers are two-celled, each cell splitting lengthwise; the connective may be more or less developed between the cells; an extreme case is seen in Salvia (fig. 2, 2), where the connective is filiform and jointed to the filament, while the anterior anther-cell is reduced to a sterile appendage. Honey is secreted by a hypogynous disk. In the more general type of flower the anthers and stigmas are pro- tected by the arching upper lip as in dead-nettle (fig. i) and many other British genera; the lower lip affords a resting-place for the insect which in probing the flower for the honey, secreted on the lower side of the disk, collects pollen on its back. Numerous variations in detail are found in the different genera; in Salvia (fig. 2), for instance, there is a lever mechanism, the barren half of each anther forming a knob at the end of a short arm which when touched by the head of an insect causes the anther at the end of the longer arm to descend on the insect's back. In the less common type, where the anterior part of the flower is more developed, as in the Odmoideae, the stamens and style lie on the under lip and honey is secreted on the upper side of the hypogynous disk; the insect in probing the flower gets smeared with pollen on its belly and legs. Both types include brightly-coloured flowers with longer tubes adapted to the visits of butterflies and moths, as species of Salvia, Stachys, Monarda, &c.; some South American species of Salvia are pollinated by humming-birds. In Mentha (fig. 2, 8), thyme, marjoram (Origanum), and allied genera, the flowers are nearly regular and the stamens spread beyond the corolla. The persistent calyx encloses the ripe nutlets, and aids in their distribution in various ways, by means of winged spiny or hairy lobes or teeth; sometimes it forms a swollen bladder. A scanty endosperm is sometimes present in the seed; the embryo is generally parallel to the fruit axis with a short inferior radicle and generally flat cotyledons. The order occurs in all warm and temperate regions; its chief centre is the Mediterranean region, where some genera such as Lavandula, Thymus, Rosmarinus and others form an important feature in the vegetation. The tribe Odmoideae is exclusively tropical and subtropical and occurs in both hemispheres. The order is well represented in Britain by seventeen native genera; Mentha (mint) including also M. piperita (peppermint) and M. Pulegium (pennyroyal) ; Origanum vulgare (marjoram) ; Thymus Serpyllum (thyme); Calaminiha (calamint), including also C. Clinopodium (wild basil) and C. Adnos (basil thyme); Salvia (sage), including S. Verbenaca (clary); Nepeta Cataria (catmint), N. Glechoma (ground-ivy) ; Brunella (self-heal) ; Scutellaria (skull-cap) ; Stachys (woundwort) ; S. Betonica is wood betony ; Galeopsis (hemp-nettle) ; Lamium (dead-nettle) ; Ballota (black horehound) ; Teucrium (germander) ; and Ajuga (bugle). Labiatae are readily distinguished from all other orders of the series excepting Verbenaceae, in which, however, the style is terminal ; but several genera, e.g. Ajuga, Teucrium and Rosmarinus, approach Verbenaceae in this respect, and in some genera of that order the style is more or less sunk between the ovary lobes. The fruit-character indicates an affinity with Boraginaceae from which, however, they differ in habit and by characters of ovule and embryo. The presence of volatile oil renders many genera of economic use, such are thyme, marjoram (Origanum), sage (Salvia), lavender (Lavandula), rosemary (Rosmarinus), patchouli (Pogostemon) . The tubers of Stachys Sieboldi are eaten in France. LABICANA, VIA, an ancient highroad of Italy, leading E.S.E. from Rome. It seems possible that the road at first led to Tusculum, that it was then prolonged to Labici, and later still became a road for through traffic; it may even have superseded the Via Latina as a route to the S.E., for, while the distance from Rome to their main junction at Ad Bivium (or to another junction at Compitum Anagninum) is practically identical, the summit level of the former is 725 ft. lower than that of the latter, a little to the west of the pass of Algidus. After their junction it is probable that the road bore the name Via Latina rather than Via Labicana. The course of the road after the first six miles from Rome is not identical with that of any modern road, but can be clearly traced by remains of pavement and buildings along its course. See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School, at Rome, i. 215 sqq. LABICHE, EUGENE MARIN (1815-1888), French dramatist, was born on the 5th of May 1815, of bourgeois parentage. He read for the bar, but literature had more powerful attractions, and he was hardly twenty when he gave to the Cherubin — an impertinent little magazine, long vanished and forgotten — a LABICI— LABID short story, entitled, in the cavalier style of the period, Les plus belles sont les plus fausses. A few others followed much in the same strain, but failed to catch the attention of the public. He tried his hand at dramatic criticism in the Revue des theatres, and in 1838 made a double venture on the stage. The small Theatre du Pantheon produced, amid some signs of popular favour, a drama of his, UAvocat Loubet, while a vaudeville, Monsieur de Coislin ou I'homme infiniment poll, written in collaboration with Marc Michel, and given at the Palais Royal, introduced for the first time to the Parisians a provincial actor who was to become and to remain a great favourite with them, Grassot, the famous low comedian. In the same year Labiche, still doubtful about his true vocation, published a romance called La Cle des champs. M. Leon Halevy, his successor at the Academy and his panegyrist, informs us that the publisher became a bankrupt soon after the novel was out. "A lucky misadventure, for," the biographer concludes, " this timely warning of Destiny sent him back to the stage, where a career of success was awaiting him." There was yet another obstacle in the way. When he married, he solemnly promised his wife's parents that he would renounce a profession then considered incompatible with moral regularity and domestic happiness. But a year afterwards his wife spontaneously released him from his vow, and Labiche recalled the incident when he dedicated the first edition of his complete works: " To my wife." Labiche, in conjunction with Varin,1 Marc Michel,2 Clairville,3 Dumanoir,4 and others contributed comic plays interspersed with couplets to various Paris theatres. The series culminated in the memor- able farce in five acts, Un Chapeau de pailie d'ltalie (August 1851). It remains an accomplished specimen of the French imbroglio, in which some one is in search of something, but does not find it till five minutes before the curtain falls. Prior to that date Labiche had been only a successful vaudevilliste among a crowd of others; but a twelvemonth later he made a new departure in Le Misanthrope et I'Auvergnat. All the plays given for the next twenty-five years, although constructed on the old plan, contained a more or less appreciable dose of that comic observation and good sense which gradually raised the French farce almost to the level of the comedy of character and manners. " Of all the subjects," he said, " which offered themselves to me, I have selected the bourgeois. Essentially mediocre in his vices and in his virtues, he stands half-way between the hero and the scoundrel, between the saint and the profligate." During the second period of his career Labiche had the collaboration of Delacour,6 Choler,6 and others. When it is asked what share in the authorship and success of the plays may be claimed for those men, we shall answer in Emile Augier's words: " The distinctive qualities which secured a lasting vogue for the plays of Labiche are to be found in all the comedies written by him with different collaborators, and are conspicuously absent from those which they wrote without him." A more useful and more important collaborator he found in Jean Marie Michel Geoffroy (1813-1883) whom he had known as a debutant in his younger days, and who remained his faithful interpreter to the last. Geoffroy impersonated the bourgeois not only to the public, but to the author himself; and it may be assumed that Labiche, when writing, could see and hear Geoffroy acting the character and uttering, in his pompous, fussy way, the words that he had just committed to paper. Celimare le bien-aime (1863), Le Voyage de M. Perrichon (1860), La Grammaire, Un Pied dans le crime, La Cagnotte (1864), may be quoted as the happiest productions of Labiche. In 1877 he brought his connexion with the stage to a close, and retired to his rural property in Sologne. There he could be 1 Victor Varin, pseudonym of Charles Voirin (1798-1869). 2 Marc Antoine Amedee Michel (1812-1868), vaudevillist. 3 Louis Francois Nicolaise, called Clairville (1811-1879), part- author of the famous Fitte de Mme Angot (1872). 4 Philippe Frangois Pinel, called Dumanoir (1806-1865). ^"Alfred Charlemagne Lartigue, called Delacour (1815-1885). For a list of this author's pieces see O. Lorenz, Catalogue General (vol. ii., 1868). 6 Adolphe Joseph Choler (1822-1889). seen, dressed as a farmer, with low-brimmed hat, thick gaiters and an enormous stick, superintending the agricultural work and busily engaged in reclaiming land and marshes. His life- long friend, Augier, visited him in his principality, and, being left alone in the library, took to reading his host's dramatic productions, scattered here and there in the shape of theatrical brochures. He strongly advised Labiche to publish a collected and revised edition of his works. The suggestion, first declined as a joke and long resisted, was finally accepted and carried into effect. Labiche's comic plays, in ten volumes, were issued during 1878 and 1879. The success was even greater than had been expected by the author's most sanguine friends. It had been commonly believed that these plays owed their popularity in great measure to the favourite actors who had appeared in them; but it was now discovered that all, with the exception of Geoffroy, had introduced into them a grotesque and caricatural element, thus hiding from the spectator, in many cases, the true comic vein and delightful delineation of human character. The amazement turned into admiration, and the engouemenl became so general that very few dared grumble or appear scandalized when, in 1880, Labiche was elected to the French Academy. It was fortunate that, in former years, he had never dreamt of attaining this high distinction; for, as M. Pailleron justly observed, while trying to get rid of the little faults which were in him, he would have been in danger of losing some of his sterling qualities. But when the honour was bestowed upon him, he enjoyed it with his usual good sense and quiet modesty. He died in Paris on the 23rd of January 1888. Some foolish admirers have placed him on a level with Moliere, but it will be enough to say that he was something better than a public amuseur. Many of his plays have been transferred to the English stage. They are, on the whole, as sound as they are entertaining. Love is practically absent from his theatre. In none of his plays did he ever venture into the depths of feminine psychology, and womankind is only represented in them by pretentious old maids and silly, insipid, almost dumb, young ladies. He ridiculed marriage according to the invariable custom of French playwrights, but in a friendly and good- natured manner which always left a door open to repentance and timely amendment. He is never coarse, never suggestive. After he died the French farce, which he had raised to some- thing akin to literature, relapsed into its former grossness and unmeaning complexity. (A. Fi.) His Theatre complet (10 vols., 1878-1879) contains a preface by Emile Augier. LABICI, an ancient city of Latium, the modern Monte Compatri, about 17 m. S.E. from Rome, on the northern slopes of the Alban Hills, 1739 ft. above sea-level. It occurs among the thirty cities of the Latin League, and it is said to have joined the Aequi in 419 B.C. and to have been captured by the Romans in 418. After this it does not appear in history, and in the time of Cicero and Strabo was almost entirely deserted if not destroyed. Traces of its ancient walls have been noticed. Its place was taken by the respublica Lavicanorum Quintanensium, the post-station estabh'shed in the lower ground on the Via Labicana (see LABICANA, VIA), a little S.W. of the modern village of Colonna, the site of which is attested by various inscriptions and by the course of the road itself. See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, i. 256 sqq. (T. As.) LABID (Abu 'Aqll Labid ibn Rabl'a) (c. 560-6. 661), Arabian poet, belonged to the Bam 'Amir, a division of the tribe of the Hawazin. In his younger years he was an active warrior and his verse is largely concerned with inter-tribal disputes. Later, he was sent by a sick uncle to get a remedy from Mahomet at Medina and on this occasion was much influenced by a part of the Koran. He accepted Islam soon after, but seems then to have ceased writing. In Omar's caliphate he is said to have settled in Kufa. Tradition ascribes to him a long life, but dates given are uncertain and contradictory. One of his poems is contained in the Mo'allakat Twenty of his poems were edited by Chalidi (Vienna, 1880); another thirty-five, with fragments and a German translation of the LABIENUS— LA BOURDONNAIS whole, were edited (partly from the remains of A. Huber) by C. Brockelmann (Leiden, 1892); cf. A. von Kremer, Uber die Gedichte des Lebyd (Vienna, 1881). Stories of Labld are contained in the Kitabul-Agh&ni, xiv. 93 ff. and xv. 137 ff. (G. W. T.) LABIENUS, the name of a Roman family, said (without authority) to belong to the gens Atia. The most important member was TITUS LABIENUS. In 63 B.C., at Caesar's instigation, he prosecuted Gaius Rabirius (q.v.) for treason; in the same year, as tribune of the plebs, he carried a plebiscite which in- directly secured for Caesar the dignity of pontifex maximus (Dio Cassius xxxvii. 37). He served as a legatus throughout Caesar's Gallic campaigns and took Caesar's place whenever he went to Rome. His chief exploits in Gaul were the defeat of the Treviri under Indutiomarus in 54, his expedition against Lutetia (Paris) in 52, and his victory over Camulogenus and the Aedui in the same year. On the outbreak of the civil war, however, he was one of the first to desert Caesar, probably owing to an overweening sense of his own importance, not adequately recognized by Caesar. He was rapturously welcomed on the Pompeian side; but he brought no great strength with him, and his ill fortune under Pompey was as marked as his success had been under Caesar. From the defeat at Pharsalus, to which he had contributed by affecting to despise his late comrades, he fled to Corcyra, and thence to Africa. There he was able by mere force of numbers to inflict a slight check upon Caesar at Ruspina in 46. After the defeat at Thapsus he joined the younger Pompey in Spain, and was killed at Munda (March I7th, 45). LABLACHE, LUIGI (1794-1858), Franco-Italian singer, was born at Naples on the 6th of December 1 704, the son of a merchant of Marseilles who had married an Irish lady. In 1806 he entered the Conservatorio della Pieta de Turchini, where he studied music under Gentili and singing under Valesi, besides learning to play the violin and violoncello. As a boy he had a beautiful alto voice, and by the age of twenty he had developed a magnifi- cent bass with a compass of two octaves from Et> below to Eb above the bass stave. After making his first appearance at Naples he went to Milan in 1817, and subsequently travelled to Turin, Venice and Vienna. His first appearances in London and Paris in 1830 led to annual engagements in both the English and French capitals. His reception at St Petersburg a few years later was no less enthusiastic. In England he took part in many provincial musical festivals, and was engaged by Queen Victoria to teach her singing. On the operatic stage he was equally successful in comic or tragic parts, and with his wonderfully powerful voice he could express either humour or pathos. Among his friends were Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti and Mercadante. He was one of the thirty-two torch-bearers chosen to surround the coffin at Beethoven's funeral in 1827. He died at Naples on the 23rd of January 1858 and was buried at Maison Lafitte, Paris. Lablache's Leporello in Don Giovanni was perhaps his most famous impersonation; among his principal other roles were Dandini in Cenerenlola (Rossini), Assur in Semiramide (Rossini), Geronimo in La Gazza Ladra (Rossini), Henry VIII. in Anna Bolena (Donizetti), the Doge in Marino Faliero (Donizetti), the title-r61e in Don Pasquale (Donizetti), Geronimo in // Matrimonio Segreto (Cimarosa), Gritzenko in L'Etoile du Nord (Meyerbeer), Caliban in The Tempest (Halevy). LABOR DAY, in the United States, a legal holiday in nearly all of the states and Territories, where the first Monday in September is observed by parades and meetings of labour organizations. In 1882 the Knights of Labor paraded in New York City on this day; in 1884 another parade was held, and it was decided that this day should be set apart for this purpose. In 1887 Colorado made the first Monday in September a legal holiday; and in 1909 Labor Day was observed as a holiday throughout the United States, except in Arizona and North Dakota; in Louisiana it is a holiday only in New Orleans (Orleans parish), and in Maryland, Wyoming and New Mexico it is not established as a holiday by statute, but in each may be proclaimed as such in any year by the governor. LA BOURBOULE, a watering-place of central France, in the department of Puy-de-D6me, 4! m. W. by N. of Mont-Dore by road. Pop. (1906) 1401. La Bourboule is situated on the right bank of the Dordogne at a height of 2790 ft. Its waters, of which arsenic is the characteristic constituent, are used in cases of diseases of the skin and respiratory organs, rheumatism, neuralgia, &c. Though known to the Romans they were not in much repute till towards the end of the igth century. The town has three thermal establishments and a casino. LABOUR CHURCH, THE, an organization intended to give expression to the religion of the labour movement. This religion is not theological — it leaves theological questions to private individual conviction — but " seeks the realization of universal well-being by the establishment of Socialism — a commonwealth founded upon justice and love." It asserts that " improvement of social conditions and the development of personal character are both essential to emancipation from social and moral bondage, and to that end insists upon the duty of studying the economic and moral forces of society." The first Labour Church was founded at Manchester (England) in October 1891 by a Unitarian minister, John Trevor. This has disappeared, but vigorous successors have been established not only in the neighbourhood, but in Bradford, Birmingham, Nottingham, London, Wolverhampton and other centres of industry, about 30 in all, with a membership of 3000. Many branches of the Independent Labour Party and the Social Democratic Federation also hold Sunday gatherings for adults and children, using the Labour Church hymn-book and a similar form of service, the reading being chosen from Dr Stanton Coil's Message of Man. There are special forms for child-naming, marriages and burials. The separate churches are federated in a Labour Church Union, which holds an annual conference and business meeting in March. At the conference of 1909, held in Ashton-under-Lyne, the name " Labour Church " was changed to " Socialist Church." LA BOURDONNAIS, BERTRAND FRANCOIS, COUNT MAKE DE (1690-1753), French naval commander, was born at Saint Malo on the nth of February 1699. He went to sea when a boy, and in 1718 entered the service of the French India Company as a lieutenant. In 1724 he was promoted captain, and displayed such bravery in the capture of Mahe of the Malabar coast that the name of the town was added to his own. For two years he was in the service of the Portuguese viceroy of Goa, but in 1735 he returned to French service as governor of the lie de France and the lie de Bourbon. His five years' administration of the islands was vigorous and successful. A visit to France in 1740 was interrupted by the outbreak of hostilities with Great Britain, and La Bourdonnais was put at the head of a fleet in Indian waters. He saved Mahe, relieved General Dupleix at Pondicherry, defeated Lord Peyton, and in 1746 participated in the siege of Madras. He quarrelled with Dupleix over the conduct of affairs in India, and his anger was increased on. his return to the lie de France at finding a successor to himself installed there by his rival. He set sail on a Dutch vessel to present his case at court, and was captured by the British, but allowed to return to France on parole. Instead of securing a settlement of his quarrel with Dupleix, he was arrested (1748) on a charge of gubernatorial peculation and maladministration, and secretly imprisoned for over two years in the Bastille. He was tried in 1751 and acquitted, but his health was broken by the imprisonment and by chagrin at the loss of his property. To the last he made unjust accusations against Dupleix. He died at Paris on the icth of November 1753. The French government gave his widow a pension of 2400 livres. La Bourdonnais wrote Traite de la mature des vaisseaux (Paris 1723), and left valuable memoirs which were published by his grandson, a celebrated chess player, Count L. C. Mahe de la Bourdonnais (1795-1840) (latest edition, Paris, 1890). His quarrel with Dupleix has given rise to much debate; for a long while the fault was generally laid to the arrogance and jealousy of Dupleix, but W. Cartwright and Colonel Malleson have pointed out that La Bourdonnais was proud, suspicious and over-ambitious. LABOUR EXCHANGE— LABOUR LEGISLATION See P. de Gennes, Memoire pour le sieur de la Bourdonnais , ave les pieces justificatives (Paris, 1750); The Case of Mde la Bourdon nais, in a Letter to a Friend (London, 1748); Fantin des Odoards Revolutions de I'Inde (Paris, 1796) ; Collin de Bar, Histoire de I'Ind ancienne et moderns (Paris, 1814); Barchou de Penhoen, Histoir de la conquete et de la fondation de I' empire anglais dans I'Inde (Paris 1840) ; Margry; " Les Isles de France et de Bourbon sous le gouverne ment de La Bourdonnais," in La Revue maritime et coloniale (1862) W. Cartwright, " Dupleix et I'Inde francaise," in LaRevue britanniqu (1882); G. B. Malleson, Dupleix (Oxford, 1895); Anandaranga Pillai, Les Franc,ais dans I'Inde, Dupleix et Labourdonnais , extrait du journal d'Anandaran-gappoulle 1736-1748, trans, in French b> Vinsor in Ecole speciale des langues orientales vivantes, series 3 vol. xv. (Paris, 1894). LABOUR EXCHANGE, a term very frequently applied to registries having for their principal object the better distribution of labour (see UNEMPLOYMENT). Historically the term is appliec to the system of equitable labour exchanges established in England between 1832 and 1834 by Robert Owen and his followers. The idea is said to have originated with Josiah Warren who communicated it to Owen. Warren tried an experiment in 1828 at Cincinnati, opening an exchange under the title of a " time store." He joined in starting another at Tuscarawas Ohio, and a third at Mount Vernon, Indiana, but none were quite on the same line as the English exchanges. The funda- mental idea of the English exchanges was to establish a currency based upon labour; Owen in The Crisis for June 1832 laid down that all wealth proceeded from labour and knowledge; that labour and knowledge were generally remunerated according to the time employed, and that in the new exchanges it was proposed to make time the standard or measure of wealth. This new currency was represented by " labour notes," the notes being measured in hours, and the hour reckoned as being worth sixpence, this figure being taken as the mean between the wage of the best and the worst paid labour. Goods were then to be exchanged for the new currency. The exchange was opened in extensive premises in the Gray's Inn Road, near King's Cross, London, on the 3rd of September 1832. For some months the establishment met with considerable success, and a consider- able number of tradesmen agreed to take labour notes in payment for their goods. At first, an enormous number of deposits was made, amounting in seventeen weeks to 445,501 hours. But difficulties soon arose from the lack of sound practical valuators, and from the inability of the promoters to distinguish between the labour of the highly skilled and that of the unskilled. Trades- men, too, were quick to see that the exchange might be worked to their advantage; they brought unsaleable stock from their shops, exchanged it for labour notes, and then picked out the best of the saleable articles. Consequently the labour notes began to depreciate; trouble also arose with the pro- prietors of the premises, and the experiment came to an untimely end early in 1834. See F. Podmore's Robert Owen, ii. c. xvii. (1906); B. Jones to-operative Production, c. viii. (1894); G. J. Holyoake, History of Co-operation, c. viii. (1906). LABOUR LEGISLATION. Regulation of labour,1 in some form or another, whether by custom, royal authority, ecclesi- astical rules or by formal legislation in the interests of a com- munity, is no doubt as old as the most ancient forms of civiliza- tion. And older than all civilization is the necessity for the greater part of mankind to labour for maintenance, whether freely or in bonds, whether for themselves and their families or for the requirements or superfluities of others. Even while it is clear, however, that manual labour, or the application of the bodily forces— with or without mechanical aid— to personal mainten- ance and the production of goods, remains the common lot of the majority of citizens of the most developed modern com- munities, still there is much risk of confusion if modern technical terms such as " labour," " employer," " labour legislation " are freely applied to conditions in bygone civilizations with wholly different industrial organization and social relationships. 1 The term " labour " (Lat. labor) means strictly any energetic work, though in general it implies hard work, but in modern parlance it is specially confined to industrial work of the kind done by the working-classes." In recent times in England there has been a notable disappearance from current use of correlative terms implying a social relation- ship which is greatly changed, for example, in the rapid passage from the Master and Servant Act 1867 to the Employer and Workman Act 1875. In the i8th century the term "manu- facturer " passed from its application to a working craftsman to its modern connotation of at least some command of capital, the employer being no longer a small working master. An even more significant later change is seen in the steady develop- ment of a labour legislation, which arose in a clamant social need for the care of specially helpless " protected " persons in factories and mines, into a wider legislation for the promotion of general industrial health, safety and freedom for the worker from fraud in making or carrying out wage contracts. If, then, we can discern these signs of important changes within so short a period, great caution is needed in rapidly reviewing long periods of time prior to that industrial revolution which is traced mainly to the application of mechanical power to machinery in aid of manual labour, practically begun and completed within the second half of the i8th century. " In 1740 save for the fly-shuttle the loom was as it had been since weaving had begun . . . and the law of the land was" (under the Act of Apprentices of 1563) "that wages in each district should be assessed by Justices of the Peace."2 Turning back to still earlier times, legislation — whatever its source or authority —must clearly be devoted to aims very different from modern aims in regulating labour, when it arose before the labourer, as a man dependent on an " employer " for the means of doing work, had appeared, and when migratory labour was almost unknown through the serfdom of part of the population and the special status secured in towns to the artisan. In the great civilizations of antiquity there were great aggrega- tions of labour which was not solely, though frequently it was predominantly, slave labour; and some of the features of manufacture and mining on a great scale arose, producing the same sort of evils and industrial maladies known and regulated in our own times. Some of the maladies were described by Pliny and classed as " diseases of slaves." And he gave descriptions of processes, for example in the metal trades, as belonging entirely to his own day, which modern archaeological discoveries trace back through the earliest Jinown Aryan civilizations to a pre- historic origin in the East, and which have never died out in western Europe, but can .be traced in a concentrated manu- facture with almost unchanged methods, now in France, now in Germany, now in England. Little would be gained in such a sketch as this by an endeavour to piece together the scattered and scanty materials for a com- parative history of the varying conditions and methods of labour regulation over so enormous a range. While our knowledge continually increases of the remains of ancient craft, skill and massed labour, much has yet to be discovered that may throw light on methods of organization of the labourers. While much, and in some civilizations most, of the labour was compulsory or forced, it is clear that too much has been sometimes assumed, and it is by no means certain that even the pyramids of Egypt, much less the beautiful earliest Egyptian products in metal work, weaving and other skilled craft work, were, typical Droducts of slave labour. Even in Rome it was only at times •;hat the proportion of slaves valued as property was greater :han that of hired workers, or, apart from capture in war or self-surrender in discharge of a debt, that purchase of slaves by the trader, manufacturer or agriculturist was generally -.pnsidered the cheapest means of securing labour. As in early England the various stages of village industrial life, medieval .own manufacture, and organization in craft gilds, and the >eginnings of the mercantile system, were parallel with a greater or less prevalence of serfdom and even with the presence in part of slavery, so in other ages and civilizations the various methods of organization of labour are found to some extent ogether. The Germans in their primitive settlements were accustomed to the notion of slavery, and in the decline of the 2 H. D. Traill, Social England, v. 602 (1896). 8 LABOUR LEGISLATION [UNITED KINGDOM Roman Empire Roman captives from among the most useful craftsmen were carried away by their northern conquerors. The history and present details of the labour laws of various countries are dealt with below in successive sections: (i) history of legislation in the United Kingdom; (2) the results as shown by the law in force in 1909, with the corresponding facts for (3) Continental Europe and (4) the United States. Under other headings (TRADE-UNIONS, STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS, ARBITRA- TION AND CONCILIATION, &c., &c.) are many details on cognate subjects. i. HISTORY IN THE UNITED KINGDOM i i. Until the Close of the i^th Century. — Of the main conditions of industrial labour in early Anglo-Saxon England details are scanty. Monastic industrial communities were added in Christian times to village industrial communities. While generally husbandry was the first object of toil, and developed under elaborate regulation in the manorial system, still a con- siderable variety of industries grew up, the aim being expressly to make each social group self-sufficing, and to protect and regulate village artisans in the interest of village resources. This pro- tective system, resting on a communal or co-operative view of labour and social life, has been compared as analogous to the much later and wider system under which the main purpose was to keep England as a whole self-sufficing.1 It has also been shown how greatly a fresh spirit of enterprise in industry and trade was stimulated first by the Danish and next by the Norman invasion; the former brought in a vigour shown in growth of villages, increase in number of freemen, and formation of trading towns; the latter especially opened up new communications with the most civilized continental people, and was followed by a considerable immigration of artisans, particularly of Flemings. In Saxon England slavery in the strictest sense existed, as is shown in the earliest English laws, but it seems that the true slave class as distinct from the serf class was com- paratively small, and it may well be that the labour of an ordinary serf was not practically more severe, and the remunera- tion in maintenance and kind not much less than that of agri- cultural labourers in recent times. In spite of the, steady protest of the Church, slavery (as the exception, not the general rule) did not die out for many centuries, and was apt to be revived as a punishment for criminals, e.g. in the fierce provisions of the statute of Edward VI. against beggars, not repealed, until IS97- At no time, however, was it general, and as the larger village and city populations grew the ratio of serfs and slaves to the freemen in the whole population rapidly diminished, for the city populations " had not the habit and use of slavery," and while serfs might sometimes find a refuge in the cities from exceptionally severe taskmasters, " there is no doubt that free- men gradually united with them under the lord's protection, that strangers engaged in trade sojourned among them, and that a race of artisans gradually grew up in which original class feelings were greatly modified." From these conditions grew two parallel tendencies in regulation of labour. On the one hand there was, under royal charters, the burgh or municipal organiza- tion and control of artisan and craft labour, passing later into the more, specialized organization in craft gilds; on the other hand, there was a necessity, sometimes acute, to prevent undue diminution in the numbers available for husbandry or agricul- tural labour. To the latter cause must be traced a provision appearing in a succession of statutes (see especially an act of Richard II., 1388), that a child under twelve years once employed in agriculture might never be transferred to apprenticeship in a craft. The steady development of England, first as a wool- growing, later as a cloth-producing country, would accentuate this difficulty. During the I3th century, side by side with de- velopment of trading companies for the export of wool from England, may be noted many agreements on the part of monas- teries to sell their wool to Florentines, and during the same century absorption of alien artisans into the municipal system was practically completed. Charters of Henry I. provided for 1 W. Cunningham, Growth of English Commerce and Industry. naturalization of these aliens. From the time of Edward I. to Edward III. a gradual transference of burgh customs, so far as recognized for the common good, to statute law was in pro- gress, together with an assertion of the rights of the crown against ecclesiastical orders. " The statutes of Edward I.," says Dr. Cunningham, " mark the first attempt to deal with Industry and Trade as a public matter which concerns the whole state, not as the particular affair of leading men in each separate locality." The first direct legislation for labour by statute, however, is not earlier than the twenty-third year of the reign of Edward III., and it arose in an attempt to control the decay and ruin, both in rural and urban districts, which followed the Hundred Years' War, and the pestilence known as the Black Death. This first " Statute of Labourers " was designed for the benefit of the community, not for the protection of labour or prevention of oppression, and the policy of enforcing customary wages and compelling the able-bodied labourer, whether free or bond, not living in merchandise or exercising any craft, to work for hire at recognized rates of pay, must be reviewed in the circumstances and ideals of the time. Regulation generally in the middle ages aimed at preventing any individual or section of the community from making what was considered an excep- tional profit through the necessity of others.2 The scarcity of labour by the reduction of the population through pestilence was not admitted as a justification for the demands for increased pay, and while the unemployed labourer was liable to be com- mitted to gaol if he refused service at current rates, the lords of the towns or manors who promised or paid more to their servants were liable to be sued treble the sum in question. Similar restrictions were made applicable to artificers and workmen. By another statute, two years later, labourers or artificers who left their work and went into another county were liable to be arrested by the sheriff and brought back. These and similar provisions with similar aims were confirmed by statutes of 1360, 1368 and 1388, but the act of 1360, while prohibiting " all alliances and covins of masons, carpenters, congregations, chapters, ordinances and oaths betwixt them made," allowed " every lord to bargain or covenant for their works in gross with such labourers and artificers when it pleaseth them, so that they perform such works well and lawfully according to the bargain and covenant with them thereof made." Powers were given by the acts of 1368 and 1388 to justices to determine matters under these statutes and to fix wages. Records show that workmen of various descriptions were pressed by writs addressed to sheriffs to work for their king at wages regardless of their will as to terms and place of work. These proceedings were founded on notions of royal prerogative, of which impress- ment of seamen survived as an example to a far later date. By an act of 1388 no servant or labourer, man or woman, however, could depart out of the hundred to serve elsewhere unless bearing a letter patent under the king's seal stating the cause of going and time of return. Such provisions would appear to have widely failed in their purpose, for an act of 1414 declares that the servants and labourers fled from county to county, and justices were empowered to send writs to the sheriffs for fugitive labourers as for felons, and to examine labourers, servants and their masters, as well as artificers, and to punish them on con- fession. An act of 1405, while putting a property qualification on apprenticeship and requiring parents under heavy penalties to put their children to such labour as their estates required, made a reservation giving freedom to any person " to send their children to school to learn literature." Up to the end of the isth century a monotonous succession of statutes strengthening, modifying, amending the various attempts (since the first Statute of Labourers) to limit free movement of labour, or demands by labourers for increased wages, may be seen in the acts of 1411, 1427, 1444, 1495. It was clearly found extremely difficult, if not impracticable, to carry out the minute control of wages considered desirable, and exceptions in favour of certain occupations were in some of the statutes themselves. In 1512 the penalties for giving wages contrary to law were repealed so ^ W. Cunningham, Growth of English Commerce and Industry. UNITED KINGDOM] LABOUR LEGISLATION far as related to masters, but it also appears that London work- men would not endure the prevalent restrictions as to wages, and that they secured in practice a greater freedom to arrange rates when working within the city. Several of these statutes, and especially one of 1514, fixed the hours of labour when limiting wages. During March to September the limits were 5 A.M. to 7 or 8 P.M., with half an hour off for breakfast and an hour and a half off for midday dinner. In winter the outside limits were fixed by the length of daylight. Throughout the i5th century the rapidly increasing manu- facture of cloth was subject to a regulation which aimed at maintaining the standard of production and prevention of bad workmanship, and the noteworthy statute 4 Edward IV. c. i, while giving power to royal officers to supervise size of cloths, modes of sealing, &c., also repressed payment to workers in " pins, girdles and unprofitable wares," and ordained payment in true and lawful money. This statute (the first against " Truck ") gives an interesting picture of the way in which clothiers — or, as we should call them, wholesale merchants and manufacturers — delivered wool to spinners, carders, &c., by weight, and paid for the work when brought back finished. It appears that the work was carried on in rural as well as town districts. While this industry was growing and thriving other trades remained backward, and agriculture was in a depressed condition. Craft gilds had primarily the same purpose as the Edwardian statutes, that is, of securing that the public should be well served with good wares, and that the trade and manu- facture itself should be on a sound basis as to quality of products and should flourish. Incidentally there was considerable regula- tion by the gilds of the conditions of labour, but not primarily in the interests of the labourer. Thus night work was prohibited because it tended to secrecy and so to bad execution of work; working on holidays was prohibited to secure fair play between craftsmen and so on. The position of apprentices was made clear through indentures, but the position of journeymen was less certain. Signs are not wanting of a struggle between journey- men and masters, and towards the end of the I5th century masters themselves, in at least the great wool trade, tended to develop from craftsmen into something more like the modern capitalist employer; from an act of 1555 touching weavers it is quite clear that this development had greatly advanced and that cloth-making was carried on largely by employers with large capitals. Before this, however, while a struggle went on between the town authorities and the craft gilds, journey- men began to form companies of their own, and the result of the various conflicts may be seen in an act of Henry VI., providing that in future new ordinances of gilds shall be submitted to justices of the peace — a measure which was strengthened in i5°3- 2. From Tudor Days until the Close of the i8lh Century. — A detailed history of labour regulation in the i6th century would include some account of the Tudor laws against vagrancy and methods of dealing with the increase of pauperism, attributable, at least in part, to the dissolution of the monasteries under Henry VIII., and to the confiscation of craft gild funds, which proceeded under Somerset and Edward VI. It is sufficient here to point to the general recognition of the public right to compel labourers to work and thus secure control of unemployed as well as employed. The statutes of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. against vagrancy differed rather in degree of severity than in principle from legislation for similar purposes in previous and subsequent reigns. The Statute of Labourers, passed in the fifth year of Elizabeth 's reign (1562), as well as the poor law of the same year, was to a considerable extent both a consolidating and an amending code of law, and was so securely based on public opinion and deeply rooted custom that it was maintained in force for two centuries. It avowedly approves of principles and aims in earlier acts, regulating wages, punishing refusal to work, and preventing free migration of labour. It makes, however, a great advance in its express aim of protecting the poor labourer against insufficient wages, and of devising a machinery, by frequent meeting of justices, which might yield "unto the hired person both in time of scarcity and in time of plenty a convenient proportion of wages." Minute regulations were made governing the contract between master and servant, and their mutual rights and obligations on parallel lines for (a) artificers, (b) labourers in husbandry. Hiring was to be by the year, and any unemployed person qualified in either calling was bound to accept service on pain of imprisonment, if required, unless possessed of property of a specified amount or engaged in art, science or letters, or being a " gentleman." Persons leaving a service were bound to obtain a testimonial, and might not be taken into fresh employment without produc- ing such testimonial, or, if in a new district, until after showing it to the authorities of the place. A master might be fined £5, and a labourer imprisoned, and if contumacious, whipped, for breach of this rule. The carefully devised scheme for technical training of apprentices embodied to a considerable extent the methods and experiences of the craft gilds. Hours of labour were as follows: "All artificers and labourers being hired for wages by the day or week shall, betwixt the midst of the months of March and September, be and continue at their work at or before 5 o 'clock in the morning and continue at work and not depart until betwixt 7 and 8 o 'clock at night, except it be in the time of breakfast, dinner or drinking, the which time at the most shall not exceed two hours and a half in a day, that is to say, at every drinking half an hour, for his dinner one hour and for his sleep when he is allowed to sleep, the which is from the midst of May to the midst of August, half an hour; and all the said artificers and labourers betwixt the midst of September and the midst of March shall be and continue at their work from the spring of the day in the morning until the night of the same day, except it be in time afore appointed for breakfast and dinner, upon pain to lose and forfeit one penny for every hour's absence, to be deducted and defaulked out of his wages that shall so offend." Although the standpoint of the Factory Act and Truck Act in force at the beginning of the 2oth century as regards hours of labour or regulation of fines deducted from wages is completely reversed, yet the difference is not great between the average length of hours of labour permissible under the present law for women and those hours imposed upon the adult labourer in Elizabeth 's statute. Apart from the stand- point of compulsory imposition of fines, one advantage in the definiteness of amount deductable from wages would appear to lie on the side of the earlier statute. Three points remain to be touched on in connexion with the Elizabethan poor law. In addition to (a) consolidation of measures for setting vagrants to work, we find the first com- pulsory contributions from the well-to-do towards poor relief there provided for, (6) at least a theoretical recognition of a right as well as an obligation on the part of the labourer to be hired, (c) careful provision for the apprenticing of destitute children and orphans to a trade. One provision of considerable interest arose in Scotland, which was nearly a century later in organizing provisions for fixing conditions of hire and wages of workmen, labourers and servants, similar to those consolidated in the Elizabethan Statute of Labourers. In 1617 it was provided (and reaffirmed in 1661) that power should be given to the sheriffs to compel payment of wages, "that servants may be the more willing to obey the ordinance." The difficulties in regulation of compulsory labour in Scotland must, however, have been great, for in 1672 houses of correction were erected for disobedient servants, and masters of these houses were empowered to force them to work and to correct them according to their demerits. While servants in manufacture were compelled to work at reasonable rates they might not enter on a new hire without their previous master's consent. Such legislation continued, at least theoretically, in force until the awakening effected by the beginning of the industrial revolution — that is, until the combined effects of steady con- centration of capital in the hands of employers and expansion of trade, followed closely by an unexampled development of invention in machinery and application of power to its use, IO LABOUR LEGISLATION [UNITED KINGDOM completely altered the face of industrial England. From time to time, in respect of particular trades, provisions against truck and for payment of wages in current coin, similar to the act of Edward IV. in the woollen industry, were found necessary, and this branch of labour legislation developed through the reigns of Anne and the four Georges until consolidation and amendment were effected, after the completion of the industrial revolution, in the Truck Act of 1831. From the close of the 1 7th century and during the i8th century the legislature is no longer mainly engaged in devising means for compelling labourers and artisans to enter into involuntary service, but rather in regulating the summary powers of justices of the peace in the matter of dispute between masters and servants in relation to contracts and agreements, express or implied, presumed to have been entered into voluntarily on both sides. While the movement to refer labour questions to the jurisdiction of the justices thus gradually developed, the main subject matter for their exercise of jurisdiction in regard to labour also changed, even when theoretically for a time the two sets of powers — such as (a) moderation of craft gild ordinances and punishment of workers refusing hire, or (b) fixing scales of wages and enforce- ment of labour contracts — might be concurrently exercised. Even in an act of George II. (1746) for settlement of disputes and differences as to wages or other conditions under a contract of labour, power was retained for the justices, on complaint of the masters of misdemeanour or ill-behaviour on the part of the servant, to discharge the latter from service or to send him to a house of correction " there to be corrected," that is, to be held to hard labour for a term not exceeding a month or to be corrected by whipping, In an act with similar aims of George IV. (1823), with a rather-wider scope, the power to order corporal punishment, and in 1867 to hard labour, for breach of labour contracts had disappeared, and soon after the middle of the 1 9th century the right to enforce contracts of labour also dis- appeared. Then breach of such labour contracts became simply a question of recovery of damages, unless both parties agreed that security for performance of the contract shall be given instead of damages. While the endeavour to enforce labour apart from a contract died out in the latter end of the i8th century, sentiment for some time had strongly grown in favour of developing early industrial training of children. It appears to have been a special object of charitable and philanthropic endeavour in the i7th century, as well as the i8th, to found houses of industry, in which little children, even under five years of age, might be trained for apprenticeship with employers. Connected as this development was with poor relief, one of its chief aims was to prevent future unemployment and vagrancy by training in habits and knowledge of industry, but not unavowed was another motive: " from children thus trained up to constant labour we may venture to hope the lowering of its price."1 The evils and excesses which lay enfolded within such a move- ment gave the first impulse to the new ventures in labour legislation which are specially the work of the igth century. Evident as it is " that before the Industrial Revolution very young children were largely employed both in their own homes and as apprentices under the Poor Law," and that " long before Peel's time there were misgivings about the apprenticeship system," still it needed the concentration and prominence of suffering and injury to child life in the factory system to lead to parliamentary intervention. 3. From 1800 to the Codes of 1872 and 1878. — A serious out- break of fever in 1784 in cotton mills near Manchester appears to have first drawn widespread and influential public opinion to the overwork of children, under terribly dangerous and insanitary conditions, on which the factory system was then largely being carried on. A local inquiry, chiefly by a group of medical men presided over by Dr Percival, was instituted by the justices of the peace for Lancashire, and in the forefront of the resulting report stood a recommendation for limitation 1 From an " Essay on Trade " (1770) , quoted in History of Factory Legislation, by B. L. Hutching and A. Harrison (1903), pp. 5, 6. and control of the working hours of the children. A resolution by the county justices followed, in which they declared their intention in future to refuse " indentures of parish Apprentices whereby they shall be bound to Owners of Cotton Mills and other works in which children are obliged to work in the night or more than ten hours in the day." In 1795 the Manchester Board of Health was formed, which, with fuller information, more definitely advised legislation for the regulation of the hours and conditions of labour in factories. In 1802 the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act was passed, which in effect formed the first step towards prevention of injury to and protection of labour in factories. It was directly aimed only at evils of the apprentice system, under which large numbers of pauper children were worked in cotton and woollen mills without education, for excessive hours, under wretched conditions. It did not apply to places employing fewer than twenty persons or three apprentices, and it applied the principle of limitation of hours (to twelve a day) and abolition of night work, as well as educational require- ments, only to apprentices. Religious teaching and suitable sleeping accommodation and clothing were provided for in the act, also as regards apprentices. Lime-washing and ventilation provisions applied to all cotton and woollen factories employing more than twenty persons. " Visitors " were to be appointed by county justices for repression of contraventions, and were empowered to " direct the adoption of such sanitary regulations as they might on advice think proper." The mills were to be registered by the clerk of the peace, and justices had power to inflict fines of from £2 to £5 for contraventions. Although enforcement of the very limited provisions of the act was in many cases poor or non-existent, in some districts excellent work was done by justices, and in 1803 the West Riding of Yorkshire justices passed a resolution substituting the ten hours' limit for the twelve hours' limit of the act, as a condition of permission for indenturing of apprentices in mills. Rapid development of the application of steam power to manu- facture led to growth of employment of children in populous centres, otherwise than on the apprenticeship system, and before long the evils attendant on this change brought the general question of regulation and protection of child labour in textile factories to the front. The act of 1819, limited as it was, was a noteworthy step forward, in that it dealt with this wider scope of employment of children in cotton factories, and it is satisfactory to record that it was the outcome of the efforts and practical experiments of a great manufacturer, Robert Owen. Its provisions fell on every point lower than the aims he put forward on his own experience as practicable, and notably in its application only to cotton mills instead of all textile factories. Prohibition of child labour under nine years of age and lin itation of the working day to twelve in the twenty-four (without specifying the precise hour of beginning and closing) were the main provisions of this act. No provision was made for enforce- ment of the law beyond such as was attempted in the act of 1802. Slight amendments were attempted in the acts of 1825 and 1831, but the first really important factory act was in 1833 applying to textile factories generally, limiting employment of young persons under eighteen years of age, as well as children, prohibiting night work between 8.30 P.M. and 5.30 A.M., and first providing for "inspectors " to enforce the law. This is the act which was based on the devoted efforts of Michael Sadler, with whose name in this connexion that of Lord Ashley, afterwards earl of Shaftesbury, was from 1832 associated. The importance of this act lay in its provision for skilled inspec- tion and thus for enforcement of the law by an independent body of men unconnected with the locality in which the manu- factures lay, whose specialization in their work enabled them to acquire information needed for further development of legislation for protection of labour. Their powers were to a certain extent judicial, being assimilated to those possessed by justices; they could administer oaths and make such " rules, regulations and orders " as were necessary for execution of the act, and could hear complaints and impose penalties under the act. In 1844 a textile factory act modified these extensive UNITED KINGDOM] LABOUR LEGISLATION ii inspectoral powers, organizing the service on lines resembling those of our own time, and added provision for certifying surgeons to examine workers under sixteen years of age as to physical fitness for employment and to grant certificates of age and ordinary strength. Hours of labour, by the act of 1833, were limited for children under eleven to 9 a day or 48 in the week, and for young persons under eighteen to 12 a day or 69 in the week. Between 1833 and 1844 the movement in favour of a ten hours' day, which had long been in progress, reached its height in a time of great commercial and industrial distress, but could not be carried into effect until ^847. By the act of 1844 the hours of adult women were first regulated, and were limited (as were already those of " young persons ") to 12 a day; children were permitted either to work the same hours on alter- nate days or " half-time," with compulsory school attendance as a condition of their employment. The aim in thus adjusting the hours of the three classes of workers was to provide for a practical standard working-day. For the first time detailed provisions for health and safety began to make their appearance in the law. Penal compensation for preventible injuries due to unfenced machinery was also provided, and appears to have been the outcome of a discussion by witnesses before the Royal Commission on Labour of Young Persons in Mines and Manu- factures in 1841. From this date, 1841, begin the first attempts at protective legislation for labour in mining. The first Mines Act of 1842 following the terrible revelations of the Royal Commission referred to excluded women and girls from underground working, and limited the employment of boys, excluding from underground working those under ten years, but it was not until 1850 that systematic reporting of fatal accidents and until 1855 that other safeguards for health, life and limb in mines were seriously provided by law. With the exception of regulations against truck there was no protection for the miner before 1842; before 1814 it was not customary to hold inquests on miners killed by accidents in mines. From 1842 onwards considerable inter- action in the development of the two sets of acts (mines and factories) , as regards special protection against industrial injury to health and limb, took place, both in parliament and in the department (Home Office) administering them. Another strong influence tending towards ultimate development of scientific protection of health and life in industry began in the work and reports of the series of sanitary commissions and Board of Health reports from 1843 onwards. In 1844 the mines inspector made his first report, but two years later women were still employed to some extent underground. Organized inspec- tion began in 1850, and in 1854 the Select Committee on Accidents adopted a suggestion of the inspectors for legislative extension of the practice of several colliery owners -in framing special safety rules for working in mines. The act of 1855 provided seven general rules, relating to ventilation, fencing of disused shafts, proper means for signalling, proper gauges and valve for steam-boiler, indicator and brake for machine lowering and raising; also it provided that detailed special rules submitted by mine-owners to the secretary of state, might, on his approval, have the force of law and be enforceable by penalty. The Mines Act of 1860, besides extending the law to ironstone mines, following as it did on a series of disastrous accidents and explosions, strengthened some of the provisions for safety. At several inquests strong evidence was given of incompetent management and neglect of rules, and a demand was made for enforcing employment only of certificated managers of coal mines. This was not met until the act of 1872, but in 1860 certain sections relating to wages and education were introduced. Steady development of the coal industry, increasing association among miners, and increased scientific knowledge of means of ventilation and of other methods for securing safety, all paved the way to the Coal Mines Act of 1872, and in the same year health and safety in metalliferous mines received their first legislative treatment in a code of similar scope and character to that of the Coal Mines Act. This. act was amended in 1886, and repealed and recodified in 1887; its principal provisions are still in force, with certain revised special rules and modifica- tions as regards reporting of accidents (1906) and employment of children (1903). It was based on the recommendations of a Royal Commission, which had reported in 1864, and which had shown the grave excess of mortality and sickness among metal- liferous miners, attributed to the inhalation of gritty particles, imperfect ventilation, great changes of temperature, excessive physical exertion, exposure to wet, and other causes. The pro- hibition of employment of women and of boys under ten years underground in this class of mines, as well as in coal mines, had been effected by the act of 1842, and inspection had been provided for in the act of 1860; these were in amended form included in the code of 1872, the age of employment of boys underground being raised to twelve. In the Coal Mines Act of 1872 we see the first important effort to provide a complete code of regulation for the special dangers to health, life and limb in coal mines apart from other mines; it applied to " mines of coal, mines of stratified ironstone, mines of shale and mines of fire-clay." Unlike the companion act — applying to all other mines — it maintained the age limit of entering under- ground employment for boys at ten years, but for those between ten and twelve it provided for a system of working analogous to the half-time system in factories, including compulsory school attendance. The limits of employment for boys from twelve to sixteen were 10 hours in any one day and 54 in anyone week. The chief characteristics of the act lay in extension of the " general " safety rules, improvement of the method of formulat- ing " special " safety rules, provision for certificated and com- petent management, and increased inspection. Several important matters were transferred from the special to the general rules, such as compulsory use of safety lamps where needed, regulation of use of explosives, and securing of roofs and sides. Special rules, before being submitted to the secretary of state for approval, must be posted in the mine for two weeks, with a notice that objections might be sent by any person employed to the district inspector. Wilful neglect of safety provisions became punishable in the case of employers as well as miners by imprisonment with hard labour. But the most important new step lay in the sections relating to daily control and super- vision of every mine by a manager holding a certificate of com- petency from the secretary of state, after examination by a board of examiners appointed by the secretary of state, power being retained for him to cause later inquiry into competency of the holder of the certificate, and to cancel or suspend the certificate in case of proved unfitness. Returning to the development of factory and workshop law from the year 1844, the main line of effort — after the act of 1847 had restricted hours of women and young persons to 10 a day and fixed the daily limits between 6 A.M. and 6 P.M. (Saturday 6 A.M. to 2 P.M.) — lay in bringing trade after trade in some degree under the scope of this branch of law, which had hitherto only regulated conditions in textile factories. Bleaching and dyeing works were included by the acts of 1860 and 1862; lace factories by that of 1861; calendering and finishing by acts of 1863 and 1864; bakehouses became partially regulated by an act of 1863, with special reference to local authorities for administration of its clauses. The report of the third Children's Employment Commission brought together in accessible form the miserable facts relating to child labour in a number of un- regulated industries in the year 1862, and the act of 1864 brought some of (these earthenware-making, lucifer match-making, percussion cap and cartridge making, paper-staining, and fustian cutting) partly under the scope of the various textile factory acts in force. A larger addition of trades was made three years later, but the act of 1864 is particularly interesting in that it first embodied some of the results of inquiries of expert medical and sanitary commissioners, by requiring ventilation to be applied to the removal of injurious gases, dust, and other im- purities generated in manufacture, and made a first attempt to engraft part of the special rules system from the mines atts. The provisions for framing such rules disappeared in the Con- solidating Act of 1878, to be revivra in a better form later. 12 LABOUR LEGISLATION [FACTORIES AND WORKSHOPS The Sanitary Act of 1866, administered by local authorities, provided for general sanitation in any factories and workshops not under existing factory acts, and the Workshops Regulation Act of 1867, similarly to be administered by local authorities, amended in 1870, practically completed the application of the main principle of the factory acts to all places in which manual labour was exercised for gain in the making or finishing of articles or parts of articles for sale. A few specially dangerous or injurious trades brought under regulation in 1864 and 1867 (e.g. earthenware and lucifer match making, glass-making) ranked as "factories," although not using mechanical power, and for a time employment of less than fifty persons relegated certain work-places to the category of "workshops," but broadly the presence or absence of such motor power in aid of process was made and has remained the distinction between factories and workshops. The Factory Act of 1874, the last of the series before the great Consolidating Act of 1878, raised the minimum age of employment for children to ten years in textile factories. In most of the great inquiries into conditions of child labour the fact has come clearly to light, in regard to textile and non- textile trades alike, that parents as much as any employers have been responsible for too early employment and excessive hours of employment of children, and from early times until to-day in factory legislation it has been recognized that they must to some extent be held responsible for due observation of the limits imposed. For example, in 1831 it was found necessary to protect occupiers against parental responsibility for false certificates of age, and in 1833 parents of a child or " any Person having any benefit from the wages of such child " were made to share responsibility for employment of children without school attendance or beyond legal hours. During the discussions on the bill which became law in 1874, it had become apparent that revision and consolidation of the multiplicity of statutes then regulating manufacturing industry had become pressingly necessary; modifications and exceptions for exceptional conditions in separate industries needed re- consideration and systematization on clear principles, and the main requirements of the law could with great advantage be applied more generally to all the industries. In particular, the daily limits as to period of employment, pauses for meals, and holidays, needed to be unified for non-textile factories and workshops, so as to bring about a standard working-day, and thus prevent the tendency in "the larger establishments to farm out work among the smaller, where it is done under less favourable conditions both sanitary and educational. " * In these main directions, and that of simplifying definitions., sum- marizing special sanitary provisions that had been gradually introduced for various trades, and centralizing and improving the organization of the inspectorate, the Commission of 1876 on the Factory Acts made its recommendations, and the Factory Act of 1878 took effect. In the fixed working-day, provisions for pauses, holidays, general and special exceptions, distinctions between systems of employment for children, young persons and women, education of children and certificates of fitness for children and young persons, limited regulation of domestic workshops, general principles of administration and definitions, the law of 1878 was made practically the same as that embodied in the later principal act of 1901. More or less completely revised are: (a) the sections in the 1878 act relating to mode of control- ling sanitary conditions in workshops (since 1891 primarily enforced by the local sanitary authority); (b) provision for reporting accidents and for enforcing safety (other than fencing of mill gearing and dangerous machinery); (c) detailed regula- tion of injurious and dangerous process and trades; (d) powers of certifying surgeons; (e) amount of overtime permissible (greatly reduced in amount and now confined to adults) ; (/) age for permissible employment of a child has been raised from ten years to twelve years. Entirely new since the act of 1878 are the provisions: (a) for control of outwork; (b) for supplying particulars of work and wages to piece-workers, enabling them 'Minutes of Evidence, Jiouse of Commons, 1876; quoted in History of Factory Legislation, by Harrison and Hutchinson, p. ifo. to compute the total amount of wages payable to them; (e) extension of the act to laundries; (/) a tentative effort to limit the too early employment of mothers after childbirth. II. LAW OF UNITED KINGDOM, 1910 Factories and Workshops. — The act of 1878 remained until 1901, although much had been meanwhile superimposed, a monument to the efforts of the great factory reformers of the first half of the igth century, and the general groundwork of safety for workers in factories and workshops in the main divisions of sanitation, security against accidents, physical fitness of workers, general limitation of hours and times of employ- ment for young workers and women. The act of 1901, which came into force ist January 1902 (and became the principal act), was an amending as well as a consolidating act. Comparison of the two acts shows, however, that, in spite of the advantages of further consolidation and helpful changes in arrangement of sections and important additions which tend towards a specialized hygiene for factory life, the fundamental features of the law as fought out in the igth century remain undisturbed. So far as the law has altered in character, it has done so ch'efly by gradual development of certain sanitary features, originally subordinate, and by strengthening provision for security against accidents and not by retreat from its earlier aims. At the same time a basis for possible new developments can be seen in the protection of " outworkers " as well as factory workers against fraudulent or defective particulars of piece-work rates of wages. Later acts directly and indirectly affecting the law are certain acts of 1903, 1906, 1907, to be touched on presently. The act of 1878, in a series of acts from 1883 to 1895, received striking additions, based (i) on the experience gained in other branches of protective legislation, e.g. development of the method of regulation of dangerous trades by ^ddu'oas . . , . . . . . . / to act of special rules and administrative inquiry into i^jg. accidents under Coal Mines Acts; (2) on the findings of royal commissions and parliamentary inquiries, e.g. increased control of "outwork " and domestic workshops, and limitation of "overtime "; (3) on the development of administrative machinery for enforcing the more modern law relating to public health, e.g. transference of administration of sanitary provisions in workshops to the local sanitary authorities; (4) on the trade- union demand for means for securing trustworthy records of wage-contracts between employer and workman, e.g. the section requiring particulars of work and wages for piece-workers. The first additions to the act of 1878 were, however, almost purely attempts to deal more adequately than had been attempted in the code of 1878 with certain striking instances of trades injurious to health. Thus the Factory and Workshop Act of 1883 provided that white-lead factories should not be carried on without a certificate of conformity with certain conditions, and also made provision for special rules, on lines later superseded by those laid down in the act of 1891, applicable to any employ- ment in a factory or workshop certified as dangerous or injurious by the secretary of state. The act of 1883 also dealt with sanitary conditions in bakehouses. Certain definitions and explanations of previous enactments touching overtime and employment of a child in any factory or workshop were also included in the act. A class of factories in which excessive heat and humidity seriously affected the health of operatives was next dealt with in the Cotton Cloth Factories Act 1889. This provided for special notice to the chief inspector from all occupiers of cotton cloth factories (i.e. any room, shed, or workshop or part thereof in which weaving of cotton cloth is carried on) who intend to produce humidity by artificial means; regulated both tempera- ture of workrooms and amount of moisture in the atmosphere, and provided for tests and records of the same; and fixed a standard minimum volume of fresh air (600 cub. ft.) to be ad- mitted in every hour for every person employed in the factory. Power was retained for the secretary of state to modify by order the standard for the maximum limit of humidity of the atmo- sphere at any given temperature. A short act in 1870 extended this power to other measures for the protection of health. FACTORIES AND WORKSHOPS] LABOUR LEGISLATION The special measures from 1878 to 1889 gave valuable pre- cedents for further developments of special hygiene in factory life, but the next advance in the Factory and Workshop Act 1891, following the House of Lords Committee on the sweating system and the Berlin International Labour Conference, extended over much wider ground. Its principal objects were: (a) to render administration of the law relating to workshops more efficient, particularly as regards sanitation; with this end in view it made the primary controlling authority for sanitary matters in workshops the local sanitary authority (now the district council), acting by their officers, and giving them the powers of the less numerous body of factory inspectors, while at the same time the provisions of the public Health Acts replaced in workshops the very similar sanitary provisions of the Factory Acts; (b) to provide for greater security against accidents and more efficient fencing of machinery in factories; (c) to extend the method of regulation of unhealthy or dangerous occupations by application of special rules and requirements to any incident of employment (other than in a domestic workshop) certified by the secretary of state to be dangerous or injurious to health or dangerous to life or limb; (d) to raise the age of employment of children and restrict the employment of women immediately after childbirth; (e) to require particulars of rate of wages to be given with work to piece-workers in certain branches of the textile industries; (/) to amend the act of 1878 in various subsidiary ways, with the view of improving the administration of its principles, e.g. by increasing the means of checking the amount of overtime worked, empowering inspectors to enter work-places used as dwellings without a justice's warrant, and the imposition of minimum penalties in certain cases. On this act followed four years of greatly accelerated administrative activity. No fewer than sixteen trades were scheduled by the secretary of state as dangerous to health. The manner of pre- paring and establishing suitable rules was greatly modified by the act of 1901 and will be dealt with in that connexion. The Factory and Workshop Act 1895 followed thus on a period of exercise of new powers of administrative regulation (the period being also that during which the Royal Commission on Labour made its wide survey of industrial conditions), and after two successive annual reports of the chief inspector of factories had embodied reports and recommendations from the women inspectors, who in 1893 were first added to the inspector- ate. Again, the chief features of an even wider legislative effort than that of 1891 were the increased stringency and definiteness of the measures for securing hygienic and safe conditions of work. Some of these measures, however, involved new principles, as in the provision for the prohibition of the use of a dangerous machine or structure by the order of a magistrate's court, and the power to include in the special rules drawn up in pursuance of section 8 of the act of 1891, the prohibition of the employment of any class of persons, or the limitation of the period of employ- ment of any class of persons in any process scheduled by order of the secretary of state. These last two powers have both been exercised, and with the exercise of the latter passed away, without opposition, the absolute freedom of the employer of the adult male labourer to carry on his manufacture without legislative limitation of the hours of labour. Second only in significance to these new developments was the addition, for the first time since 1867, of new classes of workplaces not covered by the general definitions in section 93 of the Con- solidating Act of 1878, viz. : (a) laundries (with special conditions as to hours, &c.); (b) docks, wharves, quays, warehouses and premises on which machinery worked by power is temporarily used for the purpose of the construction of a building or any structural work in connexion with the building (for the purpose only of obtaining security against accidents). Other entirely new provisions in the act of 1895, later strengthened by the act of 1901, were the requirement of a reasonable temperature in workrooms, the requirement of lavatories for the use of persons employed in any department where poisonous substances are used, the obligation on occupiers and medical practitioners to report cases of industrial poisoning; and the penalties imposed on an employer wilfully allowing wearing apparel to be made, cleaned or repaired in a dwelling-house where an inmate is suffering from infectious disease. Another provision empowered the secretary of state to specify classes of outwork and areas with a view to the regulation of the sanitary condition of premises in which outworkers are employed. Owing to the conditions attached to its exercise, no case was found in which this power could come into operation, and the act of 1901 deals with the matter on new lines. The requirement of annual returns from occupiers of persons employed, and the competency of the person charged with infringing the act to give evidence in his defence, were important new provisions, as was also the adoption of the powers to direct a formal investigation of any accident on the lines laid down in section 45 of the Coal Mines Regulation Act 1887. Other sections, relating to sanitation and safety, were developments of previous regulations, e.g. the fixing of a standard of overcrowding, provision of sanitary accommodation separate for each sex where the standard of the Public Health Act Amend- ment Act of 1890 had not been adopted by the competent local sanitary authority, power to order a fan or other mechanical means to carry off injurious gas, vapour or other impurity (the previous power covering only dust). The fencing of machinery and definition of accidents were made more precise, young persons were prohibited from cleaning dangerous machinery, and additional safeguards against risk of injury by fire or panic were introduced. On the question of employment the foremost amendments lay in the almost complete prohibition of overtime for young persons, and the restriction of the power of an employer to employ protected persons outside his factory or workshop on the same day that he had employed them in the factory or workshop. Under the head of particulars of work and wages to piece-workers an important new power, highly valued by the workers, was given to apply the principle with the necessary modifications by order of the secretary of state to industries other than textile and to outworkers as well as to those employed inside factories and workshops. In 1899 an indirect modification of the limitation to employ- ment of children was effected by the Elementary Education Amendment Act, which, by raising from eleven to twelve the minimum age at which a child may, by the by-laws of a local authority, obtain total or partial exemption from the obligation to attend school, made it unlawful for an occupier to take into employment any child under twelve in such a manner as to prevent full-time attendance at school. The age of employment became generally thereby the same as it has been for employment at a mine above ground since 1887. The act of 1901 made the prohibition of employ- ment of a child under twelve in a factory or workshop direct and absolute. Under the divisions of sanitation, safety, fitness for employment, special regulation of dangerous trades, special control of bakehouses, exceptional treatment of creameries, new methods of dealing with home work and outworkers, important additions were made to the general law by the act of 1901, as also in regulations for strengthened administrative control. New general sanitary provisions were those prescribing : (a) ventilation per se for every workroom, and empowering the secretary of state to fix a standard of sufficient ventilation; (b) drainage of wet floors; (c) the power of the secretary of state to define in certain cases what shall constitute sufficient and suitable sanitary accommodation. New safety provisions were those relating to — (a) Examination and report on steam boilers; (b) prohibition of employment of a child in cleaning below machinery in motion; (c) power of the district council to make by-laws for escape in case of fire. The most important administrative alterations were : (a) a justice engaged in the same trade as, or being officer of an association of persons engaged in the same trade as, a person charged with an offence may not act at the hearing and determination of the charge; (b) ordinary supervision of sanitary conditions under which outwork is carried on was transferred to the district council, power being reserved to the Home Office to intervene in case of neglect or default by any district council. "° LABOUR LEGISLATION [FACTORIES AND WORKSHOPS Acts of 1903, 1906, 1907. The Employment of Children Act 1903, while primarily providing for industries outside the scope of the Factory Act, incidentally secured that children employed as half- timers should not also be employed in other occupa- tions. The Notice of Accidents Act 1906 amended the whole system of notification of accidents, simul- taneously in mines, quarries, factories and workshops, and will be set out in following paragraphs. The Factory and Workshop Act of 1907 amended the law in respect of laundries by generally applying the provisions of 1901 to trade laundries while granting them choice of new exceptional periods, and by extending the provisions of the act (with certain powers to the Home Office by Orders laid before parliament to allow variations) to institution laundries carried on for charitable or reformatory purposes. The Employment of Women Act 1907 repealed an exemption in the act of 1901 (and earlier acts) relating to employment of women in flax scutch mills, thus bringing this employment under the ordinary provisions as to period of employment. The following paragraphs aim at presenting an idea of the scope of the modified and amended law, as a whole, adding where clearly necessary reference to the effect of acts, which ceased to apply after the 3ist of December 1901 : — The workplaces to which the act applies are, first, " factories " and "workshops"; secondly, laundries, docks, wharves, &c., enumerated above as introduced and regulated partially only by the act of 1895 and subsequent acts. Apart from this secondary list, and having regard to workplaces which remain undefined by the law, the act may broadly be said to apply to premises, rooms or places in which manual labour, with or without the aid of mechanical power, is exercised for gain in or incidental to the making, altering, repairing, ornamenting, washing, cleaning or finishing or adapting for sale of any article or part of any article. If steam, water or other mechanical power is used in aid of the manufacturing process, the workplace is a factory; if not, it is a workshop. There is, however, a list of eighteen classes of works (brought under the factory law for reasons of safety, Sic., before workshops generally were regulated) which are defined as factories whether power is used in them or not. Factories are, again, sub- divided into textile and non-textile: they are textile if the machinery is employed in preparing, manufacturing or finishing cotton, wool, hair, silk, flax, hemp, jute, tow, China grass, cocoanut fibre or other like material either separately or mixed together, or mixed with any other material, or any fabric made thereof; all other factories are non-textile. The distinction turns on the historical origin of factory regulation and the regulations in textile factories remain in some respects slightly more stringent than in the non-textile factories and workshops, though the general provisions are almost the same. Three special classes of workshops have for certain purposes to be distinguished from ordinary workshops, which include tenement workshops: (a) Domestic workshops, i.e. any private house, room or place, which, though used as a dwelling, is by reason of the work carried on there a workshop, and in whicn the only persons employed are members of the same family, dwelling there alone — in these women's hours are unrestricted; (b) Women's workshops, in which neither children nor young persons are employed — in these a more elastic arrangement of hours is permissible than in ordinary work- shops; (c) Workshops in which men only are employed — these come under the same general regulations in regard to sanitation as other workshops, also under the provisions of the Factory Act as regards security, and, if certified by the secretary of state, may be brought under special regulations. They are otherwise outside the scope of the act of 1901. The person to whom the regulations apply in the above-defined workplaces are children, i.e. persons between the ages of twelve and fourteen, young persons, i.e. boys or girls between the ages of fourteen (or if an educational certificate has been obtained, thirteen) and eighteen years of age, and women, i.e. females above the age of eighteen; these are all " protected " persons to whom the general provisions of the act, inclusive of the regulation of hours and times of employment, apply. To adult men generally those provisions broadly only apply which are aimed at securing sanitation and safety in the conduct of the manufacturing process. The person generally responsible for observance of the provisions of the law, whether these relate to health, safety, limitation of the hours of labour or other matters, is the occupier (a term un- defined in the act) of the factory, workshop or laundry. There are, however, limits to his responsibility: (a) generally, where the occupier has used due diligence to enforce the execution of the act, and can show that another person, whether agent, servant, workman or other person, is the real offender; (b) specially in a factory the sections relating to employment of protected persons, where the owner or hirer of a machine or implement driven by mechanical power is some person other than the occupier of the factory, the Sanita- tion. owner or hirer, so far as respects any offence against the act com- mitted in relation to a person who is employed in connexion with the machine or implement, and is in the employment or pay of the owner or hirer, shall be deemed to be the occupier of the factory; (c) for the one purpose of reporting accidents, the actual employer of the person injured in any factory or workshop is bound under penalty immediately to report the same to the occupier; (d) so far as relates to sanitary conditions, fencing of machinery, affixing of notices in tenement factories, the owner (as defined by the Public Health Act 1875), generally speaking, takes the place of the occupier. .Employment in a factory or workshop includes work whether for wages or not: (a) in a manufacturing process or handicraft, (b) in cleaning any place used for the same, (c) in cleaning or oiling any part of the machinery, (d) any work whatsoever incidental to the process or handicraft, or connected with the article made. Persons found in any part of the factory or .workshop, where machinery is used or manufacture carried on, except at meal-times, or when machinery is stopped, are deemed to be employed until the contrary is proved. The act, however, does not apply to employment for the sole purpose of repairing the premises or machinery, nor to the process of pre- serving and curing fish immediately upon its arrival in the fishing boats in order to prevent the fish from being destroyed or spoiled, nor to the process of cleaning and preparing fruit so far as is necessary to prevent it from spoiling during the months of June, July, August and September. Certain light handicrafts carried on by a family only in a private house or room at irregular intervals are also outside the scope of the act. The foremost provisions are those relating to the sanitary con- dition of the workplaces and the general security of every class of worker. Every factory must be kept in a cleanly con- dition, free from noxious effluvia, ventilated in such a manner as to render harmless, so far as practicable, gases, vapours, dust or other impurities generated in the manufacture ; must be provided with sufficient and suitable sanitary conveniences separate for the sexes; must not be overcrowded (not less than 250 cubic ft. during the day, 400 during overtime, for each worker). In these matters the law of public health takes in workshops the place of the Factory Act, the requirements being substantially the same. Although, however, primarily the officers of the district council enforce the sanitary provisions in workshops, the government factory inspectors may give notice of any defect in them to the district council in whose district they are situate; and if proceedings are not taken within one month by the latter, the factory inspector may act in default and recover expenses from the district council. This power does not extend to domestic workshops which are under the law relating to public health so far as general sanitation is concerned. General powers are reserved to the secretary of state, where he is satisfied that the Factory Act or law relating to public health as regards workplaces has not been carried out by any district council, to authorize a factory inspector during a period named in his order to act instead of the district council. Other general sanitary provisions administered by the government inspectors are the re- quirement in factories and workshops of washing conveniences where poisonous substances are used; adequate measures for securing and maintaining a reasonable temperature of such a kind as will not interfere with the purity of the air in each room in which any person is employed ; maintenance of sufficient means of ventilation in every room in a factory or workshop (in conformity with such standard as may be prescribed by order of the secretary of state) ; provision of a fan to carry off injurious dust, gas or other impurity, and prevent their inhalation in any factory or workshop; drainage of floors where wet processes are carried on. For laundries and bakehouses there are further sanitary regulations; e.g. in laundries all stoves for heating irons shall be sufficiently separated from any ironing-room or ironing-table, and the floors shall be " drained in such a manner as will allow the water to flow off freely "; and in bakehouses a cistern supplying water to a bakehouse must be quite separate from that supplying water to a water-closet, and the latter may not communicate directly with the bakehouse. Use of underground bakehouses (i.e. a baking room with floor more than 3 ft. below the ground adjoining) is prohibited, except where already used at the passing of the act; further, in these cases, after 1st January 1904, a certificate as to suitability in light, ventilation, &c., must be ob- tained from the district council. In other trades certified by the secretary of state further sanitary regulations may be made to increase security for health by special rules to be presently touched on. The secretary of state may also make sanitary requirements a condition of granting such exceptions to the general .law as he is empowered to grant. In factories, as distinct from workshops, a periodical lime washing (or washing with hot water and soap where paint and varnish have been used) of all inside walls and ceilings once at least in every fourteen months is generally required (in bakehouses once in six months). As regards sufficiency and suitability of sanitary accommodation, the standards determined by order of the secretary of state shall be observed in the districts to which it is made applic- able. An order was made called the Sanitary Accommodation Order, on the 4th of February 1903, the definitions and standards in which have also been widely adopted by local sanitary authorities in districts where the Order itself has no legal force, the local authority having parallel power under the Public Health Act of 1890. FACTORIES AND WORKSHOPS] LABOUR LEGISLATION Security in the use of machinery is provided for by precautions as regards the cleaning of machinery in motion and working between . the fixed and traversing parto of self-acting machines Security driven by power, by fencing of machinery, and by em- powering inspectors to obtain an order from a court of accidents. summary jurisdiction to prohibit the use, temporarily or absolutely, of machinery, ways, works or plant, including use of a steam boiler, which cannot be used without danger to life and limb. Every hoist and fly-wheel directly connected with mechanical power, and every part of a water-wheel or engine worked by mechanical power, and every wheel race, must be fenced, whatever its position, and every part of mill-gearing or dangerous machinery must either be fenced or be in such position that it is as safe as if fenced. No protected persons may clean any part of mill-gearing in motion, and children may further not clean any part of or below manufacturing machinery in motion by aid of mechanical power-, young persons further may not clean any machinery if the inspector notifies it to the occupier as dangerous. Security as regards the use of dangerous premises is provided for by empowering courts of summary jurisdiction, on the application of an inspector, to prohibit their use until the danger has been removed. The district council, or, in London, the county council, or in case of their default the factory inspector, can require certain provisions for escape in case of fire in factories and workshops in which more than forty persons are em- ployed; special powers to make by-laws for means of escape from fire in any factory or workshop are, in addition to any powers for prevention of fire that they possess, given to every district council, in London to the county council. The means of escape must be kept free from obstruction. Provisions are made for doors to open out- wards in each room in which more than ten persons are employed, ind to prevent the locking, bolting or fastening of doors so that they cannot easily be opened from inside when any person is employed or at meals inside the workplace. Further, provisions for security may be provided in special regulations. Every boiler for generating steam in a factory or workshop or place where the act applies must have a proper safety valve, a steam gauge, and a water gauge, and every such boiler, valve and gauge must be maintained in proper condition. Examination by a competent person must take place at least once in every fourteen months. The occupier of any factory or workshop may be liable for penal compensation not exceeding £100 in case of injury or death due to neglect of any provision or special rule, the whole or any part of which may be applied for the benefit of the injured person or his family, as the secretary of state deter- mines. When a death has occurred by accident in a factory or workshop, the coroner must advise the factory inspector for the district of the place and time of the inquest. The secretary of state may order a formal investigation of the circumstances of any accident as in the case of mines. Careful and detailed provisions are made for the reporting by occupiers to inspectors, and entry in the registers at factories and workshops of accidents which occur in a factory or workshop and (a) cause loss of life to a person employed there, or (b) are due to machinery moved by mechanical power, molten metal, hot liquid, explosion, escape of gas or steam, electricity, so disabling any person employed in the factory or workshop as to cause him to be absent throughout at least one whole day from his ordinary work, (c) are due to any other special cause which the secretary of state may determine, (d) not falling under the previous heads and yet cause disablement for more than seven days' ordinary work to any person working in the factory or workshop. In the case of (a) or (b) notice has also to be sent to the certifying surgeon by the occupier. Cases of lead, phosphorus, arsenical and mercurial poisoning, or anthrax, contracted in any factory or workshop must similarly be reported and registered by the occupier, and the duty of reporting these cases is also laid on medical practitioners under whose observation they come. The list of classes of poisoning can be extended by the secretary of state's order. Certificates of physical fitness for employment must be obtained by the occupier from the certifying surgeon for the district for all Physical Pers°ns under sixteen years of age employed in a factory, fitness of anc' *n any c'ass °f workshops to which the requirement workers ^as been extended by order of the secretary of state, and an inspector may suspend any such persons tor re-ex- amination in a factory, or for examination in a workshop, when " disease or bodily infirmity " unfits the person, in his opinion, for the work of the place. The certifying surgeon may examine the process as well as the person submitted, and may qualify the certifi- cate he grants by conditions as to the work on which the person is fit to be employed. An occupier of a factory or workshop or laundry shall not knowingly allow a woman to be employed therein within four weeks after childbirth. The employment of children, young persons and women is regu- lated as regards ordinary and exceptional hours of work, ordinary Hours of an^ exceptional meal-times, length of spells and holidays. protected ^he outs'de limits of ordinary periods of employment and persons. holidays are, broadly, the same for textile factories as for non-textile factories and workshops; the main difference lies in the requirement of not less than a total two hours' interval for meals out of the twelve, and a limit of four and a half hours for any spell of work, a longer weekly half holiday, and a prohibition of overtime, in textile factories, as compared with a total one and a half hours' interval for meals and a limit of five hours for spells and (conditional) permission of overtime in non-textile factories. The hours of work must be specified, and from Monday to Friday may be between 6 A.M. and 6 P.M., or 7 A.M. to 7 P.M. ; in non-textile factories and workshops the hours also may be taken between 8 A.M. and 8 P.M. or by order of the secretary of state for special industries 9 A.M. to 9 P.M. Between these outside limits, with the proviso that meal- times must be fixed and limits as to spells observed, women and young persons may be employed the full time, children on the contrary only half time, on alternate days, or in alternate sets attending school half time regularly. On Saturdays, in textile factories in which the period commences at 6 A.M. all manufactur- ing work must cease at 12 if not less than one hour is given for meals, or 11.30 if less than one hour is given for meals (half an hour extra allowed for cleaning), and in non-textile factories and workshops at 2 P.M., 3 P.M. or 4 P.M., according as the hour of beginning is 6 A.M., 7 A.M. or 8 A.M. In " domestic workshops " the total number of hours for young persons and children must not exceed those allowed in ordinary workshops, but the outside limits for beginning and ending are wider; and the case is similar as regards hours of women in " women's workshops." Employment outside a factory or workshop in the business of the same is limited in a manner similar to that laid down in the Shop Hours Act, to be touched on presently. Overtime in certain classes of factories, workshops and warehouses attached to them is permitted, under conditions specified in the acts, for women, to meet seasonal or unforeseen pressure of business, or where goods of a perishable nature are dealt with, for young persons only in a very limited degree in factories liable to stoppage for drought or flood, or for an unfinished process. These and other cases of exceptional working are under minute and careful adminis- trative regulations. Broadly these same regulations as to exceptional overtime may apply in laundries but the act of 1907 granted to laundries not merely ancillary to the manufacture carried on in a factory or workshop (e.g. shirt and collar factories), additional power to fix different periods of employment for different days of the week, and to make use of one or other of two exceptional methods of arranging the daily periods so as to permit of periods of different length on different days; these exceptional periods cannot be worked in addition to overtime permissible under the general law. Laundries carried on in connexion with charitable or reformatory institutions were brought in 1907 within the scope of the law, but special schemes for regulation as to hours, meals, holidays, &c., may be submitted by the managers to the secretary of state, who is em- Eowered to approve them if he is satisfied that they are not less ivourable than the corresponding provisions of the principal act; such schemes shall be laid as soon as possible before both Houses of Parliament. Night work is allowed in certain specified industries, under con- ditions, for male young persons, but for no other workers under rjaagerouf eighteen, and overtime for women may never be later than to P.M. or before 6 A.M. Sunday work is prohibited except, aaflun. under conditions, for Jews; and in factories, workshops /,ea/ wnich repealed the complicated list of trades contained in the principal act and substituted the simpler definition of the Employers and Workmen Act, 1875. Thus the acts 1831 to 1887, and also the act of 1896, apply to all workers (men, women and children) engaged in manual labour, except domestic servants; they apply not only in mines, factories and workshops, but, to quote the published Home Office Memorandum on the acts, " in all places where work- people are engaged in manual labour under a contract with an employer, whether or no the employer be an owner or agent or a parent, or be himself a workman; and therefore a workman who employs' and pays others under him must also observe the Truck Acts." The law thus in certain circumstances covers outworkers for a contractor or sub-contractor. A decision of the High Court at Dublin in 1900 (Squire v. Sweeney) strengthened the inspectors in investigation of offences committed amongst outworkers by supporting the contention that inquiry and exercise of all the powers of an inspector could legally take place in parts of an employer's premises other than those in which the work is given out. It denned for Ireland, in a narrower sense than had hitherto been understood and acted upon by the Factory Department, the classes of outworkers protected, by deciding that only such as were under a contract personally to execute the work were covered. In 1905 the law in England was similarly declared in the decided case of Squire v. The Midland Lace Co. The judges (Lord Alverstone, C.J.; and Kennedy and Ridley, JJ.) stated that they came to the con- clusion with "reluctance," and said: " We venture to express the hope that some amendment of the law may be made so as to extend the protection of the Truck Act to a class of work- people indistinguishable from those already within its provisions. " The workers in question were lace-clippers taking out work to do in their homes, and in the words of the High Court decision " though they do sometimes employ assistants are evidently, as a class, wage-earning manual labourers and not contractors in the ordinary and popular sense." The principle relied on in the decision was that in the case of Ingram v. Barnes. At the time of the passing of the act of 1887 it seems to have been generally believed that the obligation under the principal act to pay the " entire amount of wages earned " in coin rendered ,. . . illegal any deductions from wages in respect of fines. „ **° Important decisions in 1888 and 1889 showed this belief to nave been ill-founded. The essential point lies in the definition of the word " wages " as the " recompense, reward or remuneration of labour," which implies not necessarily any gross sum in question between employer and workmen where there is a contract to perform a certain piece of work, but that part of it, the real net wage, which the workman was to get as his recompense for the labour performed. As soon as it became clear that excessive deductions from wages as well as payments by workers for materials used in the work were not illegal, and that deductions or payments by way of compensation to employers or by way of discipline might legally (with the single exception of fines for lateness for women and children, regulated by the Employers and Workmen Act 1875) even exceed the degree of loss, hindrance or damage to the employer, it also came clearly into view that further legislation was desirable to extend the principles at the root of the Truck Acts. It was desirable, that is to say, to hinder more fully the unfair dealing that may be encouraged by half- defined customs in work-places, on the part of the employer in making a contract, while at the same time leaving the principle of freedom of contract as far as possible untouched. The Truck Act _.. _ . of 1896 regulates the conditions under which deductions Ac* iggQ can be made by or payments made to the employer, out of the " sum contracted to be paid to the worker," i.e. out of any gross sum whatever agreed upon between employer and workman. It makes such deductions or payments illegal unless they are in pursuance of a contract; and it provides that deductions (or pay- ments) for (a) fines, (b) bad work and damaged goods, (c) materials, machines, and any other thing provided by the employer in relation to the work shall be reasonable, and that particulars of the same in writing shall be given to the workman. In none of the cases men- tioned is the employer to make any profit; neither by fines, for they may only be imposed in respect of acts or omissions which cause, or are likely to cause, loss or damage; nor by sale of materials, for the price may not exceed the cost to the employer; nor by deduc- tions or payments for damage, for these may not exceed the actual or estimated loss to the employer. Fines and charges for damage must be " fair and reasonabl' having regard to all the circumstances of the case," and no contract could make legal a fine which a court held to be unfair to the workman in the sense of the act. The contract between the employer and workman must either be in writing signed by the workman, or its terms must be clearly stated in a notice constantly affixed in a place easily accessible to the workman to whom, if a party to the contract, a copy shall be given at the time of making the contract, and who shall be entitled, on request, to obtain from the employer a copy of the notice free of charge. On each occasion when a deduction or payment is made, full particulars in writing must be supplied to the workman. The employer is bound to keep a register of deductions or payments, and to enter therein particulars of any fine made under the contract, specifying the amount and nature of the act or omission in respect of which the fine was imposed. This register must be at all times open to inspectors of mines or factories, who are entitled to make a copy of the contract or any part of it. This act as a whole applies to all workmen in- cluded under the earlier Truck Acts; the sections relating to fines apply also to shop assistants. The latter, however, apparently are left to enforce the provisions of the law themselves, as no inspectorate is empowered to intervene on their behalf. In these and other cases a prosecution under the Truck Acts may be instituted by any person. Any workman or shop assistant may recover any sum deducted by or paid to his employer contrary to the act of 1896, provided that proceedings are commenced within six months, and that where he has acquiesced in the deduction or payment he shall only recover the excess over the amount which the court may find to have been fair and reasonable in all the circumstances of the case. It is ex- pressly declared in the act that nothing in it shall affect the provisions CONTINENTAL EUROPE] LABOUR LEGISLATION 21 of the Coal Mines Acts with reference to payment by weight, or legalize any deductions, from payments made, in pursuance of those provisions. The powers and duties of inspectors are extended to cover the case of a laundry, and of any place where work is given out by the occupier of a factory or workshop or by a contractor or sub- contractor. Power is reserved for the secretary of state to exempt by order specified trades or branches of them in specified areas from the provisions of the act of 1896, if he is satisfied that they are un- necessary for the protection of the workmen. This power has been exercised only in respect of one highly organized industry, the Lancashire cotton industry. The effect of the exemption is not to prevent fines and deductions from being made, but the desire for it demonstrated that there are cases where leaders among workers have felt competent to make their own terms on their own lines without the specific conditions laid down in this act. The reports of the inspectors of factories have demonstrated that in other in- dustries much work has had to be done under this act, and knowledge of a highly technical character to be gradually acquired, before opinions coulfl be formed as to the reasonableness and fairness, or the contiary, of many forms of deduction. Owing partly to diffi- culties of legal interpretation involving the necessity of taking test cases into court, partly to the margin for differences of opinion as to what constitutes " reasonableness " in a deduction, the average number of convictions obtained on prosecutions is not so high as under the Factory Acts, though the average penalty imposed is higher. In 1904, 61 cases were taken into court resulting in 34 convictions with an average penalty of £l, IDs. In 1905, 38 cases resulting in 34 convictions were taken with an average penalty of £i, 35. In 1906, 37 cases resulting in 25 convictions were taken with an average penalty of £l, los. Reference should here be made to the Shop Clubs Act of 1902 as closely allied with some of the provisions of the Truck Acts by its provision that employers shall not make it a condition of employment that any workman shall become a member of a shop club unless it is registered under the Friendly Societies Act of 1896. As in the case of payment of wages in Public Houses Act, no special inspectorate has the duty of enforcing this act. III. CONTINENTAL EUROPE In comparing legislation affecting factories, mines, shops and truck in the chief industrial countries of the continent with that of Great Britain, it is essential to a just view that inquiry should be extended beyond the codes themselves to the general social order and system of law and administration in each country. Further, special comparison of the definitions and the sanctions of each industrial code must be recognized as necessary, for these vary in all. In so brief a summary as is appended here no more is possible than an outline indication of the main general requirements and prohibitions of the laws as regards: (i) hours and times of employment, (2) ordinary sanitation and special requirements for unhealthy and dangerous industries, (3) security against accidents, and (4) prevention of fraud and oppression in fulfilment of wage contracts. As regards the first of these sub- divisions, in general in Europe the ordinary legal limit is rather wider than in Great Britain, being in several countries not less than 1 1 hours a day, and while in some, as in France, the normal limit is 10 hours daily, yet the administrative discretion in- granting exceptions is rather more elastic. The weekly half- holiday is a peculiarly British institution. On the other hand, in several European countries, notably France, Austria, Switzer- land and Russia, the legal maximum day applies to adult as well as youthful labour, and not only to specially protected classes of persons. As regards specialized sanitation for un- healthy factory industries, German regulations appear to be most nearly comparable with British. Mines' labour regulation in several countries, having an entirely different origin linked with ownership of mines, is only in few and most recent develop- ments comparable with British Mines Regulation Acts. In regulation of shops, Germany, treating this matter as an integral part of her imperial industrial code, has advanced farther than has Great Britain. In truck legislation most European countries (with the exception of France) appear to have been influenced by the far earlier laws of Great Britain, although in some respects Belgium, with her rapid and recent industrial development, has made interesting original experiments. The rule of Sunday rest (see SUNDAY) has been extended in several countries, most recently in Belgium and Spain. In France this partially attempted rule has been so modified as to be practically a seventh day rest, not necessarily Sunday. France. — Hours of labour were, in France, first limited in factories (usines et manufactures) for adults by the law of the gth of September 1848 to 12 in the 24. Much uncertainty existed as to the class of workplaces covered. Finally, in 1885, an authoritative decision defined them as including: (i) Industrial establishments with motor power or continual furnaces, (2) workshops employing over 20 workers. In 1851, under condition of notification to the local authorities, exceptions, still in force, were made to the general limita- tion, in favour of certain industries or processes, among others for letterpress and lithographic printing, engineering works, work at furnaces and in heating workshops, manufacture of projectiles of war, and any work for the government in the interests of national defence or security. The limit of 12 hours was reduced, as regards works in which women or young workersare employed, in 1900 to n.and was to be successively reduced to ioj hours and to 10 hours at intervals of two years from April 1900. This labour law for adults was pre- ceded in 1841 by one for children, which prevented their employment in factories before 8 years of age and prohibited night labour for any child under 13. This was strengthened in 1874, particularly as regards employment of girls under 21, but it was not until 1892 that the labour of women was specially regulated by a law, still in force, with certain amendments in 1900. Under this law factory and work- shop labour is prohibited for children under 13 years, though they may begin at 12 if qualified by the prescribed educational certificate and medical certificate of fitness. The limit of daily hours of em- ployment is the same as for adult labour, and, similarly, from the 1st of April 1902 was loj, and two years later became 10 hours in the 24. Notice of the hours must be affixed, and meal-times or pauses with absolute cessation of work of at least one hour must be specified. By the act of 1892 one day in the week, not necessarily Sunday, had to be given for entire absence from work, in addition to eight recog- nized annual holidays, but this was modified by a law of 1906 which generally requires Sunday rest, but allows substitution of another day in certain industries and certain circumstances. Night labour — work between 9 P.M. and 5 A.M; — is prohibited for workers under 1 8, and only exceptionally permitted, under conditions, for girls and women over 18 in specified trades. In mines and underground quarries employment of women and girls is prohibited except at surface works, and at the latter is subject to the same limits as in factories. Boys of 13 may be employed in certain work underground, but under 16 may not be employed more than 8 hours in the 24 from bank to bank. A law of 1905 provided for miners a 9 hours' day and in 1907 an 8 hours' day from the foot of the entrance gallery back to the same point. As in Great Britain, distinct services of inspection enforce the law in factories and mines respectively. In factories and workshops an inspector may order re-examination as to physical fitness for the work imposed of any worker under 16; certain occupations and processes are prohibited — e.g. girls under 16 at machines worked by treadles, and the weights that may be lifted, pushed or carried by girls or boys under 18 are carefully specified. The law applies generally to philanthropic and religious institutions where industrial work is carried on, as in ordinary trading establishments; and this holds good even if the work is by -way of technical instruction. Domestic workshops are not controlled unless the industry is classed as dangerous or unhealthy; introduction of motor power brings them under inspection. General sanitation in industrial establishments is provided for in a law of 1893, amended in 1903, and is supplemented by administrative regulations for special risks due to poisons, dust, explosive substances, gases, fumes, &c. Ventilation, both general and special, lighting, provision of lavatories, cloakrooms, good drinking water, drainage and cleanliness are required in all work- places, shops, warehouses, restaurant kitchens, and where workers are lodged by their employers hygienic conditions are prescribed for dormitories. In many industries women, children and young workers are either absolutely excluded from specified unhealthy pro- cesses, or are admitted only under conditions. As regards shops and offices, the labour laws are: one which protects apprentices against overwork (law of 22nd February 1851), one (law of 2gth December 1900) which requires that seats shall be provided for women and girls employed in retail sale of articles, and a decree of the 28th of July 1904 defining in detail conditions of hygiene in dormitories for work- men and shop assistants. The law relating to seats is enforced by the inspectors of factories. In France there is no special penal legisla- tion against abuses of the truck system, or excessive fines and deductions from wages, although bills with that end in view have frequently been before parliament. Indirect protection to workers is no doubt in many cases afforded in organized industries by the action of the Conseils de Prud'hommes. Belgium. — In 1848 in Belgium the Commission on Labour pro- posed legislation to limit, as in France, the hours of labour for adults, but this proposal was never passed. Belgian regulation of labour in industry remains essentially, in harmony with its earliest begin- nings in 1863 and onwards, a series of specialized provisions to meet particular risks of individual trades, and did not, until 1889, give any adherence to a common principle of limitation of hours and times of labour for " protected " persons. This was in the law of the I3th of December 1889, which applies to mines, quarries, factories, work- shops classed as unhealthy, wharves and docks, transports. As in France, industrial establishments having a charitable or philanthropic 22 LABOUR LEGISLATION [CONTINENTAL EUROPE or educational character are included. The persons protected are girls and women under 21 years, and boys under 16; and women over 21 only find a place in the law through the prohibition of their employment within four weeks after childbirth. As the hours of labour of adult women remain ordinarily unlimited by law, so are the hours of boys from 16 to 21. The law of Sunday rest dated the I7th of July 1905, however, applies to labour generally in all in- dustrial and commercial undertakings except transport and fisheries, with certain regulated exceptions for (a) cases of breakdown or urgency due to force majeure, (b) certain repairs and cleaning, (c) perishable materials, (d) retail food supply. Young workers are excluded from the exceptions. The absolute prohibitions of em- ployment are: for children under 12 years in any industry, manu- facturing or mining or transport, and for women and girls under 21 years below the surface in working of mines. Boys under 16 years and women and girls under 21 years may in general not be em- ployed before 5 A.M. or after 9 P.M., and one day in the seven is to be set apart for rest from employment; to these rules exception may be made either by royal decree for classes or groups of processes, or by local authorities in exceptional cases. The exceptions may be applied, generally, only to workers over 14 years, but in mines, by royal decree, boys over 12 years may be employed from 4 A.M. The law of 1889 fixes only a maximum of 12 hours of effective work, to be interrupted by pauses for rest of not less than I \ hours, empowering the king by decree to formulate more precise limits suited to the special circumstances of individual industries. Royal decrees have accordingly laid down the conditions for many groups, including textile trades, manufacture of paper, pottery, glass, clothing, mines, quarries, engineering and printing works. In some the daily limit is 10 hours, but in more ioj or II hours. In a few exceptionally un- healthy trades, such as the manufacture of lucifer matches, vulcaniza- tion of india-rubber by means of carbcn bi-sulphide, the age of ex- clusion from employment has been raised, and in the last-named process hours have been reduced to 5, broken into two spells of 2§ hours each. As a rule the conditions of health and safeguarding of employments in exceptionally injurious trades have been sought by a series of decrees under the law of 1863 relating to public health in such industries. Special regulations for safety of workers have been introduced in manufactures of white-lead, oxides of lead, chromate of lead, lucifer match works, rag and shoddy works; and for dangers common to many industries, provisions against dust, poisons, accidents and other risks to health or limb have been codified in a decree of 1896. A royal decree of the 3ist of March 1903 prohibits employment of persons under 16 years in fur-pulling and in carolling of rabbit skins, and another of the 1 3th of May 1905 regulates use of lead in house-nainting. In 1898 a law was passed lo enable the aulhorities to deal with risks in quarries under the same procedure. Safety in mines (which are not private property, but state conces- sions to be worked under strict state control) has been provided for since 1810. In matters of hygiene, until 1899 the powers of the public health authorities to intervene were insufficient, and a law was passed authorizing the government to make regulations for every kind of risk in any undertaking, whether classed under the law of public health or not. By a special law of 1888 children and young persons under 1 8 years are excluded from employment as pedlars, hawkers or in circuses, except by their parents, and then only if they have attained 14 years. Abuses of the truck system have, since 1887, been regulated with care. The chief objects of the law of 1887 were to secure payment in fulj to all workers, other than those in agri- culture or domestic service, of wages in legal tender, to prohibit payment of wages in public-houses, and to secure prompt payment of wages. Certain deductions were permitted under careful control for specific customary objects: lodging, use of land, uniforms, food, firing. A royal order of the loth of October 1903 required use of automatic indicators for estimating wages in certain cases in textile processes. The law of the isth of June 1896 regulates the affixing in workplaces, where at least five workers are employed, of a notice of the working rules, the nature and rate of fines, if any, and the mode of their application. Two central services the mines inspectorate and the factory and workshop inspectorate, divide the duties above indicated. There is also a system of local administration of the regulations relating to industries classed as unhealthy, but the tendency has been to give the supreme control in these matters to the factory service, with its expert staff. Holland. — The first law for regulation of labour in manufacture was passed in 1874, and this related only to employment of children. The basis of all existing regulations was established in the law of the 5th of May 1889, which applies to all industrial undertakings, ex- cluding agriculture and forestry, fishing, stock-rearing. Employ- ment of children under 12 years is prohibited, and hours are limited for young persons under 16 and for women of any age. These pro- tected persons may be excluded by royal decree from unhealthy industries, and such industries are specified in a decree of 1897 which supersedes other earlier regulations. Hours of employment must not exceed 1 1 in the 24, and at least one hour for rest must be given between 1 1 A.M. and 3 P.M., which hour must not be spent in a workroom. Work before 5 A.M. or after 7 P.M., Sunday work, and work on recognized holidays is generally prohibited, but there are exceptions. Overtime from 7 to 10 P.M., under conditions, is allowed for women and young workers, and Sunday work for women, for example, in butter and cheese making, and night work for boys over 14 in certain industries. Employment of women within four weeks of childbirth is prohibited. Notices of working hours must be affixed in workplaces. Underground work in mines is prohibited for women and young persons under 16, but in Holland mining is a very small industry. In 1895 the first legislative provision was made for protection of workers against risk of accident or special injury to health. Sufficient cubic space, lighting, ventilation, sanitary ac- commodation, reasonable temperature, removal of noxious gases or dust, fencing of machinery, precautions against risk from fire and other matters are provided for. The manufacture of lucifer matches by means of white phosphorus was forbidden and the export, importa- tion and sale was regulated by a law of the 28th of May 1901. By a regulation of the i6th of March 1904 provisions for safety and health of women and young workers were strengthened in processes where lead compounds or other poisons are used, and their employ- ment at certain dangerous machines and in cleaning machinery or near driving belts was prohibited. No penal provision against truck exists in Holland, but possibly abuses of the system are pre- vented by the existence of industrial councils representing both employers and workers, with powers to mediate or arbitrate in case of disputes. Switzerland. — In Switzerland separate cantonal legislation pre- pared the way for the general Federal labour law of 1877 on which subsequent legislation rests. Such legislation is also cantonal as well as Federal, but in the latter there is only amplification or interpretation of the principles contained in the law ot 1877, whereas cantonal legislation covers industries not included under the Federal jaw, e.g. single workers employed in a trade (metier) and employment in shops, offices and hotels. The Federal law is applied to factories, workshops employing young persons under 18 or more than 10 workers, and workshops in which unhealthy or dangerous processes are carried on. Mines are not included, but are regulated in some respects as regards health and safety by cantonal laws. Further, the Law of Employers' Liability 1881-1887, which requires in all industries precautions against accidents and reports of all serious accidents to the cantonal governments, applies to mines. This led, in 1896, to the creation of a special mining department, and mines, of which there are few, have to be inspected once a year by a mining engineer. The majority of the provisions of the Federal labour law apply to adult workers of both sexes, and the general limit of the 1 1 -hours' day, exclusive of at least one hour for meals, applies to men as well as women. The latter have, however, a legal claim, when they have a household to manage, to leave work at the dinner-hour half an hour earlier than the men. Men and unmarried women may be employed in such subsidiary work as cleaning before or after the general legal limits. On Saturdays and eves of the eight public holidays the I i-hours' day is reduced to 10. Sunday work and night work are forbidden, but exceptions are permitted conditionally. Night workis defined as 8 P.M. to 5 A.M. in summer, 8 P.M. to 6 A.M. in winter. Children are excluded from employment in workplaces under the law until 14 years of age, and until 16 must attend con- tinuation schools. Zurich canton has fixed the working day for women at 10 hours generally, and 9 hours on Saturdays and eves of holidays. B&le-Ville canton has the same limits and provides that the very limited Sunday employment permitted shall be compen- sated by double time off on another day. In the German-speaking cantons girls under 18 are not permitted to work overtime; in all cantons except Glarus the conditional overtime of 2 hours must be paid for at an enhanced wage. Sanitary regulations and fencing of machinery are provided for with considerable minuteness in a Federal decree of 1897. The plans of every new factory must be submitted to the cantonal govern- ment. In the case of lucifer match factories, not only the building but methods of manufacture must be submitted. Since 1901 the manufacture, sale and import of matches containing white phosphorus have been forbidden. Women must be absent from employment during eight weeks before and after childbirth. In certain dangerous occupations, e.g. where lead or lead compounds are in use, women may not legally be employed during pregnancy. A resolution of the federal council in 1901 classed thirty -four different substances in use in industry as dangerous and laid down that in case of clearly defined illness of workers directly caused by use of any of these substances the liability provided by article 3 of the law of the 25th of June 1881, and article I of the law of the 26th of April 1887, should apply to the manufacture. Legislative provision against abuses of the truck system appears to be of earlier origin in Switzerland (l7th century) than any other European country outside England (isth century). The Federal Labour Law 1877 generally prohibits payment of wages otherwise than in current coin, and provides that no deduc- tion shall be made without an express contract. Some of the cantonal laws go much farther than the British act of 1896 in for- bidding certain deductions; e.g. Zurich prohibits any charge for cleaning, warming or lighting workrooms or for hire of machinery. By the Federal law fines may not exceed half a day's wage. Ad- ministration of the Labour laws is divided between inspectors appointed by the Federal Government and local authorities, under supervision of the cantonal governments. The Federal Govern- ment forms a court of appeal against decisions of the cantonal governments. CONTINENTAL EUROPE] LABOUR LEGISLATION Germany. — Regulation of the conditions of labour in industry throughout the German empire is provided for in the Imperial Industrial Code and the orders of the Federal Council based thereon. By far the most important recent amendment socially is the law regulating child-labour, dated the joth of March 1903, which relates to establishments having industrial character in the sense of the Industrial Code. This Code is based on earlier industrial codes of the separate states, but more especially on the Code of 1869 of the North German Confederation. It applies in whole or in part to all trades and industrial occupations, except transport, fisheries and agriculture. Mines are only included so far as truck, Sunday and holiday rest, prohibition of employment underground of female labour, limitation of the hours of women and young workers are concerned ; otherwise the regulations for protection of life and limb of miners vary, as do the mining laws pi the different states. To estimate the force of the Industrial Code in working, it is necessary to bear in mind the complicated political history of the empire, the separate administration by the federated states, and the generally considerable powers vested in administration of initiating regula- tions. The Industrial Code expressly retains power for the states to initiate certain additions or exceptions to the Code which in any given state may form part of the law regulating factories there. The Code (unlike the Austrian Industrial Code) lays down no general limit for a normal working day for adult male workers, but since 1891 full powers were given to the Imperial government to limit hours for any classes of workers in industries where excessive length of the working day endangers the health of the worker (R.G.O. § I2oe). Previously application had been made of powers to reduce the working day in such unhealthy industries as silvering of mirrors by mercury and the manufacture of white-lead. Separate states had, under mining laws, also limited hours of miners. Sunday rest was, in 1891, secured for every class of workers, commercial, industrial and mining. Annual holidays were also secured on church festivals. These provisions, however, are subject to exceptions under con- ditions. An important distinction has to be shown when we turn to the regulations for hours and times of labour for protected persons (women, young persons and children). Setting aside for the moment hours of shop assistants (which are under special sections since 1900), it is to " factory workers " and not to industrial workers in general that these limits apply, although they may be, and in some instances have been, further extended — for instance, in ready-made clothing trades— by imperial decree to workshops, and by the Child Labour Law of 1903 regulation of the scope and duration of employment of children is much strengthened in workshops, commerce, transport and domestic industries. The term " factory " (Fabrik) is not de- fined in the Code, but it is clear from various decisions of the supreme court that it only in part coincides with the English term, and that some workplaces, where processes are carried on by aid of mechanical power, rank rather as English workshops. The distinction is rather between wholesale manufacturing industry, with subdivision of labour, and small industry, where the employer works himself. Certain classes of undertaking, viz. forges, timber-yards, dock- yards, brickfields and open quarries, are specifically ranked as factories. Employment of protected persons at the surface of mines and underground quarries, and in salt works and ore-dressing works, and of boys underground comes under the factory regulations. These exclude children from employment under 13 years, and even later if an educational certificate has not been obtained; until 14 years hours of employment may not exceed 6 in the 24. In processes and occupations under the scope of the Child Labour Law children may not be employed by their parents or guardians before 10 years of age or by other employers before 12 years of age; nor between the hours of 8 P.M. and 8 A.M., nor otherwise than in full compliance with requirements of educational authorities for school attendance and with due regard to prescrioed pauses. In school term time the daily limit of employment for children is three hours, in holiday time three hours. As regards factories Germany, unlike Great Britain, France and Switzerland, requires a shorter day for young persons than for women — 10 hours for the former, II hours for the latter. Women over 16 years may be employed II hours. Night work is forbidden, i.e. work between 8.30 P.M. and 5.30 A.M. Overtime may be granted to meet unforeseen pressure or for work on perishabla articles, under conditions, by local authorities and the higher ad- ministrative authorities. Prescribed meal-times are — an unbroken half-hour for children in their 6 hours; for young persons a mid-day pause of one hour, and half an hour respectively in the morning and afternoon spells; for women, an hour at mid-day, but women with the care of a household have the claim, on demand, to an extra half- hour, as in Switzerland. No woman may be employed within four weeks after childbirth, and unless a medical certificate can then be produced, the absence must extend to six weeks. Notice of working periods and meal-times must be affixed, and copies sent to the local authorities. Employment of protected persons in factory industries where there are special risks to health or morality may be forbidden or made dependent on special conditions. By the Child Labour Law employment of children is forbidden in brickworks, stone breaking, chimney sweeping, street cleaning and other processes and occupa- tions. By an order of the Federal Council in 1902 female workers were excluded from main processes in forges and rolling mills. All industrial employers alike are bound to organize labour in such a manner as to secure workers against injury to health and to ensure good conduct and propriety. Sufficient light, suitable cloakrooms and sanitary accommodation, and ventilation to carry off dust, vapours and other impurities are especially required. Dining- rooms may be ordered by local authorities. Fencing and provision for safety in case of fire are required in detail. The work of the trade accident insurance associations in preventing accidents is especially recognized in provisions for special rules in dangerous or unhealthy industries. Officials of the state factory departments are bound to give opportunity to trustees of the trade associations to express an opinion on special rules. In a large number of industries the Federal Council has laid down special rules comparable with those for unhealthy occupations in Great Britain. Among the regulations most recently revised and strengthened are those for manufacture of lead colours and lead compounds, and for horse-hair and brush- making factories. The relations between the state inspectors of factories and the ordinary police authorities are regulated in each state by its constitution. Prohibitions of truck in its original sense — that is, payment of wages otherwise than in current coin— apply to any persons under a contract of service with an employer for a specified time for industrial purposes; members of a family working for a parent or husband are not included ; outworkers are covered. Control of fines and deductions from wages applies only in factory industries and shops employing at least 20 workers. Shop hours are regulated by requiring shops to be closed generally between 9 P.M. and 5 A.M., by requiring a fixed mid-day rest of I j hours and at least 10 hours' rest in the 24 for assistants. These limits can be modified by administrative authority. Notice of hours and working rules must be affixed. During the hours of compulsory closing sale of goods on the streets or from house to house is forbidden. Under the Commercial Code, as under the Civil Code, every employer is bound to adopt every possible measure for maintaining the safety, health and good conduct of his employes. By an order of the Imperial Chancellor under the Commercial Code seats must be pro- vided for commercial assistants and apprentices. Austria. — The Industrial Code of Austria, which in its present outline (modified by later enactments) dates from 1883, must be carefully distinguished from the Industrial Code of the kingdom of Hungary. The latter is, owing to the predominantly agricultural character of the population, of later origin, and hardly had practical force before the law of 1893 provided for inspection and preven- tion of accidents in factories. No separate mining code exists in Hungary, and conditions of labour are regulated by the Austrian law of 1854. The truck system is represseoTon lines similar to those in Austria and Germany. As regards limitation of hours of adult labour, Hungary may be contrasted with both those empires in that no restriction of hours applies either to men's or' women's hours, whereas in Austrian factories both are limited to an ll-hours' day with exceptional overtime for which payment must always be made to the worker. The Austrian Code has its origin, however, like the British Factory Acts, in protection of child labour. Its present scope is determined by the Imperial " Patent " of 1859, and all industrial labour is included except mining, transport, fisheries, forestry, agriculture and domestic industries. Factories are defined as including industries in which a " manufacturing process is carried on in an enclosed place by the aid of not less than twenty workers working with machines, with subdivision of labour, and under an employer who does not himself manually assist in the work." In smalbr handicraft industries the compulsory gild system of organization still applies. In every industrial establishment, large or small, the sanitary and safety provisions, general requirement of Sunday rest, and annual holidays (with conditional exceptions), prohibition of truck and limitation of the ages of child labour apply. Night work for women, 8 P.M. to 5 A.M., is prohibited only in factory industries; for young workers it is prohibited in any industry. Pauses in work are required in all industries; one hour at least must be given at mid-day, and if the morning and afternoon spells exceed 5 hours each, another half-hour's rest at least must be given. Children may not be employed in industrial work before 12 years, and then only 8 hours a day at work that is not injurious and if educational requirements are observed. The age of employment is raised to 14 for " factories," and the work must be such as will not hinder physical development. Women may not be employed in regular industrial occupation within one month after childbirth. In certain scheduled unhealthy industries, where certificates of authorization from local authorities must be obtained by intending occupiers, conditions of health and safety for workers can be laid down in the certificate. The Minister of the Interior is empowered to draw up regulations prohibiting or making conditions for the employment of young workers or women in dangerous or unhealthy industries. The pro- visions against truck cover not only all industrial workers engaged in manual labour under a contract with an employer, but also shop- assistants; the special regulations against fines and deductions apply to factory workers and shops where at least 20 workers are employed. In mines under the law of 1884, which supplements the general mining law, employment of women and girls underground is pro- hibited; boys from 12 to 16 and girls from 12 to 18 may only be employed at light work above ground; 14 is the earliest age of admission for boys underground. The shifts from bank to bank must not exceed 12 hours, of which not more than 10 may be effective LABOUR LEGISLATION [UNITED STATES work. Sunday rest must begin not later than 6 A.M., and must be of 24 hours' duration. These last two provisions do not hold in case of pressing danger for safety, health or property. Sick and accident funds and mining associations are legislated for in minutest detail. The general law provides for safety in working, but speci?! rules drawn up by the district authorities fay down in detail the conditions of health and safety. As regards manufacturing industry, the Industrial Code lays no obligation on employers to report accidents, and until the Accident Insurance Law of 1889 came into force no statistics were available. In Austria, unlike Germany, the factory inspectorate is organized throughout under a central chief inspector. Scandinavian Countries. — In Sweden the Factory Law was amended in January 1901; in Denmark in July 1901. Until that year, however, Norway was in some respects in advance of the other two countries by its law of 1892, which applied to industrial works, including metal works of all kinds and mining. Women were thereby prohibited from employment: (a) underground; (b) in cleaning or oiling machinery in motion; (c) during six weeks after childbirth, unless provided with a medical certificate stating that they might return at the end of four weeks without injury to health; (d) in dangerous, unhealthy or exhausting trades during pregnancy. Further, work on Sundays and public holidays is prohibited to all workers, adult and youthful, with conditional exceptions under the authority of the inspectors. Children over 12 are admitted to industrial work on obtaining certificates of birth, of physical fitness and of elementary education. The hours of children are limited to 6, with pauses, and of young persons (of 14 to 18 years) to 10, with pauses. Night work between 8 P.M. and 6 A.M. is prohibited. All workers are entitled to a copy of a code of factory rules containing the terms of the contract of work drawn up by representatives of employes with the employers and sanctioned by the inspector. Health and safety in working are provided for in detail in the same law of 1892. Special rules may be made for dangerous trades, and in 1899 such rules were established for match factories, similar to some of the British rules, but notably providing for a dental examination four times yearly by a doctor. In Denmark, regulation began with un- healthy industries, and it was not until the law of 1901 came into force, on the 1st of January 1902, that children under 12 years have been excluded from factory labour. Control of child labour can be strengthened by municipal regulation, and this has been done in Copenhagen by an order of the 23rd of May 1903. In Sweden the 12 years' limit had for some time held in the larger factories; the scope has been extended so that it corresponds with the Norwegian law. The hours of children are, in Denmark, 6} for those under 14 years; in Sweden 6 for those under 13 years. Young persons may not in either country work more than 10 hours daily, and night work, which is forbidden for persons under 18 years, is now defined as in Norway. Women may not be employed in industry within four weeks of childbirth, except on authority of a medical certificate. All factories in Sweden where young workers are employed are subject to medical inspection once a year. Fencing of machinery and hygienic conditions (ventilation, cubic space, temperature, light) are regulated in detail. In Denmark the use of white phosphorus in manufacture of lucifer matches has been prohibited since 1874, and special regula- tions have been drawn up by administrative orders which strengthen control of various unhealthy or dangerous industries, e.g. dry -cleaning works, printing works and type foundries, iron foundries and engineer- ing works. A special act of the 6th of April 1906 regulates labour and sanitary conditions in bakehouses and confectionery works. Italy and Spain. — The wide difference between the industrial development of these southern Latin countries and the two countries with which this summary begins, and the far greater importance of the agricultural interests, produced a situation, as regards labour legislation until as recently as 1903, which makes it convenient to touch on the comparatively limited scope of their regulations at the close of the series. It was stated by competent and impartial ob- servers from each of the two countries, at the International Congress on Labour Laws held at Brussels in 1897, that the lack of adequate measures for protection of child labour and inefficient administration of such regulations as exist was then responsible for abuse of their forces that could be found in no other European countries. " Their labour in factories, workshops, and mines constitutes a veritable martyrdom " (Spain). " I believe that there is no country where a sacrifice of child life is made that is comparable with that in certain Italian factories and industries " (Italy). In both countries im- portant progress has since been made in organizing inspection and preventing accidents. In Spain the first step in the direction of limitation of women's hours of labour was taken by a law of 1900, which took effect in 1902, in regulations for reduction of hours of labour for adults to II, normally, in the 24. Hours of children under 14 must not exceed 6 in any industrial work nor 8 in any commercial undertaking. Labour before the age of 10 years and night work between 6P.M. and 5 A.M. was prohibited, and powers were taken to extend the prohibition of night work to young persons under 16 years. The labour of children in Italy was until 1902 regulated in the main by a law of 1886, but a royal decree of 1899 strengthened it by classing night work for children under 12 years as " injurious," such work being thereby generally prohibited for them, though exceptions are admitted ; at the same time it was laid down that children from 12 to 15 years might not be employed for more than 6 hours at night. The law of 1886 prohibits employment of children under 9 years in industry and under 10 years in underground mining. Night work for women was in Italy first prohibited by the law of the igtn of June 1902, and at the same time also for boys under 15, but this regulation was not to take full effect for 5 years as regards persons already so employed; by the same law persons under 15 and women of any age were accorded the claim to one day's complete rest of 24 hours in the week; the age of employment of children in factories, workshops, laboratories, quarries, mines, was raised to 12 years generally and 14 years for underground work; the labour of female workers of any age was prohibited in underground work, and power was reserved to further restrict and regulate their employment as well as that of male workers under 15. Spain and Italy, the former by the law of the I3th of March 1900, the latter by the law of the igth of June 1902, prohibit the employment of women within a fixed period of child- birth; in Spain the limit is three weeks, in Italy one month, which may be reduced to three weeks on a medical certificate of fitness. Sunday rest is secured in industrial works, with regulated excep- tions in Spain by the law of the 3rd of March 1904. It is in the direction of fencing and other safeguards against accidents and as regards sanitary provisions, both in industrial workplaces and in mines, that Italy has made most advance since her law of 1890 for prevention of accidents. Special measures for prevention of malaria are required in cultivation of rice by a ministerial circular of the 23rd of April 1903; work may not begin until an hour after sunrise and must cease an hour before sunset; children under 13 may not be employed in this industry. (A. M. AN.) IV. UNITED STATES Under the general head of Labour Legislation all American statute laws regulating labour, its conditions, and the relation of employer and employe must be classed. It includes a]stg what is properly known as factory legislation. Labour legislation belongs to the latter half of the ipth century, so far as the United States is concerned. Like England in the far past, the Americans in colonial days undertook to regulate wages and prices, and later the employment of apprentices. Legislation relating to wages and prices was long ago abandoned, but the laws affecting the employment of apprentices still exist in some form, although conditions of employment have changed so materially that apprenticeships are not entered as of old; but the laws regulating the employment of apprentices were the basis on which English legislation found a foothold when parliament wished to regulate the labour of factory operatives. The code of labour laws of the present time is almost entirely the result of the industrial revolution during the latter part of the i8th century, under which the domestic or hand-labour system was displaced through the introduction of power machinery. As this revolution took place in the United States at a somewhat later date than in England, the labour legislation necessitated by it belongs to a later date. The factory, so far as textiles are concerned, was firmly established in America during the period from 1820 to 1840, and it was natural that the English legislation found friends and advocates in the United States, although the more objectionable conditions accompanying the English factory were not to be found there. The first attempt to secure legislation regulating factory employment related to the hours of labour, which were very long — from twelve to thirteen hours a day. As machinery Eariy was introduced it was felt that the tension resulting attempts from speeded machines and the close attention re- *° reguiate quired in the factory ought to be accompanied by a ' shorter work-day. This view took firm hold of the operatives, and was the chief cause of the agitation which has resulted in a great body of laws applying in very many directions. As early as 1806 the caulkers and shipbuilders of New York City agitated for a reduction of hours to ten per day, but no legislation followed. There were several other attempts to secure some regulation relative to hours, but there was no general agitation prior to 1831. As Massachusetts was the state which first recognized the necessity of regulating employment (following in a measure, and so far as conditions demanded, the English labour or factory legislation), the history of such legislation in that state is indicative of that in the United States, and as it would be impossible in this article to give a detailed history of the origin of laws in the different states, the dates of their enactment, and their provisions, it is best to follow primarily the course of the Eastern states, and especially that of Massachusetts, where the first.eeneral agitation UNITED STATES] LABOUR LEGISLATION took place and the first laws were enacted. That state in 1836 regulated by law the question of the education of young persons employed in manufacturing establishments. The regulation of hours of labour was warmly discussed in 1832, and several legislative committees and commissions reported upon it, but no specific action on the general question of hours of labour secured the indorsement of the Massachusetts legislature until 1874, although the day's labour of children under twelve years of age was limited to ten hours in 1842. Ten hours constituted a day's labour, on a voluntary basis, in many trades in Massachusetts and other parts of the country as early as 1853, while in the shipbuilding trades this was the work-day in 1844. In April 1840 President Van Buren issued an order " that all public establishments will hereafter be regulated, as to working hours, by the ten-Tiours system." The real- aggressive movement began in 1845, through numerous petitions to the Massachusetts legislature urging a reduction of the day's labour to eleven hours, but nothing came of these petitions at that time. Again, in 1850, a similar effort was made, and also in 1851 and 1852, but the bills failed. Then there was a period of quiet until 1865, when an unpaid commission made a report relative to the hours of labour, and recommended the establishment of a bureau of statistics for the purpose of collecting data bearing upon the labour question. This was the first step in this direction in any country. The first bureau of the kind was established in Massachusetts in 1869, but meanwhile, in accordance with reports of commissions and the address of Governor Bullock in 1866, and the general sentiment which then prevailed, the legislature passed an act regulating in a measure the conditions of the employment of children in manufacturing establishments; and this is one of the first laws of the kind in the United States, although the first legislation in the United States relating to the hours of labour which the writer has been able to find, and for which he can fix a date, was enacted by the state of Pennsylvania in 1849, the law providing that ten hours should be a day's work in cotton, woollen, paper, bagging, silk and flax factories. The Massachusetts law of 1866 provided, firstly, that no child under ten should be employed in any manufacturing establish- ment, and that no child between ten and fourteen Employ- should be so employed unless he had attended some public or private school at least six months during the year preceding such employment, and, further, that such employment should not continue unless the child attended school at least six months in each and every year; secondly, a penalty not exceeding $50 for every owner or agent or other person knowingly employing a child in violation of the act; thirdly, that no child under the age of fourteen should be employed in any manufacturing establishment more than eight hours in any one day; fourthly, that any parent or guardian allowing or consent- ing to employment in violation of the act should forfeit a sum not to exceed $50 for each offence; fifthly, that the Governor instruct the state constable and his deputies to enforce the provisions of all laws for regulating the employment of children in manufacturing establishments. The same legislature also created a commission of three persons, whose duty it was to investigate the subject of hours of labour in relation to the social, educational and sanitary condition of the working classes. In 1867 a fundamental law relating to schooling and hours of labour of children employed in manufacturing and mechanical establishments was passed by the Massachusetts legislature. It differed from the act of the year previous in some respects, going deeper into the general question. It provided that no child under ten should be employed in any manufacturing or mechanical establishment of the commonwealth, and that no child between ten and fifteen should be so employed unless he had attended school, public or private, at least three months during the year next preceding his employment. There were provisions relating to residence, &c., and a further provision that no time less than 120 half-days of actual schooling should be deemed an equivalent of three months, and that no child under fifteen should be employed in any manufacturing or mechanical establishment more than sixty hours any one week. The law meat of children. also provided penalties for violation. It repealed the act of 1866. In 1869 began the establishment of that chain of offices in the United States, the principle of which has been adopted by other countries, known as bureaus of statistics of labour, their especial purpose being the collection and dissemination of information relating to all features of industrial employment. As a result of the success of the first bureau, bureaus are in existence in thirty-three states, in addition to the United States Bureau of Labour. A special piece of legislation which belongs to the common- wealth of Massachusetts, so far as experience shows, was that in 1872, providing for cheap morning and evening trains for the accommodation of working men living in the vicinity of Boston. Great Britain had long had such trains, which were called parliamentary trains. Under the Massachusetts law some of the railways running out of Boston furnished the accommodation required, and the system has since been in operation. In different parts of the country the agitation to secure legisla- tion regulating the hours of labour became aggressive again in 1870 and the years immediately following, there being a constant repetition of attempts to secure the ^a^ory enactment of a ten-hours law, but in Massachusetts tina*i87r. all the petitions failed till 1874, when the legislature of that commonwealth established the hours of labour at sixty per week not only for children under eighteen, but for women, the law providing that no minor under eighteen and no woman over that age should be employed by any person, firm or corporation in any manufacturing establishment more than ten hours in any one day. In 1876 Massachusetts reconstructed its laws relating to the employment of children, although it did not abrogate the principles involved in earlier legislation, while in 1877 the commonwealth passed Factory Acts covering the general pro- visions of the British laws. It provided for the general inspec- tion of factories and public buildings, the provisions of the law relating to dangerous machinery, such as belting, shafting, gear- ing, drums, &c., which the legislature insisted must be securely guarded, and that no machinery other than steam engines should be cleaned while running. The question of ventilation and cleanliness was also attended to. Dangers connected with hoistways, elevators and well-holes were minimized by their protection by sufficient trap-doors, while fire-escapes were made obligatory on all establishments of three or more storeys in height. All main doors, both inside and outside, of manufactur- ing establishments, as well as those of churches, school-rooms, town halls, theatres and every building used for public assemblies, should open outwardly whenever the factory inspectors of the commonwealth deemed it necessary. These provisions remain in the laws of Massachusetts, and other states have found it wise to follow them. The labour legislation in force in 1910 in the various states of the Union might be classified in two general branches: (A) protective labour legislation, or laws for the aid of workers who, on account of their economic dependence, are not in a position fully to protect themselves; (B) legislation having for its purpose the fixing of the legal status of the worker as an employ^, such as laws relating to the making and breaking of the labour contract, the right to form organizations and to assemble peaceably, the settlement of labour disputes, the licensing of occupations, &c. (A) The first class includes factory and workshop acts, laws relating to hours of labour, work on Sundays and holidays, the payment of wages, the liability of employers for injuries to their employes, &c. Factory acts have been passed by pac*01 nearly all the states of the Union. These may be a"dwT*" considered in two groups — first, laws which relate to con- p ditions of employment and affect only children, young persons and women; and second, laws which relate to the sanitary condition of factories and workshops and to the safety of employe's generally. The states adopting such laws have usually made provision for factory inspectors, whose duties are to enforce these laws and who have power to enter and inspect factories and workshops. The most common provisions of the factory acts in the various states are those which fix an age limit below which employment is unlawful. All but five states have enacted such provisions, and these five states have practically no manufacturing industries. In some states the laws fixing an age limit are restricted in their application to factories, while in others they extend also to workshops, bakeries, mercantile 26 LABOUR LEGISLATION [UNITED STATES Hours of labour. establishments and other work places where children are employed. The prescribed age limit varies from ten to fourteen years. Provisions concerning the education of children in factories and workshops may be considered in two groups, those relating to apprenticeship and those requiring a certain educational qualification as a pre-requisite to employment. Apprenticeship laws are numerous, but they do not now have great force, because of the practical abrogation of the apprenticeship system through the operation of modern methods of production. Most states Have provisions prohibiting illiterates under a specified age, usually sixteen, from being employed in factories and workshops. The provisions of the factory acts relating to hours of labour and night work generally affect only the employ- ment of women and young persons. Most of the states have enacted such provisions, those limiting the hours of children occurring more frequently than those limiting the hours of women. The hour limit for work in such cases ranges from six per day to sixty-six per week. Where the working time of children is restricted, the minimum age prescribed for such children ranges from twelve to twenty-one years. In some cases the restriction of the hours of labour of women and children is general, while in others it applies only to employment in one or more classes of industries. Other provisions of law for the protection of women and children, but not usually confined in their operation to factories and workshops, are such as require seats for females and separate toilet facilities for the sexes, and prohibit em- ployment in certain occupations as in mines, places where intoxicants are manufactured or sold, in cleaning or operating dangerous machinery, &c. Provisions of factory acts relating to the sanitary condition of factories and workshops and the safety of employ6s have been enacted in nearly all the manufacturing states of the Union. They prohibit overcrowding, and require proper ventila- tion, sufficient light and heat, the lime-washing or painting of walls and ceilings, the provision of exhaust fans and blowers in places where dust or dangerous fumes are generated, guards on machinery, mechanical belts and gearing shifters, guards on elevators and hoist- ways, hand-rails on stairs, fire-escapes, &c. The statutes relating to hours of labour may be considered under five groups, namely: (l) general laws which merely fix what shall be regarded as a day's labour in the absence of a contract ; (2) laws defining what shall constitute a day's work on public roads; (3) laws limiting the hours of labour per day on public works; (4) laws limiting the hours of labour in certain occupations; and (5) laws which specify the hours per day or per week during which women and children may be employed. The statutes included in the first two groups place no restrictions upon the number of hours which may be agreed upon between employers and employes, while those in the other three groups usually limit the freedom of contract and provide penalties for their violation. A considerable number of states have enacted laws which fix a day's labour in the absence of any contract, some at eight and others at ten hours, so that when an employer and an employ^ make a contract and they do not specify what shall constitute a day's labour, eight or ten hours respectively would be ruled as the day's labour in an action which might come before the courts. In a number of the states it is optional with the citizens to liquidate certain taxes either by cash payments or by rendering personal service. In the latter case the length of the working day is defined by law, eight hours being usually specified. The Federal government and nearly one-half of the states have laws providing that eight hours shall constitute a day's work for employes on public works. Under the Federal Act it is unlawful for any officer of the government or of any contractor or subcontractor for public works to permit labourers and mechanics to work longer than eight hours per day. The state laws concerning hours of labour have similar provisions. Exceptions arc provided for cases of extraordinary emergencies, such as danger to human life or property. In many states the hours of labour have been limited by law in occupations in which, on account of their dangerous or insanitary character, the health of the employds would be jeopardized by long hours of labour, or in which the fatigue occasioned by long hours would endanger the lives of the employds or of the public. The occupations for which such special legislation has been enacted are those of employds on steam and street railways, in mines and other underground workings, smelting and refining works, bakeries and cotton and woollen mills. Laws limiting the hours of labour of women and children have been considered under factory and work- shop acts. Nearly all states and Territories of the Union have laws prohibiting the employment of labour on Sunday. These laws usually make it a misdemeanour for persons either to labour themselves or to compel or permit their apprentices, servants or other """' employ6s, to labour on the first day of the week. Ex- ceptions are made in the case of household duties or works of necessity or charity, and in the case of members of religious societies who observe some other than the first day of the week. Statutes concerning the payment of wages of employds may be considered in two groups: (l) those which relate to the employment contract, such as laws fixing the maximum period of wage payments, prohibiting the payment of wages in scrip or {e*' other evidences of indebtedness in lieu of lawful money, prohibiting wage deductions on account of fines, breakage of machinery, discounts for prepayments, medical attendance, relief funds or other purposes, requiring the giving of notice of reduction of wages, &c. ; (2) legislation granting certain privileges or affording special protection to working people with respect to their wages, such as laws exempting wages from attachment, preferring wage claims in assignments, and granting workmen liens upon buildings and other constructions on which they have been employed. Employers' liability laws have been passed to enable an employ^ to recover damages from his employer under certain conditions when he has been injured through accident occurring in the works of the employer. The common-law maxim that the Employers' principal is responsible for the acts of his agent does not llablllty- apply where two or more persons are working together under the same employer and one of the employes is injured through the carelessness of his fellow-employiS, although the one causing the accident is the agent of the principal, who under the common law would be responsible. The old Roman law and the English and American practice under it held that the co-employ6 was a party to the accident. The injustice of this rule is seen by a single illustration. A weaver in a cotton factory, where there are hundreds of operatives, is injured by the neglect or carelessness of the engineer in charge of the motive power. Under the common law the weaver could not recover damages from the employer, because he was the co-employ6 of the engineer. So, one of thousands of employes of a railway system, sustaining injuries through the carelessness of a switchman whom he never saw, could recover no damages from the railway company, both being co-employes of the same employer. The injustice of this application of the common-law rule has been recog- nized, but the only way to avoid the difficulty was through specific legislation providing that under such conditions as those related, and similar ones, the doctrine of co-employment should not apply, and that the workman should have the same right to recover damages as a passenger upon a railway train. This legislation has upset some of the most notable distinctions of law. The first agitation for legislation of this character occurred in England in 1880. A number of states in the Union have now enacted statutes fixing the liability of employers under certain conditions and relieving the employd from the application of the common-law rule. Where the employ^ himself is contributory to the injuries resulting from an accident he cannot recover, nor can he recover in some cases where he knows of the danger from the defects of tools or implements employed by him. The legislation upon the subject involves many features of legislation which need not be described here, such as those concerning the power of employes to make a contract, and those defining the conditions, often elaborate, which lead to the liability of the employer and the duties of the employe, and the relations in which damages for injuries sustained in employment may be recovered from the employer. (B) The statutes thus far considered may be regarded as protective labour legislation. There is, besides, a large body of statutory laws enacted in the various states for the purpose of fixing the legal status of employers and employes and defining their rights and privileges as such. A great variety of statutes have been enacted in the various states relating to the labour contract. Among these are laws de- fining the labour contract, requiring notice of termination of contract, making it a misdemeanour to break a contract *-a*e of service and thereby endanger human life or expose ° ' " valuable property to serious injury, or to make a contract of service and accept transportation or pecuniary advancements with intent to- defraud, prohibiting contracts of employment whereby employes waive the right to damages in case of injury, &c. A Federal statute makes it a misdemeanour for any one to prepay the transportation or in any way assist or encourage the importation of aliens under contract to perform labour or service of any kind in the United States, exceptions being made in the case of skilled labour that cannot otherwise be obtained, domestic servants and persons belonging to any of the recognized professions. The Federal government and nearly all the states and territories have statutory provisions requiring the examination and licensing of persons practising certain trades other than those in the class of recognized professions. The Federal statute re- lates only to engineers on steam vessels, masters, mates, of"'/"1" pilots, &c. The occupations for which examinations and licences are required by the various state laws are those of barbers, horseshoers, elevator operators, plumbers, stationary firemen, steam engineers, telegraph operators on railroads and certain classes of mine workers and steam and street railway employes. The right of combination and peaceable assembly on the part of employes is recognized at common law throughout the United States. Organizations of working-men formed for their mutual benefit, protection and improvement, Labour r orgaalxa- such as for endeavouring to secure higher wages, tloogm shorter hours of labour or better working conditions, are nowhere regarded as unlawful. A number of states and the Federal government have enacted statutes providing for the incorporation of trade unions, but owing to the freedom from regulation or inspection enjoyed by unincorporated trade unions, UNITED STATES] LABOUR LEGISLATION 27 very few have availed themselves of this privilege. A number of states have enacted laws tending to give special protection to .and encourage trade unions. Thus, nearly one-half of the states have passed acts declaring it unlawful for employers to discharge workmen for joining labour organizations, or to make it a con- dition of employment that they shall not belong to such bodies. Laws of this kind have generally been held to be unconstitu- tional. Nearly all the states have laws protecting trade unions in the use of the union label, insignia of membership, credentials, &c., and making it a misdemeanour to counter- feit or fraudulently use them. A number of the states exempt labour organizations from the operations of the anti-trust and insurance acts. Until recent years all legal action concerning labour dis- turbances was based upon the principles of the common law. Some of the states have now fairly complete statutory disputes enactments concerning labour disturbances, while others have little or no legislation of this class. The right of employes to strike for any cause or for no cause is sus- tained by the common law everywhere in the United States. Likewise an employer has a right to discharge any or all of his employes when they have no contract with him, and he may refuse to employ any person or class of persons for any reason or for no reason. Agreements among strikers to take peaceable means to induce others to remain away from the works of an employer until he yields to the demands of the strikers are not held to be conspiracies under the common law, and the •carrying out of such a purpose by peaceable persuasion and without violence, intimidation or threats, is not unlawful. However, any interference with the constitutional rights of another to employ whom he chooses or to labour when, where or on what terms he pleases, is illegal. The boycott has been held to be an illegal conspiracy in restraint of trade. The statutory enactments of the various states concerning labour disturbances are in part re-enactments of the rules of common law and in part more or less departures from or additions to the •established principles. The list of such statutory enactments is a large one, and includes laws relating to blacklisting, boy- cotting, conspiracy against working-men, interference with employment, intimidation, picketing and strikes of railway employes; laws requiring statements of causes of discharge of employes and notice of strikes in advertisements for labour; laws prohibiting deception in the employment of labour and the hiring of armed guards by employers; and laws declaring that certain labour agreements do not constitute conspiracy. Some of these laws have been held to be unconstitutional, and some have not yet been tested in the courts. The laws just treated relate almost entirely to acts either of employers or of employes, but there is another form of law, namely, Arbttra t'iat Proyiding for action to be taken by others in the effort tlon ana to Prevent working people from losing employment, either concilia- by .their own acts or by those of their employers, or to settle any differences which arise out of controversies relating to wages, hours of labour, terms and conditions •of employment, rules, &c. These laws provide for the mediation and the arbitration of labour disputes (see ARBITRATION AND CONCILIA- TION). Twenty-three states and the Federal government have laws or constitutional provisions of this nature. In some cases they pro- vide for the appointment of state boards, and in others of local boards only. A number of states provide for local or special boards in addition to the regular state boards. In some states it is required that a member of a labour organization must be a member of the board, and, in general, both employers and employes must be represented. Nearly all state boards are required to attempt to mediate between the parties to a dispute when information is re- ceived of an actual or threatened labour trouble. Arbitration may be undertaken in some states on application from either party, in others on the application of both parties. An agreement to maintain the status quo pending arbitration is usually required. The modes of enforcement of obedience to the awards of the boards are various. Some states depend on publicity alone, some give the decisions the effect of judgments of courts of law which may be enforced by execution, while in other states disobedience to such decisions is punishable as for contempt of court. The Federal statute applies only to common carriers engaged in interstate commerce, and provides for an attempt to be made at mediation by two designated govern- ment officials in controversies between common carriers and their The judicial enforce- ment of labour laws. employes, and, in case of the failure of such an attempt, for the formation of a board of arbitration consisting of the same officials together with certain other parties to be selected. Such arbitration boards are to be formed only at the request or upon the consent of both parties to the controversy. The enforcement of laws by executive or judicial action is an important matter relating to labour legislation, for without action such laws would remain dead letters. Under the constitutions of the states, the governor is the commander-in-chief of the military forces, and he has the power to order the militia or any part of it into active service in case of insurrection, invasion, tumult, riots or breaches of the peace or imminent danger thereof. Frequent action has been taken in the case of strikes with the view of preventing or suppressing violence threatened or happening to persons or property, the effect being, however, that the militia protects those working or desiring to work, or the employers. The president of the United States may use the land and naval forces whenever by reason of insurrection, domestic violence, unlawful obstructions, conspiracy, combina- tions or assemblages of persons it becomes impracticable to enforce the laws of the land by the ordinary course of judicial proceedings, or when the execution of the laws is sso hindered by reason of such events that any portion or class of the people are deprived thereby of their rights and privileges under the constitution and laws of the country. Under this general power the United States forces have been used for the protection of both employers and employes indirectly, the purpose being to protect mails and, as in the states, to see that the laws are carried out. The power of the courts to interfere in labour disputes is through the injunction and punishment thereunder for contempt of court. It is a principle of law that when there are interferences, actual or threatened, with property or with rights of a pecuniary nature, and the common or statute law offers no adequate and immediate remedy for the prevention of injury, a court of equity may interpose and issue its order or injunction as to what must or must not be done, a violation of which writ gives the court which issued it the power to punish for contempt. The doctrine is that something is necessary to be done to stop at once the destruction of property and the obstruction of business, and the injunction is immediate in its action. This writ has been resorted to frequently for the indirect protection of employes and of employers. (C. D. W.) AUTHORITIES. — ENGLISH: (a) Factory Legislation: Abraham and Davies, Law relating to Factories and Workshops (London, 1897 and 1902); Redgrave, Factory Acts (London, 1897); Royal Commission on Labour, Minutes of Evidence and Digests, Group " C " (3 vols., 1892—1893), Assistant Commissioner's Report on Employment of Women (1893), Fifth and Final Report of the Com- mission (1894); International Labour Conference at Berlin, Correspondence, Commercial Series (C, 6042) (1890); House of Lords Committee on the Sweating System, Report (1891); Home Office Reports: Annual Reports of H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories (1879 to 1901), Committee on White Lead and Various Lead Industries (1894), Working of the Cotton Cloth Factories Acts (1897), Dangerous Trades (Anthrax) Committee, Do., Miscellane- ous Trades (1896-97-98-99), Conditions of Work in Fish-Curing Trade (1898), Lead Compounds in Pottery (1899), Phosphorus in Manufacture of Lucifer Matches (1899), &c., &c. ; Whately Cooke- Taylor, Modern Factory System (London, 1891); Oliver, Dangerous Trades (London, 1902) ; Cunningham, Growth of English Commerce and Industry (1907); Hutchins and Harrison, History of Factory Legislation (1903); Traill, Social England, &c., &c. (b) Mines and Quarries: Statutes: Coal Mines Regulation Acts 1886, 1894, 1896, 1899; Metalliferous Mines Regulation Acts 1872, 1875; Quarries Act 1894; Royal Commission on Labour, Minutes of Evidence and Digests, Group "A" (1892-1893, 3 vols.); Roya' Commission on Mining Royalties, Appendices (1894); Home Office Reports : Annual General Report upon the Mining Industry (1894-1897), Mines and Quarries, General Reports and Statistics (1898 to 1899), Annual Reports of H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories (1893-1895) (Quarries); Macswinney and Bristowe, Coal Mines Regulation Act 1887 (London, 1888). (c) Shops: Statutes: Shop Hours Acts 1892, 1893, 1896, Seats for Shop Assistants Act 1899; Report of Select Committee of House of Commons on the Shop Hours Regulation Bill 1886 (Eyre and Spottiswoode). (d) Truck: Home Office Reports: Annual Reports of H.M. Chief Inspector of Factories, especially 1895-1900, Memorandum on the Law relating to Truck LABOUR PARTY— LABRADOR and Checkweighing Clauses of the Coal Mines Acts 1896, Memor- andum relating to the Truck Acts, by Sir Kenelm Digby, with text of Acts (1897). CONTINENTAL EUROPE: Annuaire de la legislation du travail (Bruxelles, 1898-1905); Hygiene et securite des travailleurs dans les ateliers industries (Paris, 1895); Bulletin de I' inspection du travail (Paris, 1895-1902); Bulletin de I' office international du travail (Paris, 1902—1906); Congres international de legislation du travail (1898); Die Gewerbeordnung fur das deutsche Reich. (l) Landmann (1897); (2) Neukamp (1901); Gesetz betr. Kinderarbeit in gewerblichen Betrieben, 30. Marz 1903 ; Konrad Agahd, Manz'sche Gesetzausgabe, erster Band und siebenter Band (Wien, 1897-1898); Legge sugli infortunii del lavoro (Milan, 1900). UNITED STATES: See the Twenty- Second Annual Report of the Commissioner of Labor (1907) giving all labour laws in force in the United States in 1907, with annotations of decisions of courts; bi- monthly Bulletins of the U.S. Bureau of Labor, containing laws passed since those published in the foregoing, and decisions of courts relating to employers and employes; also special articles in these Bulletins on " Employer and Employe under the Common Law " (No. l), " Protection of Workmen in their Employment " (No. 26), " Government Industrial Arbitration'" (No. 60), " Laws relating to the Employment of Women and Children,' and to Factory In- spection and the Health and Safety of Employes " (No. 74), " Wages and Hours of Labor in Manufacturing Industries, 1890 to 1907 " (No. 77), " Review of Labor Legislation of 1908 and 1909 " (No. 85); also " Report of the Industrial Commission on Labor Legisla- tion " (vol. v., U.S. Commission's Report); C. D. Wright, Industrial Evolution in the United States (1887) ; Stimson, Handbook to the Labor Laws of the United States, and Labor in its Relation to Law, Adams and Sumner, Labor Problems; Labatt, Commentaries on the Law of Master and Servant. LABOUR PARTY, in Great Britain, the name given to the party in parliament composed of working-class representatives. As the result of the Reform Act of 1884, extending the franchise to a larger new working-class electorate, the votes of " labour " became more and more a matter of importance for politicians; and the Liberal party, seeking for the support of organized labour in the trade unions, found room for a few working-class representatives, who, however, acted and voted as Liberals. It was not till 1893 that the Independent Labour party, splitting off under Mr J. Keir Hardie (b. 1856) from the socialist organiza- tion known as the Social Democratic Federation (founded 1881), was formed at Bradford, with the object of getting independent candidates returned to parliament on a socialist programme. In 1900 Mr Keir Hardie, who as secretary of the Lanarkshire Miners' Union had stood unsuccessfully as a labour candidate for Mid-Lanark in 1888, and sat as M.P. for West Ham in 1892-1895, was elected to parliament for Merthyr-Tydvil by its efforts, and in 1906 it obtained the return of 30 members, Mr Keir Hardie being chairman of the group. Meanwhile in 1899 the Trade Union Congress instructed its parliamentary com- mittee to call a conference on the question of labour representa- tion; and in February 1900 this was attended by trade union delegates and also by representatives of the Independent Labour party, the Social Democratic Federation and the Fabian Society. A resolution was carried " to establish a distinct labour group in parliament, who shall have their own whips, and agree upon their own policy, which must embrace a readiness to co-operate with any party which for the time being may be engaged in promoting legislation in the direct interest of labour," and the committee (the Labour Representation Committee) was elected for the purpose. Under their auspices 29 out of 51 candidates were returned at the election of 1906. These groups were distinct from the Labour members (" Lib. -Labs ") who obeyed the Liberal whips and acted with the Liberals. In 1908 the attempts to unite the parliamentary representatives of the Independent Labour party with the Trades Union members were successful. In June of that year the Miners' Federation, returning 15 members, joined the Independent Labour party, now known for parliamentary purposes as the " Labour Party "; other Trades Unions, such as the Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants, took the same step. This arrangement came into force at the general election of 1910, when the bulk of the miners' representatives signed the constitution of the Labour party, which after the election numbered 40 members of parlia- ment. LABRADOR,1 a great peninsula in British North America, bounded E. by the North Atlantic, N. by Hudson Strait, W. by Hudson and James Bays, and S. by an arbitrary line extending eastwards from the south-east corner of Hudson Bay, near 51° N., to the mouth of the Moisie river, on the Gulf of St Lawrence, in 50° N., and thence eastwards by the Gulf of St Lawrence. It extends from 50° to 63° N., and from 55° to 80° W., and embraces an approximate area of 511,000 sq. m. Recent explorations and surveys have added greatly to the knowledge of this vast region, and have shown that much of the peninsula is not a land of " awful desolation," but a well-wooded country, contain- ing latent resources of value in its forests, fisheries and minerals. Physical Geography. — Labrador forms the eastern limb of the V in the Archaean protaxis of North America (see CANADA), and in- cludes most of the highest parts of that area. Along some portions of the coasts of Hudson and also of Ungava Bay there is a fringe of lowland, but most of the interior is a plateau rising toward the south and east. The highest portion extends east and west between 52° and 54° N., where an immense granite area lies between the head- waters of the larger rivers of the four principal drainage basins; the lowest area is between Hudson Bay and Ungava Bay in the north- west, where the general level is not more than 500 ft. above the sea. The only mountains are the range along the Atlantic coast, extending from the Strait of Belle Isle to Cape Chidley; in their southern half they rarely exceed 1500 ft., but increase in the northern half to a general elevation of upwards of 2000 ft., with numerous sharp peaks between 3000 and 5000 ft., some say 7000 or 8000 ft. The coasts are deeply indented by irregular bays and fringed with rocky islands, especially along the high Atlantic coast, where long narrow fiords penetrate inland. Hamilton Inlet, 250 m. north of the Strait of Belle Isle, is the longest of these bays, with a length of 1*50 m. and a breadth varying from 2 to 30 m. The surface of the outer portions of the plateau is deeply seamed by Valleys, cut into the crystalline rocks by the natural erosion of rivers, depending for their length and depth upon the volume of water flowing through them. The valley of the Hamilton river is the greatest, forms a continuation of the valley of the Inlet and extends 300 m. farther inland, while its bottom lies from 500 to 1500 ft. below the surface of the plateau into which it is cut. The depressions between the low ridges of the interior are occupied by innumerable lakes, many of great size, including Mistassini, Mishikamau, Clearwater, Kaniapiskau and Seal, all from 50 to 100 m. long. The streams discharging these lakes, before entering their valleys, flow on a level with the country and occupy all depressions, so that they frequently spread out into lake- expansions and are often divided into numerous channels by large islands. The descent into the valleys is usually abrupt, being made by heavy rapids and falls; the Hamilton, from the level interior, in a course of 12 m. falls 760 ft. into the head of its valley, this descent including a sheer drop of 315 ft. at the Grand Falls, which, taken with the large volume of the river, makes it the greatest fall in North America. The rivers of the northern and western watersheds drain about two-thirds of the peninsula ; the most important of the former are the Koksoak, the largest river of Labrador (over 500 m. long), the George, Whale and Payne rivers, all flowing into Ungava Bay. The large rivers flowing westwards into Hudson Bay are the Povung- nituk, Kogaluk, Great Whale, Big, East Main and Rupert, varying in length from 300 to 500 m. The rivers flowing south are exceed- ingly rapid, the Moisie, Romaine, Natashkwan and St Augustine being the most important ; all are about 300 m. long. The Atlantic coast range throws most of the drainage northwards into the Ungava basin, and only small streams fall into the ocean, except the Hamilton, North-west and Kenamou, which empty into the head of Hamilton Inlet. Geology. — The peninsula is formed largely of crystalline schists and gneisses associated with granites and other igneous rocks, all of archaean age; there are also large areas of non-fossiliferous, strati- fied limestones, cherts, shales and iron ores, the unaltered equivalents of part of the schists and gneisses. Narrow strips of Animikie (Upper Huronian or perhaps Cambrian) rocks occur along tha low- lying southern and western shores, but there are nowhere else indications of the peninsula having been below sea-level since an exceedingly remote time. During the glacial period the country was covered by a thick mantle of ice, which flowed out radially from a central collecting-ground. Owing to the extremely long exposure to denudation, to the subsequent removal of the greater part of the decomposed rock by glaciers, and to the unequal weathering of the component rocks, it is now a plateau, which ascends somewhat abruptly within a few miles of the coast-line to heights of between 1 From the Portuguese llavrador (a yeoman farmer). The name was originally given to Greenland (isthalfof i6th century) and was transferred to the peninsula in the belief that it formed part of the same country as Greenland. The name was bestowed " because he who first gave notice of seeing it [Greenland] was a farmer (llavrador) from the Azores." See the historical sketch of Labrador by W. S. Wallace in Grenfell's Labrador, &c., 1909. LABRADORITE 29 500 and 2000 ft. The interior is undulating, and traversed by ridges of low, rounded hills, seldom rising more than 500 ft. above the surrounding general level. Minerals. — The mineral wealth is undeveloped. Thick beds of excellent iron ore cover large areas in the interior and along the shores ol Hudson and Ungava Bays. Large areas of mineralized Huronian rocks have also been discovered, similar to areas in other parts of Canada, where they contain valuable deposits of gold, copper, nickel and lead ; good prospects of these metals have been found. Climate. — The climate ranges from cold temperate on the southern coasts to arctic on Hudson Strait, and is generally so rigorous that it is doubtful if the country is fit for agriculture north of 51°, except on the low grounds near the coast. On James Bay good crops of potatoes and other roots are grown at Fort George, 54° N., while about the head of Hamilton Inlet, on the east coast, and in nearly the same latitude, similar crops are easily cultivated. On the outer coasts the climate is more rigorous, being affected by the floating ice borne southwards on the Arctic current. In the interior at Mistassini, 50° 30' N , a crop of potatoes is raised annually, but they rarely mature. No attempts at agriculture have been made elsewhere inland. Owing to the absence of grass plains, there is little likeli- hood that it will ever be a grazing district. There are only two seasons in the interior: winter begins early in October, with the freezing of the small lakes, and lasts until the middle of June, when the ice on rivers and lakes melts and summer suddenly bursts forth. From unconnected observations the lowest temperatures of the interior range from -50° F. to -60° F., and are slightly higher along the coast. The mean summer temperature of the interior is about 55° F., with frosts during every month in the northern portion. On the Atlantic coast and in Hudson Bay the larger bays freeze solid between the 1st and I5th of December, and these coasts remain ice- bound until late in June. Hudson Strait is usually sufficiently open for navigation about the loth of July. Vegetation. — The southern half is included in the sub-Arctic forest belt, and nine species of trees constitute the whole arborescent flora of this region; these species are the white birch, poplar, aspen, cedar. Banksian pine, white and black spruce, balsam fir and larch. The forest is continuous over the southern portion to 53° N., the only exceptions being the summits of rocky hills and the outer islands of the Atlantic and Hudson Bay, while the low margins and river valleys contain much valuable timber. To the northward the size and number of barren areas rapidly increase, so that in 55° N. more than half the country is treeless, and two degrees farther north the limit of trees is reached, leaving, to the northward, only barrens covered with low Arctic flowering plants, sedges and lichens. Fisheries, — The fisheries along the shores of the Gulf of St Lawrence and of the Atlantic form practically the only industry of the white population scattered along the coasts, as well as of a large proportion of the inhabitants of Newfoundland. The census (1891) of New- foundland gave 10,478 men, 2081 women and 828 children employed in the Labrador fishery in 861 vessels, of which the tonnage amounted to 33.689; the total catch being 488,788 quintals of cod, 1275 tierces of salmon and 3828 barrels of herring, which, compared with the customs returns for 1880, showed an increase of cod and decreases of salmon and herring. The salmon fishery along the Atlantic coast is now very small, the decrease being probably due to excessive use of cod-traps. The cod fishery is now carried on along the entire Atlantic coast and into the eastern part of Ungava Bay, where excellent catches have been made since 1893. The annual value of the fisheries on the Canadian portion of the coast is about $350,000. The fisheries of Hudson Bay and of the interior are wholly unde- veloped, though both the bay and the large lakes of the interior are well stocked with several species of excellent fish, including Arctic trout, brook trout, lake trout, white fish, sturgeon and cod. Population. — The population is approximately 14,500, or about one person to every 3 5 sq. m. ; it is made up of 3 500 Indians, 2000 Eskimo and 9000 whites. The last are confined to the coasts and to the Hudson Bay Company's trading posts of the interior. On the Atlantic coast they are largely immigrants from Newfoundland, together with descendants of English fishermen and Hudson Bay Company's servants. To the north of Hamilton Inlet they are of more or less mixed blood from marriage with Eskimo women. The Newfoundland census of IQOI gave 3634 as the number of permanent white residents along the Atlantic coast, and the Canadian census (1891) gave a white population of 5728, mostly French Canadians, scattered along the north shore of the Gulf of St Lawrence, while the whites living at the inland posts did not exceed fifty persons. It is difficult to give more than a rough approximation of the number of the native population, owing to their habits of roving from one trading post to another, and the consequent liability of counting the same family several times if the returns are computed from the books of the various posts, the only available data for an enumeration. The following estimate is arrived at in this manner: Indians — west coast, 1200; Ungava Bay, 200; east coast, 200; south coast, 1900. Eskimo — Atlantic coast, 1000; south shore of Hudson Strait, 800; east coast of Hudson Bay, 500. The Indians roam over the southern interior in small bands, their northern limit being determined by that of the trees on which they depend for fuel. They live wholly by the chase, and their numbers are dependent upon the deer and other animals; as a consequence there is a constant struggle between the Indian and the lower animals for exist- ence, with great slaughter of the latter, followed by periodic famines among the natives, which greatly reduce their numbers and maintain an equilibrium. The native population has thus remained about stationary for the last two centuries. The Indians belong to the Algonquin family, and speak dialects of the Cree language. By contact with missionaries and fur-traders they are more or less civilized, and the great majority of them are Christians. Those living north of the St Lawrence are Roman Catholic, while the Indians of the western watershed have been converted by the missionaries of the Church Mission Society; the eastern and northern bands have not yet been reached by the missionaries, and are still pagans. The Eskimo of the Atlantic coast have long been under the guidance of the Moravian missionaries, and are well advanced in civilization; those of Hudson Bay have been taught by the Church Mission Society, and promise well; while the Eskimo of Hudson Strait alone remain without teachers, and are pagans. The Eskimo live along the coasts, only going inland for short periods to hunt the barren-ground caribou for their winter clothing; the rest of the year they remain on the shore or the ice, hunting seals and porpoises, which afford them food, clothing and fuel. The christianized Indians and Eskimo read and write in their own language; those under the teaching of the Church Mission Society use a syllabic character, the others make use of the ordinary alphabet. Political Review. — The peninsula is divided politically between the governments of Canada, Newfoundland and the province of Quebec. The government of Newfoundland, under Letters Patent of the 28th of March 1876, exercises jurisdiction along the Atlantic coast; the boundary between its territory and that of Canada is a line running due north and south from Anse Sablon, on the north shore of the Strait of Belle Isle, to 52° N., the remainder of the boundary being as yet undetermined. The northern boundary of the province of Quebec follows the East Main river to its source in Patamisk lake, thence by a line due east to the Ashuanipi branch of the Hamilton river; it then follows that river and Hamilton Inlet to the coast area under the jurisdiction of Newfoundland. The remainder of the peninsula, north of the province of Quebec, by order in council dated the i8th of December 1897, was constituted Ungava District, an unorganized territory under the jurisdiction of the government of the Dominion of Canada. AUTHORITIES. — W. T. Grenfell and others, Labrador: the Country and the People (New York, 1909) ; R. F. Holmes, " A Journey in the Interior of Labrador," Proc. R.G.S. x. 189-205 (1887); A. S. Packard, The Labrador Coast (New York, 1891); Austen Cary, " Exploration on Grand River, Labrador," Bui. Am. Ceo. Soc. vol. xxiv., 1892; R. Bell, " The Labrador Peninsula," Scottish Geo. Mag. July 1895. Also the following reports by the Geological Survey of Canada: — R. Bell, " Report on an Exploration of the East Coast of Hudson Bay," 1877-1878; " Observations on the Coast of Labrador and on Hudson Strait and Bay," 1882-1884; A. P. Low, " Report on the Mistassini Expedition," 1885; " Report on James Bay and the Country East of Hudson Bay," 1887-1888; " Report on Explorations in the Labrador Peninsula, 1892-1895," 1896; " Re- port on a Traverse of the Northern Part of the Labrador Peninsula," 1898; " Report on the South Shore of Hudson Strait," 1899. For History: W. G. Gosling, Labrador (1910). (A. P. Lo.; A. P. C.) LABRADORITE, or LABRADOR SPAR, a lime-soda felspar of the plagioclase (q.v.) group, often cut and polished as an ornamental stone. It takes its name from the coast of Labrador, where it was discovered, as boulders, by the Moravian Mission about 1770, and specimens were soon afterwards sent to the secretary in London, the Rev. B. Latrobe. The felspar itself is generally of a dull grey colour, with a rather greasy lustre, but many specimens exhibit in certain directions a magnificent LABRADOR TEA— LA BRUYERE play of colours — blue, green, orange, purple or red; the colour in some specimens changing when the stone is viewed in different directions. This optical effect, known sometimes as " labrador- escence," seems due in some cases to the presence of minute laminae of certain minerals, like gothite or haematite, arranged parallel to the surface which reflects the colour; but in other cases it may be caused not so much by inclusions as by a delicate lamellar structure in the felspar. An aventurine effect is pro- duced by the presence of microscopic enclosures. The original labradorite was found in the neighbourhood of Nain, notably in a lagoon about 50 m. inland, and in St Paul's Island. Here it occurs with hypersthene, of a rich bronzy sheen, forming a coarse-grained norite. When wet, the stones are remarkably brilliant, and have been called by the natives " fire rocks." Russia has also yielded chatoyant labradorite, especially near Kiev and in Finland; a fine blue labradorite has been brought from Queensland; and the mineral is also known in several localities in the United States, as at Keeseville, in Essex county, New York. The ornamental stone from south Norway, now largely used as a decorative material in architecture, owes its beauty to a felspar with a blue opalescence, often called labra- dorite, but really a kind of orthoclase which Professor W. C. Brogger has termed cryptoperthite, whilst the rock in which it occurs is an augite-syenite called by him laurvigite, from its chief locality, Laurvik in Norway. Common labradorite, without play of colour, is an important constituent of such rocks as gabbro, diorite, andesite, dolerite and basalt. (See PLAGIOCLASE.) Ejected crystals of labradorite are found on Monti Rossi, a double parasitic cone on Etna. The term labradorite is unfortunately used also as a rock- name, having been applied by Fouque and Levy to a group of basic rocks rich in augite and poor in olivine. (F. W. R.*) LABRADOR TEA, the popular name for a species of Ledunt, a small evergreen shrub growing in bogs and swamps in Greenland and the more northern parts of North America. The leaves are tough, densely covered with brown wool on the under face, fragrant when crushed and have been used as a substitute for tea. The plant is a member of the heath family (Ericaceae). LABRUM (Lat. for " lip "), the large vessel of the warm bath in the Roman thermae. These were cut out of great blocks of marble and granite, and have generally an overhanging lip. There is one in the Vatican of porphyry over 12 ft. in diameter. The term labrum is used in zoology, of a lip or lip-like part; in entomology it is applied specifically to the upper lip of an insect, the lower lip being termed labium. LA BRUYERE, JEAN DE (1645-1696), French essayist and moralist, was born in Paris on the i6th of August 1645, and not, as was once the common statement, at Dourdan (Seine-et-Oise) in 1639. His family was of the middle class, and his reference to a certain Geoffroy de la Bruyere, a crusader, is only a satirical illustration of a method of self-ennoblement common in France as in some other countries. Indeed he himself always signed the name Delabruyere in one word, thus avowing his roture. His progenitors, however, were of respectable position, and he could trace them back at least as far as his great-grandfather, who had been a strong Leaguer. La Bruyere's own father was controller- general of finance to the Hotel de Ville. The son was educated by the Oratorians and at the university of Orleans; he was called to the bar, and in 1673 bought a post in the revenue department at Caen, which gave the status of noblesse and a certain income. In 1687 he sold this office. His predecessor in it was a relation of Bossuet, and it is thought that the transaction was the cause of La Bruyere's introduction to the great orator. Bossuet, who from the date of his own preceptorship of the dauphin, was a kind of agent-general for tutorships in the royal family, introduced him in 1684 to the household of the great Conde, to whose grandson Henri Jules de Bourbon as well as to that prince's girl-bride Mile de Nantes, one of Louis XIV. 's natural children, La Bruyere became tutor. The rest of his life was passed in the household of the prince or else at court, and he seems to have profited by the inclination which all the Conde family had for the society of men of letters. Very little is known of the events of this part — or, indeed, of any part — of his life. The impression derived from the few notices of him is of a silent, observant, but somewhat awkward man, resembling in manners Joseph Addison, whose master in literature La Bruyere un- doubtedly was. Yet despite the numerous enemies which his book raised up for him, most of these notices are favourable — notably that of Saint-Simon, an acute judge and one bitterly prejudiced against roturiers generally. There is, however, a curious passage in a letter from Boileau to Racine in which he regrets that " nature has not made La Bruyere as agreeable as he would like to be." His Caracteres appeared in 1688, and at once, as Nicolas de Malezieu had predicted, brought him " bien des lecteurs et bien des ennemis." At the head of these were Thomas Corneille, Fontenelle and Benserade, who were pretty clearly aimed at in the book, as well as innumerable other persons, men and women of letters as well as of society, on whom the cap of La Bruyere's fancy-portraits was fitted by manuscript "keys " compiled by the scribblers.of the day. The friendship of Bossuet and still more the protection of the Condes sufficiently defended the author, and he continued to insert fresh portraits of his contemporaries in each new edition of his book, especially in the 4th (1689). Those, however, whom he had attacked were powerful in the Academy, and numerous defeats awaited La Bruyere before he could make his way into that guarded hold. He was defeated thrice in 1691, and on one memorable occasion he had but seven votes, five of which were those of Bossuet, Boileau, Racine, Pellisson and Bussy-Rabutin. It was not till 1693 that he was elected, and even then an epigram, which, considering his admitted insignificance in conversation, was not of the worst, haesit lateri: — " Quand la BruySre se pr<5sente Pourquoi faut il crier haro ? Pour faire un nombre de quarante Ne falloit il pas un zeYo ? " His unpopularity was, however, chiefly confined to the subjects of his sarcastic portraiture, and to the hack writers of the time, of whom he was wont to speak with a disdain only surpassed by that of Pope. His description of the Mercure galant as " immediatement au dessous de rien " is the best-remembered specimen of these unwise attacks; and would of itself account for the enmity of the editors, Fontenelle and the younger Corneille. La Bruyere's discourse of admission at the Academy, one of the best of its kind, was, like his admission itself, severely criticized, especially by the partisans of the " Moderns " in the " Ancient and Modern " quarrel. With the Caracteres, the translation of Theophrastus, and a few letters, most of them addressed to the prince de Conde, it completes the list of his literary work, with the exception of a curious and much-disputed posthumous treatise. La Bruyere died very suddenly, and not long after his admission to the Academy. He is said to have been struck with dumbness in an assembly of his friends, and, being carried home to the H&tel de Conde, to have expired of apoplexy a day or two afterwards, on the loth of May 1696. It is not surprising that, considering the recent panic about poisoning, the bitter personal enmities which he had excited and the peculiar circumstances of his death, suspicions of foul play should have been entertained, but there was apparently no foundation for them. Two years after his death appeared certain Dialogues sur le Quietisms, alleged to have been found among his papers in- complete, and to have been completed by the editor. As these dialogues are far inferior in literary merit to La Bruyere's other works, their genuineness has been denied. But the straight- forward and circumstantial account of their appearance given by this editor, the Abbe du Pin, a man of acknowledged probity, the intimacy of La Bruyere with Bossuet, whose views in his contest with Fenelon these dialogues are designed to further, and the entire absence, at so short a time after the alleged author's death, of the least protest on the part of his friends and repre- sentatives, seem to be decisive in their favour. Although it is permissible to doubt whether the value of the Caracteres has not been somewhat exaggerated by traditional French criticism, they deserve beyond all question a high place. LABUAN The plan of the book is thoroughly original, if that term may be accorded to a novel and skilful combination of existing elements. The treatise of Theophrastus may have furnished the firstjdea, but it gave little more. With the ethical generalizations and social Dutch painting of his original La Bruyere combined the peculiarities of the Montaigne essay, of the Pensees and Maximes of which Pascal and La Rochefoucauld are the masters respect- ively, and lastly of that peculiar lyth-century product, the "portrait" or elaborate literary picture of the personal and mental characteristics of an individual. The result was quite unlike anything that had been before seen, and it has not been exactly reproduced since, though the essay of Addison and Steele resembles it very closely, especially in the introduction of fancy portraits. In the titles of his work, and in its extreme desultori- ness, La Bruyere reminds the reader of Montaigne, but he aimed too much at sententiousness to attempt even the apparent con- tinuity of the great essayist. The short paragraphs of which his chapters consist are made up of maxims proper, of criticisms literary and ethical, and above all of the celebrated sketches of individuals baptized with names taken from the plays and romances of the time. These last are the great feature of the work, and that which gave it its immediate if not its enduring popularity. They are wonderfully piquant, extraordinarily life-like in a certain sense, and must have given great pleasure or more frequently exquisite pain to the originals, who were in many cases unmistakable and in most recognizable. But there is something wanting in them. The criticism of Charpentier, who received La Bruyere at the Academy, and who was of the opposite faction, is in fact fully justified as far as it goes. La Bruyere literally " est [trop] descendu dans le particulier." He has neither, like Moliere, embodied abstract peculiarities in a single life-like type, nor has he, like Shakespeare, made the individual pass sub speciem aeternitatis, and serve as a type while retaining his individuality. He is a photographer rather than an artist in his portraiture. So, too, his maxims, admirably as they are expressed, and exact as their truth often is, are on a lower level than those of La Rochefoucauld. Beside the sculpturesque precision, the Roman brevity, the profound- ness of ethical intuition " piercing to the accepted hells beneath," of the great Frondeur, La Bruyere has the air of a literary pctit-mattre dressing up superficial observation in the finery of esprit,. It is indeed only by comparison that he loses, but then it is by comparison that he is usually praised. His abundant wit and his personal " malice " have done much to give him his rank in French literature, but much must also be allowed to his purely literary merits. With Racine and Massillon he is probably the very best writer of what is somewhat arbitrarily styled classical French. He is hardly ever incorrect— the highest merit in the eyes of a French academic critic. He is always well-bred, never obscure, rarely though sometimes " precious " in the turns and niceties of language in which he delights to indulge, in his avowed design of attracting readers by form, now that, in point of matter, " tout est dit." It ought to be added to his credit that he was sensible of the folly of impoverish- ing French by ejecting old words. His chapter on " Les ouvrages de 1'esprit " contains much good criticism, though it shows that, like most of his contemporaries except Fenelon, he was lamentably ignorant of the literature of his own tongue. The editions of La Bruyere, both partial and complete, have been extremely numerous. Les Caracteres de Theophraste traduits du Grec, avec les caracteres et les mozurs de ce sie.de, appeared for the first time in 1688, being published by Michallet, to whose little daughter, according to tradition, La Bruyere gave the profits of the book as a dowry. Two other editions, little altered, were published in the same year. In thefollowing year, and in each year until 1694, with the exception of 1693, a fresh edition appeared, and, in all these five, additions, omissions and alterations were largely made. A ninth edition, not much altered, was put forth in the year of the author's death. The Academy speech appeared in the eighth edition. The Quietist dialogues were published in 1699; most of the letters, including those addressed to Cond<5, not till 1867. In recent times numerous editions of the complete works have appeared, notably those of Walckenaer (1845), Servois (1867, in the series of Grands ecrivains de la France), Asselineau (a scholarly reprint of the last original edition, 1872) and finally Chassang (1876); the last is one of the most generally useful, as the editor has collected almost every- thing of value in his predecessors. The literature of "keys" to La Bruyere ii extensive and apocryphal. Almost everything that can be done in this direction and in that of general illustration was done by Edouard Fournier in his learned and amusing Comedie de La Bruyere (1866); M. Paul Morillot contributed a monograph on La Bruyere to the series of Grands ecrivains franfais in 1904. (G. SA.) LABUAN (a corruption of the Malay word labuh-an, signifying an " anchorage "), an island of the Malay Archipelago, off the north-west coast of Borneo in 5° 16' N., 115° 15' E. Its area is 30-23 sq. m.; it is distant about 6 m. from the mainland of Borneo at the nearest point, and lies opposite to the northern end of the great Brunei Bay. The island is covered with low hills rising from flats near the shore to an irregular plateau near the centre. About 1500 acres are under rice cultivation, and there are scattered patches of coco-nut and sago palms and a few vegetable gardens, the latter owned for the most part by Chinese. For the rest Labuan is covered over most of its extent by vigorous secondary growth, amidst which the charred trunks of trees rise at frequent intervals, the greater part of the forest of the island having been destroyed by great accidental conflagrations. Labuan was ceded to Great Britain in 1846, chiefly through the instrumentality of Sir James Brooke, the first raja of Sarawak, and was occupied two years later. At the time of its cession the island was uninhabited, but in 1881 the population numbered 5731, though it had declined to 5361 in 1891. The census returns for 1901 give the population at 8411. The native population consists of Malay fishermen, Chinese, Tamils and small shifting communities of Kadayans, Tutongs and other natives of the neighbouring Bornean coast. There are about fifty European residents. At the time of its occupation by Great Britain a brilliant future was predicted for Labuan, which it was thought would become a second Singapore. These hopes have not been realized. The coal deposits, which are of somewhat indifferent quality, have been worked with varying degrees of failure by a succession of com- panies, one of which, the Labuan & Borneo Ltd., liquidated in 1902 after the collapse of a shaft upon which large sums had been expended. It was succeeded by the Labuan Coalfields Ltd. The harbour is a fine one, and the above-named company possesses three wharves capable of berthing the largest Eastern- going ocean steamers. To-day Labuan chiefly exists as a trading depot for the natives of the neighbouring coast of Borneo, who sell their produce — beeswax, edible birds-nests, camphor, gutta, trepang, &c., — to Chinese shopkeepers, who resell it in Singapore. There is also a considerable trade in sago, much of which is produced on the mainland, and there are three small sago-factories on the island where the raw product is converted into flour. The Eastern Extension Telegraph Company has a central station at Labuan with cables to Singapore, Hong- Kong and British North Borneo. Monthly steam communication is maintained by a German firm between Labuan, Singapore and the Philippines. The colony joined the Imperial Penny Postage Union in 1889. There are a few miles of road on the island and a metre-gauge railway from the harbour to the coal mines, the property of the company. There is a Roman Catholic church with a resident priest, an Anglican church, visited periodic- ally by a clergyman from the mainland, two native and Chinese schools, and a sailors' club, built by the Roman Catholic mission. The bishop of Singapore and Sarawak is also bishop of Labuan. The European graveyard has repeatedly been the scene of outrages perpetrated, it is believed, by natives from the mainland of Borneo, the graves being rifled and the hair of the head and other parts of the corpses being carried off to furnish ornaments to weapons and ingredients in the magic philtres of the natives. Pulau Dat, a small island in the near neighbourhood of Labuan, is the site of a fine coco-nut plantation whence nuts and copra are exported in bulk. The climate is hot and very humid. Until 1869 the expenditure of the colony was partly defrayed by imperial grants-in-aid, but after that date it was left to its own resources. A garrison of imperial troops was maintained until l»7*i when the troops were withdrawn after many deaths from fever and dysentery had occurred among them. Since then law and order LABURNUM— LABYRINTH have been maintained without difficulty by a small mixed police force of Punjabis and Malays. From the 1st of January 1890 to the 1st of January 1906 Labuan was transferred for •dministrative purposes to the British North Borneo Company, the governor for the time being of the company's territories holding also the royal com- mission as governor of Labuan. This arrangement did not work satisfactorily and called forth frequent petitions and protests from the colonists. Labuan was then placed under the government of the Straits Settlements, and is administered by a deputy governor who is a member of the Straits Civil Service. LABURNUM, known botanically as Laburnum vulgare (or Cytisus Laburnum), a familiar tree of the pea family (Legu- minosae) ; it is also known as "golden chain " and " golden rain." It is a native of the mountains of France, Switzerland, southern Germany, northern Italy, &c., has long been cultivated as an ornamental tree throughout Europe, and was introduced into north-east America by the European colonists. Gerard records it as growing in his garden in 1597 under the names of anagyris, laburnum or beane trefoyle (Herball, p. 1239), but the date of its introduction into England appears to be unknown. In France it is called I'aubour — a corruption from laburnum according to Du Hamel — as also arbois, i.e. arc-bois, " the wood having been used by the ancient Gauls for bows. It is still so employed in some parts of the Maconnois, where the bows are found to preserve their strength and elasticity for half a century " (Loudon, Arboretum, ii. 590). Several varieties of this tree are cultivated, differing in the size of the flowers, in the form of the foliage, &c., such as the "oak-leafed" (quercifolium) , pendulum, crispum, &c.; var. aureum has golden yellow leaves. One of the most remarkable forms is Cytisus Adami (C. purpurascens) , which bears three kinds of blossoms, viz. racemes of pure yellow flowers, others of a purple colour and others of an intermediate brick-red tint. The last are hybrid blossoms, and are sterile, with malformed ovules, though the pollen appears to be good. The yellow and purple " reversions " are fertile. It originated in Paris in 1828 by M. Adam, who inserted a " shield " of the bark of Cytisus purpureus into a stock of Laburnum. A vigorous shoot from this bud was subsequently propagated. Hence it would appear that the two distinct species became united by their cambium layers, and the trees propagated therefrom subsequently reverted to their respective parentages in bearing both yellow and purple flowers, but produce as well blossoms of an inter- mediate or hybrid character. Such a result may be called a " graft-hybrid." For full details see Darwin's Animals and Plants under Domestication. The laburnum has highly poisonous properties. The roots taste like liquorice, which is a member of the same family as the laburnum. It has proved fatal to cattle, though hares and rabbits eat the bark of it with avidity (Gardener's Chronicle, 1 88 1, vol. xvi. p. 666). The seeds also are highly poisonous, possessing emetic as well as acrid narcotic principles, especially in a green state. Gerard (loc. cit.) alludes to the powerful effect produced on the system by taking the bruised leaves medicinally. Pliny states that bees will not visit the flowers (N.H. xvi. 31), but this is an error, as bees and butterflies play an important part in the fertilization of the flowers, which they visit for the nectar. The heart wood of the laburnum is of a dark reddish-brown colour, hard and durable, and takes a good polish. Hence it is much prized by turners, and used with other coloured woods for inlaying purposes. The laburnum has been called false ebony from this character of its wood. LABYRINTH (Gr. \aftvpiv6m, Lat. labyrinthus) , the name given by the Greeks and Romans to buildings, entirely or partly subterranean, containing a number of chambers and intricate passages, which rendered egress puzzling and difficult. The word is considered by some to be of Egyptian origin, while others connect it with the Gr. XaOpa, the passage of a mine. Another derivation suggested |is from Xlaced a " bowys " or "bow," or little ball of thread. Each >all might be of different colour from the other. The writer of he MS. says that the first finger next the thumb shall be called A, the next B, and so on. According to the sort of cord or braid o be made, so each of the four fingers, A, B, C, D might be called nto service. A " thynne lace " might be made with three hreads, and then only fingers A, B, C would be required. A LACE " round " lace, stouter than the " thynne " lace, might require the service of four or more fingers. By occasionally dropping the use of threads from certain fingers a sort of indented lace or braid might be made. But when laces of more importance were wanted, such as a broad lace for " hattys," the fingers on the hands of assistants were required. The smaller cords or " thynne laces, "when fastened in simple or fantastic loops along the edges of collars and cuffs, were called " purls " (see the small edge to the collar worn by Catherine de' Medici, PI. II. fig. 4). In another direction from which some suggestion may be derived as to the evolution of lace-makingf notice should be taken of the fact that at an early period the darning of varied ornamental devices, stiff and geometric in treatment into hand-made network of small square meshes (see squares of " lacis," PL I. fig. i) became specialized in many European countries. This is held by some writers to be "opus filatorium," or " opus araneum " (spider work). Examples of this " opus filatorium," said to date from the i3th century exist in public collections. The produc- tions of this darning in the early part of the i6th century came to be known as " punto a maglia quadra " in Italy and as " lacis " in France, and through a growing demand for household and wearing linen, very much of the " lacis " was made in white threads not only in Italy and France but also in Spain. In appearance it is a filmy fabric. With white threads also were the " purlings " above mentioned made, by means of leaden bobbins or " fuxii," and were called " merletti a piombini " (see lower border, PI. II. fig. 3). Cut and drawn thread linen work (the latter known as " tela tirata " in Italy and as " deshilado " in Spain) were other forms of embroidery as much in vogue as the darning on net and the " purling." The ornament of much of this cut and drawn linen work (see collar of Catherine de' Medici, PI. II. fig. 4), more restricted in scope than that of the darning on net, was governed by the recurrence of open squares formed by the withdrawal of the threads. Within these squares and rectangles radiating devices usually were worked by means of whipped and buttonhole stitches (PI. II. fig. 5). The general effect in the linen was a succession of insertions or borders of plain or enriched reticulations, whence the name " punto a reticella " given to this class of embroidery in Italy. Work of similar style and especially that with whipped stitches was done rather earlier in the Grecian islands, which derived it from Asia Minor and Persia. The close connexion of the Venetian republic with Greece and the eastern islands, as well as its commercial relations with the East, sufficiently explains an early transplant- ing of this kind of embroidery into Venice, as well as in southern Spain. At Venice besides being called " reticella," cut work was also called " punto tagliato." Once fairly established as home industries such arts were quickly exploited with a beauty and variety of pattern, complexity of stitch and delicacy of execu- tion, until insertions and edgings made independently of any linen as a starting base (see first two borders, PI. II. fig. 3) came into being under the name of " Punto in aria " (PI. II. fig. 7). This was the first variety of Venetian and Italian needlepoint lace in the middle of the i6th century,1 and its appearance then almost coincides in date with that of the " merletti a piombini," which was the earliest Italian cushion or pillow lace (see lower edging, PI. II. fig. 3). The many varieties of needlepoint and pillow laces will be 'The prevalence of fashion in the above-mentioned sorts of em- broidery during the i6th century is marked by the number of pattern- books then published. In Venice a work of this class was issued by Alessandro Pagannino in 1527; another of a similar nature, printed by Pierre Quinty, appeared in the same year at Cologne; and La Fleur de la science de pourlraicture et patrons de broderie,fa$on arabicque el ytalique, was published at Paris in 1530. From these early dates until the beginning of the 1 7th century pattern-books for embroidery in Italy, France, Germany and England were published in great abundance. The designs contained in many of those dating from the early l6th century were to be worked for costumes and hangings, and consisted of scrolls, arabesques, birds, animals, flowers, foliage, herbs and grasses. So far, however, as their reproduction as laces might be concerned, the execution of complicated work was involved which none but practised lace-workers, such as those who arose a century later, could be expected to undertake. touched on under the heading allotted to each of these methods of making lace. Here, however, the general circumstances of their genesis may be briefly alluded to. The activity in cord and braid-making and in the particular sorts of ornamental needlework already mentioned clearly postulated such special labour as was capable of being converted into lace-making. And from the i6th century onwards the stimulus to the industry in Europe was afforded by regular trade demand, coupled with the exertions of those who encouraged their dependents or proteges to give their spare time to remunerative home occupa- tions. Thus the origin and perpetuation of the industry have come to be associated with the women folk of peasants and fishermen in circumstances which present little dissimilarity whether in regard to needle lace workers now making lace in whitewashed cottages and cabins at Youghal and Kenmare in the south of Ireland, or those who produced their " punti in aria " during the i6th century about the lagoons of Venice, or French- women who made the sumptuous " Points de France " at Alencon and elsewhere in the i7th and i8th centuries; or pillow lace workers to be seen at the present day at little seaside villages tucked away in Devonshire dells, or those who were engaged more than four hundred years ago in " merletti a piombini " in Italian villages or on " Dentelles au fuseau " in Flemish low- lands. The ornamental character, however, of these several laces would be found to differ much; but methods, materials, appliances and opportunities of work would in the main be alike. As fashion in wearing laces extended, so workers came to be drawn together into groups by employers who acted as channels for general trade.2 Nuns in the past as in the present have also devoted attention to the industry, often providing in the convent precincts workrooms not only for peasant women to carry out commissions in the service of the church or for the trade, but also for the purpose of training children in the art. Elsewhere lace schools have been founded by benefactors or organized by some leading local lace-maker3 as much for trading as for education. In all this variety of circumstance, development of finer work has depended upon the abilities of the workers being exercised under sound direction, whether derived through their own intuitions, or supplied by intelligent and tasteful employers. Where any such direction has been absent the industry viewed commercially has suffered, its productions being devoid of artistic effect or adaptability to the changing tastes of demand. It is noteworthy that the two widely distant regions of Europe where pictorial art first flourished and attained high perfection, north Italy and Flanders, were precisely the localities where lace-making first became an industry of importance both from an artistic and from a commercial point of view. Notwithstand- ing more convincing evidence as to the earlier development of pillow lace making in Italy the invention of pillow lace is often credited to the Flemings; but there is no distinct trace of the time or the locality. In a picture said to exist in the church of St Gomar at Lierre, and sometimes attributed to Quentin Matsys (1495), is introduced a girl apparently working at some sort of lace with pillow, bobbins, &c., which are somewhat similar to the implements in use in more recent times.4 From the very infancy of Flemish art an active intercourse was main- tained between the Low Countries and the great centres of Italian art; and it is therefore only what might be expected that the wonderful examples of the art and handiwork of Venice in lace-making should soon have come to be known to and rivalled among the equally industrious, thriving and artistic Flemings. At the end of the i6th century pattern-books were issued in Flanders having the same general character as those published for the guidance of the Venetian and other Italian lace-makers. • * A very complete account of how these conditions began and developed at Alencon, for instance, is given in Madame Despierre's Histoire du Point d'Alen^on (1886) to which is appended an interesting and annotated list of merchants, designers and makers of Point d'Alencon. 3 E.g. The family of Camusat at Alencpn from 1602 until 1795. 4 The picture, however, as Seguin has pointed out, was probably painted some thirty years later, and by Jean Matsys. LACE PLATE L l*i-4f.M »» _»».ML.*J?..1)'J!...»*-»»'wi.***.«%^5l FIG. i.— PORTION OF A COVERLET COMPOSED OF SQUARES OF "LACIS" OR DARNED NETTING, DIVIDED BY LINEN CUT-WORK BANDS. The squares are worked with groups representing the twelve months, and with scenes from the old Spanish dramatic story " Celestina.' Spanish or Portuguese. l6th century. (Victoria and Albert Museum.) FIG. 2.— CORNER OF A BED-COVER OF PILLOW-MADE LACE OF A TAPE-LIKE TEXTURE WITH CHARACTERISTICS IN THE TWISTED AND PLAITED THREADS RELATING THE WORK TO ITALIAN "MERLETTI A PIOMBINI" OR EARLY ENGLISH "BONE LACE." Possibly made in Flanders or Italy during the early part of the i?th or at the end of the i6th century. The design includes the Imperial double-headed eagle of Austria with the ancient crown of the German Empire. (Victoria and Albert Museum.^ XVI. #. PLATE II. LACE FIG. 3.— THREE VANDYKE OR DENTATED BORDERS OF ITALIAN LACE OF THE LATE i6TH CENTURY. Style usually called " Reticella " on account of the patterns being based on repeated squares or reticulations. The two first borders are of needlepoint work; the lower border is of such pillow lace as was known in Italy as " merletti a piombini." FIG. 7.— BORDER OF FLAT NEEDLEPOINT LACE OF FULLER TEXTURE THAN THAT OF FIG. 3, AND FROM A FREER STYLE OF DESIGN IN WHICH CONVENTIONALIZED FLORAL FORMS HELD TO- GETHER BY SMALL BARS OR TYES ARE USED. Style called " Punto in Aria," chiefly on account of its indepen- dence of squares or reticulations. Italian. Early I7th century. FIG. 4— CATHERINE DE MEDICI, WEARING A LINEN UPTURNED COLLAR OF CUT WORK AND NEEDLE- POINT LACE. Louvre. About 1540. FIG. 5.— CORNER OF A NAPKIN OK HANDKERCHIEF BORDERED WITH "RETICELLA" NEEDLEPOINT LACE IN THE DESIGN OF WHICH ACORNS AND CARNATIONS ARE MINGLED WITH GEOMETRIC RADIATIONS. Probably of English early i;th century. FIG. 6.— AMELIE ELISABETH, COMTESSE DE HAINAULT, WEARING A RUFF OF NEEDLEPOINT RETICELLA LACE. By MORCELSE. The Hague. About 1600. (Figs. 4 and 6 by permission of Messrs Braun, Clement & Co., Dornach (Alsace}, and Paris.) LACE 39 France and England were not far behind Venice and Flanders in making needle and pillow lace. Henry III. of France (1574- 1589) appointed a Venetian, Frederic Vinciolo, pattern maker for varieties of linen needle works and laces to his court. Through the influence of this fertile designer the seeds of a taste for lace in France were principally sown. But the event which par excellence would seem to have fostered the higher development of the French art of lace-making was the aid officially given it in the following century by Louis XIV., acting on the advice done on a pillow or cushion and with the needle, in the style of the laces made at Venice, Genoa, Ragusa and other places; these French imitations were to be called " points de France." By 1671 the Italian ambassador at Paris writes, " Gallantly is the minister Colbert on his way to bring the ' lavori d'aria' to perfection." Six years later an Italian, Domenigo Contarini, alludes to the " punto in aria," " which the French can now do to admiration." The styles of design which emanated from the chief of the French lace centre, Alenfon, were more fanciful kV| FIG. 24. — Portion of a Flounce of Needlepoint Lace, French, early i8th century, " Point de France." The honeycomb ground ^is con- sidered to be a peculiarity of " Point d'Argentan " : some of the fillings are made in the manner of the " Point d'Alencpn " reseau. of his minister Colbert. Intrigue and diplomacy were put into action to secure the services of Venetian lace- workers ; and by an edict dated 1665 the lace-making centres at Alencon, Quesnoy, Arras, Reims, Sedan, Chateau Thierry, Loudun and elsewhere were selected for the operations of a company in aid of which the state made a contribution of 36,000 francs; at the same time the importation of Venetian, Flemish and other laces was strictly forbidden.1 The edict contained instructions that the lace-makers should produce all sorts of thread work, such as those 1 See the poetical skit Revolte des passements et broderies, written by Mademoiselle de la Tousse, cousin of Madame de Sevigne, in the middle of the 1 7th century, which marks the favour which foreign laces at that time commanded amongst the leaders of French fashion. and less severe than the Venetian, and it is evident that the Flemish lace-makers later on adopted many of these French patterns for their own use. The provision of French designs (fig. 24) which owes so much to the state patronage, contrasts with the absence of corresponding provision in England and was noticed early in the i8th century by Bishop Berkeley. " How," he asks, " could France and Flanders have drawn so much money from other countries for figured silk, lace and tapestry, if they had not had their academies of design?" It is fairly evident too that the French laces themselves, _ known as " bisette," " gueuse," " campane " and " mignonette," were small and comparatively insignificant works, without pretence to design. LACE The humble endeavours of peasantry in England (which could boast of no schools of design), Germany, Sweden, Russia and Spain could not result in work of so high artistic pretension as that of France and Flanders. In the i8th century good lace was made in Devonshire, but it is only in recent years that to some extent the hand lace-makers of England and Ireland have become impressed with the necessity of well-considered designs for their work. Pillow lace making under the name of " bone lace making " was pursued in the i7th century in Buckingham- shire, Hertfordshire and Bedfordshire, and in 1724 Defoe refers to the manufacture of bone lace in which villagers were " wonder- fully exercised and improved within these few years past." " Bone " lace dates from the i7th century in England and was practically the counterpart of Flemish " dentelles au fuseau," and related also to the Italian " merletti a piombini " (see PI. III. fig. 10). In Germany, Barbara Uttmann, a native of Nuremberg, instructed peasants of the Harz mountains to twist and plait threads in 1561. She was assisted by certain refugees from Flanders. A sort of " purling " or imitation of the Italian " merletti a piombini " was the style of work produced then. Lace of comparatively simple design has been made for centuries in villages of Andalusia as well as in Spanish conventual estab- lishments. The " point d'Espagne," however, appears to have been a commercial name given by French manufacturers of a class of lace made in France with gold or silver threads on the pillow and greatly esteemed by Spaniards in the i7th century. No lace pattern-books have been found to have been published in Spain. The needle-made laces which came out of Spanish monasteries in 1830, when these institutions were dissolved, were mostly Venetian needle-made laces. The lace vestments preserved at the cathedral at Granada hitherto presumed to be of Spanish work are verified as being Flemish of the i7th century (similar in style to PI. IV. fig. 14). The industry is not alluded to in Spanish ordinances of the isth, i6th or i7th centuries, but traditions which throw its origin back to the Moors or Saracens are still current in Seville and its neighbourhood, where a twisted and knotted arrangement of fine cords is often worked ' under the name of " Morisco " fringe, elsewhere called macrame lace. Black and white silk pillow laces, or " blondes," date from the 1 8th century. They were made in considerable quantity in the neighbourhood of Chantilly, and imported for mantillas by Spain, where corresponding silk lace making was started. Although after the i8th century the making of silk laces more or less ceased at Chantilly and the neighbourhood, the craft is now carried on in Normandy — at Bayeux and Caen — as well as in Auvergne, which is also noted for its simple " torchon " laces. Silk pillow lace making is carried on in Spain, especially at Barcelona. The patterns are almost entirely imitations from 18th-century French ones of a large and free floral character. Lace-making is said to have been promoted in Russia through the patronage of the court, after the visit of Peter the Great to Paris in the early days of the i8th century. Peasants in the districts of Vologda, Balakhua (Nijni-Novgorod), Bieleff (Tula) and Mzensk (Orel) make pillow laces of simple patterns. Malta is noted for producing a silk pillow lace of black or white, or red threads, chiefly of patterns in which repetitions of circles, wheels and radiations of shapes resembling grains of wheat are the main features. This characteristic of design, appearing in white linen thread laces of similar make which have been identified as Genoese pillow laces of the early iyth century, reappears in Spanish and Paraguayan work. Pillow lace in imitation of Maltese, Buckinghamshire and Devonshire laces is made to a small extent in Ceylon, in different parts of India and in Japan. A successful effort has also been made to re- establish the industry in the island of Burano near Venice, and pillow and needlepoint lace of good design is made there. At present the chief sources of hand-made lace are France, Belgium, Ireland and England. France is faithful to her traditions in maintaining a lively i J Useful information has been communicated to the writer of the present article on lace by Mrs B. Wishaw of Seville. and graceful taste in lace-making. Fashion of late years has called for ampler and more boldly effective laces, readily produced with both braids and cords and far less intricate needle or pillow work than was required for the dainty and smaller laces of earlier date. In Belgium the social and economic conditions are, as they have been in the past, more conducive and more favourable than elsewhere to lace-making at a sufficiently remunerative FIG. 25. — Collar and Berthe of Irish Crochet Lace. rate of wages. The production of hand-made laces in Belgium was in 1900 greater than that of France. The principal modern needle-made lace of Belgium is the "Point de Gaze"; " Duchesse " and Bruges laces are the chief pillow-made laces; whilst " Point Applique " and " Plat Applique " are frequently the results not only of combining needle-made and pillow work, but also of using them in conjunction with machine-made net. Ireland is the best producer of that substantial looped-thread FIG. 26. — Collar of Irish Crochet Lace. work known as crochet (see figs. 25, 26, 27), which must be regarded as a hand-made lace fabric although not classifiable as a needlepoint or pillow lace. It is also quite distinct in char- acter from pseudo-laces, which are really embroideries with a lace-like appearance, e.g. embroideries on net, cut and embroidered cambrics and fine linen. For such as these Ireland maintains a reputation in its admirable Limerick and Carrickmacross laces, made not only in Limerick and Carrickmacross, but also LACE PLATE III. FIG. 8.— MARY, COUNTESS OF PEMBROKE, WEARING A COIF AND CUFFS OF RETICELLA LACE. National Portrait Gallery. Dated 1614. FIG. 9.— HENRI II..DUCDE MONTMORENCY, WEARING A FALLING LACE COLLAR. By LE NAIN. Louvre. About 1628. (By permission of Messrs Braun, Clement & Co., Dornach (Alsace), and Paris.) FIG. io.— SCALLOPPED COLLAR OF TAPE-LIKE PILLOW-MADE LACE. Possibly of English early lyth-century work. Its texture is typical of a development in pillow-lace-making later than that of the lower edge of " merletti a piombini " in PI. II. fig. 3. FIG. II.— JAMES II. WEARING A JABOT AND CUFFS OF RAISED NEEDLEPOINT LACE. By RILEY. National Portrait Gallery. About 1685. (Figs. 8 and n, photo by Emery Walker.) FIG. 12. — JABOT OF NEEDLEPOINT LACE WORKED PARTLY IN RELIEF, AND USUALLY KNOWN AS "GROS POINT DE VEN1SE." Middle of iyth century. Conventional scrolling stems with off- shooting pseudo-blossoms and leafs are specially characteristic in design for this class of lace. Its texture is typical of a development in needle-made lace later than the flat " punto in aria " of PL II. fig. 7. PLATE IV. LACE FIG. 13.— MME VERBIEST, WEARING PILLOW-MADE LACE,! RESEAU. From the family group by GONZALEZ COQUES . Buckingham Palace. About 1664. (By permission of Messrs Braun, Clement & Co., Dornach (Alsace), and Paris.) FIG. 15— PRINCESS MARIA TERESA STUART, WEARING A FLOUNCE OR TABLIER OF LACE SIMILAR TO THAT IN FIG. 17. Dated 1695. From a group by LARGILLIERE. National Portrait Gallery. (Photo by Emery Walker.) * * V' . V : I FIG. 16— FLOUNCE OF PILLOW-MADE LACE A RESEAU. Flemish, of the middle of the I7th century. This lace is usually thought to be the earliest type of "Point d'Angleterre" in contra- distinction to the "Point de Flandres" (fig. 14). FIG. 14.— PIECE OF PILLOW-MADE LACE USUALLY KNOWN AS "POINT DE FLANDRES A BRIDES." Of the middle of the I7th century, the designs for which were often adaptations from those made for such needlepoint lace as that of the Jabot in fig. 12. FIG. 17 —VERY DELICATE NEEDLEPOINT LACE WITH CLUSTERS OF SMALL RELIEF WORK. Venetian, middle of the 1 7th century, and often called "rose- point lace," and sometimes " Point de Neige." LACE in Kinsale, Newry, Crossmaglen and elsewhere. The demand from France for Irish crochet is now far beyond the supply, a condition which leads not only to the rapid repetition by Irish workers of old patterns, but tends also to a gradual debasement of both texture and ornament. Attempts have been made to counteract this tend- ency, with some success, as the speci- mens of Irish crochet in figs. 25, 26 and 27 indicate. An a p p r e ciable amount of pillow- made lace is annu- ally supplied from Devonshire, Buck- FIG. 27.— Lady's Sleeve of Irish Crochet Lace. ingllamshire, Bed- fordshire and Northampton, but it is bought almost wholly for home use. The English laces are made almost entirely in accord- ance with the precedents of the ipth century — that is to say, in definite lengths and widths, as for borders, insertions and flounces, although large shaped articles, such as panels for dresses, long sleeves complete skirts, jackets, blouses, and fancifully shaped collars of considerable dimensions have of late been freely made elsewhere. To make such things entirely of lace necessitates many modifications in the ordinary methods; the English lace-workers are slow to adapt their work in the manner requisite, and hence are far behind in the race to respond to the fashionable demand. No countries succeed so well in promptly answering the variable call of fashion as France and Belgium. As regards trade in lace, America probably buys more from Belgium than from France; France and England come next as purchasers of nearly equal quantities, after which come Russia and Italy. The greatest amount of lace now made is that which issues from machines in England, France and Germany. The total number of persons employed in the lace industry in England in 1871 was 49,370, and in 1901 about 34,929, of whom not more than 5000 made lace by hand. The early history1 of the lace-making machine coincides with that of the stocking frame, that machine having been adapted about the year 1768 for producing open-looped fabrics which had a net-like appearance. About 1 786 frames for making point nets by machinery first appear at Mansfield and later at Ashbourne and Nottingham and soon afterwards modifications were introduced into such frames in order to make varieties of meshes in the point nets which were classed as figured nets. In 1808 and 1809 John Heathcoat of Nottingham obtained patents for machines for making bobbin net with a simpler and more readily produced mesh than that of the point net just mentioned. For at least thirty years thousands of women had been employed in and about Nottingham in the embroidery of simple ornament on net. In 1813 John Leavers began to improve the figured net weaving machines above mentioned, and from these the lace-making machines in use at the present time were developed. But it was the application of the cele- brated Jacquard apparatus to such machines that enabled manufacturers to produce all sorts of patterns in thread-work in imitation of the patterns for hand-made lace. A French machine called the " dentelliere " was devised (see La Nature for the 3rd of March 1881), and the patterns produced by it were of plaited threads. The expense, however, attending the production of plaited lace by the " dentelliere " is as great as that of pillow lace made by the hand, and so the machine has not succeeded for ordinary trade purposes. More successfu results have been secured by the new patent circular lace machine of Messrs. Birkin & Co. of Nottingham, the productions of which all of simple design, cannot be distinguished from hand-mad- pillow lace of the same style (see figs. 57, 58, 59). Before dealing with technical details in processes of making lace whether by hand or by the machine, the component parts o different makes of lace may be considered. These are governec 1 See Felkin's Machine-wrought Hosiery and Lace Manufactures. >y the ornaments or patterns, which may be so designed, as hey were in the earlier laces, that the different component parts may touch one another without any intervening ground-work. Jut as a wish arose to vary the effect of the details in a pattern ground-works were gradually developed and at first consisted of inks or ties between the substantial parts of the pattern. The >ars or ties were succeeded by grounds of meshes, like nets. iometimes the substantial parts of a pattern were outlined with a single thread or by a strongly marked raised edge of buttonhole- bitched or of plaited work. Minute fanciful devices were then ntroduced to enrich various portions of the pattern. Some of the heavier needle-made laces resemble low relief carving in vory, and the edges of the relief portions are often decorated with clusters of small loops. For the most part all this elabora- ion was brought to a high pitch of variety and finish by French designers and workers; and French terms are more usual in speaking of details in laces. Thus the solid part of the pattern s called the toile or clothing, the links or ties are called brides, the meshed grounds are called reseaux, the outline to the edges of a pattern is called cordonnet or brodi, the insertions of :anciful devices modes, the little loops picots. These terms are applicable to the various portions of laces made with the needle, on the pillow or by the machine. The sequence of patterns in lace (which may be verified upon referring to PI. I. to VI.) is roughly as follows. From about 1540 to 1590 they were composed of geometric forms set within squares, or of crossed and radiating line devices, resulting in a very open fabric, stiff and almost wiry in effect, without brides or reseaux. From 1590 may be dated the introduction into patterns of very conventional floral and even human and animal forms and slender scrolls, rendered in a tape-like texture, held together by brides. To the period from 1620 to 1670 belongs the development of long continuous scroll patterns with r&seaux and brides, accompanied in the case of needle- made laces with an elaboration of details, e.g. cordonnet with massings of picots. Much of these laces enriched with fillings or modes was made at this time. From 1650 to 1700 the scroll patterns gave way to arrangements of detached ornamental details (as in PI. VI. fig. 22): and about 1700 to 1760 more important schemes or designs were made (as in PI. V. fig. 19, and in fig. 24 in text), into which were introduced naturalistic renderings of garlands, flowers, birds, trophies, architectural ornament and human figures. . Grounds composed entirely of varieties of modes as in the case of the riseau rosace (PI. V. fig. 21) were sometimes made then. From 1760 to 1800 small details consisting of bouquets, sprays of flowers, single flowers, leaves, buds, spots and such like were adopted, and sprinkled over meshed grounds, and the character of the texture was gauzy and filmy (as in figs. 40 and 42). Since that time variants of the foregoing styles of pattern and textures have been used according to the bent of fashion in favour of simple or complex ornamentation, or of stiff, compact or filmy textures. Needlepoint Lace.— The way in which the early Venetian " punto in aria " was made corresponds with that hi which needlepoint lace is now worked. The pattern is first drawn upon a piece of parchment. The parchment is then stitched to two pieces of linen. Upon the leading lines drawn on the parchment a thread is laid, and fastened through to the parch- ment and linen by means of stitches, thus constructing a skeleton thread pattern (see left- hand part of fig. 30). Those portions which are to be represented as the " clothing " or toile are usually worked as indicated in the en- larged diagram (fig. 29), and then edged as a rule with buttonhole stitching (fig. 28). Between these toile portions of the pattern are worked ties (brides) or meshes (rfseaux) , and thus the various parts united into one fabric are wrought on to the face of the parchment pattern and reproducing it (see right-hand part of fig. 30). A knife is FIG. 28. FIG. 29. LACE passed between the two pieces of linen at the back of the parch- ment, cutting the stitches which have passed through the parch- ment and linen, and so releasing the lace itself from its pattern parchment. In the earlier stages, the lace was made in lengths to serve as insertions (passements) and also in Vandykes (dentelles) FlG. 30. — Parchment Pattern showing work in progress : the more complete lace is on the right half of the pattern. to serve as edgings. Later on insertions and Vandykes were made in one piece. All of such were at first of a geometric style of pattern (PI. II. figs. 3-5 and 6). Following closely upon them came the freer style of design already mentioned, without and then with links or ties — brides — interspersed between the various details of the patterns (PI. II. fig. 7), which were of flat tapelike texture. In elaborate speci- mens of this flat point lace some lace workers occasionally used gold thread with the white thread. These flat laces (" Pun to in Aria ") are also called " flat Venetian point." About 1640 " rose (raised) point " laces began to be made (PI. III. fig. 12). They were done in. relief and those of bold design with stronger reliefs are called " gros point de Venise." Lace of this latter class was used for altar cloths, flounces, jabots or neckcloths which hung beneath the chin over the breast (PI. III. fig. n), as well as for trimming the turned-over tops of jack boots. Tabliers and ladies' aprons were also made of such lace. In these no regular ground was introduced. All sorts of minute embellishments, like little knots, stars and loops or picots, were worked on to the irregularly arranged brides or ties holding the main patterns together, and the more dainty of these raised laces (PI. IV. fig. 17) exemplify the most subtle uses to which the buttonhole stitch appears capable of being put in making ornaments. But about 1660 came laces with brides or ties arranged in a honeycomb reticulation or regular ground. To them succeeded lace in which the compact relief gave place to daintier and lighter material combined with a ground of meshes or reseau. The needle-made meshes were sometimes of single and sometimes of double threads. A diagram is given of an ordinary method of making such meshes (fig. 31). At the end of the I7th century the lightest of the Venetian needlepoint laces were made; and this class which was of the filmiest texture is usually known as " point de Venise a reseau " (PI. V. fig. 200). It was contemporary with the needle-made French laces of Alen- con and Argentan1 that became famous towards the latter part of the i?th century FIG. 31. (PI. V. fig. 206). " Point d'Argentan " has been thought to be especially distinguished on account of its delicate honeycomb ground of hexagonally arranged brides (fig. 32), a peculiarity already referred to in certain antecedent Venetian point laces. Often intermixed with this hexagonal brides ground is the fine- meshed ground or rfseau (fig. 2oi), which has been held to be distinctive of " point d'Alencon." But the styles of patterns and the methods of working them, with rich variety of insertions or modes, with the brodl or cordonnet of raised buttonhole stitched edging, are alike in Argentan and Alencon needle-made laces (PI. V. fig. 206 and fig. 32). Besides the hexagonal brides 1 After 1650 the lace-workers at Alencon and its neighbourhood produced work of a daintier kind than that which was being made by the Venetians. As a rule the hexagonal bride grounds of Alencon laces are smaller than similar details in Venetian laces. The average size of a diagonal taken from angle to angle in an Alencon (or so- called Argentan) hexagon was about one-sixth of an inch, and each side of the hexagon was about one-tenth of an inch. An idea of the minuteness of the work can be formed from the fact that a side of a hexagon would be overcast with some nine or ten buttonhole stitches. ground and the ground of meshes another variety of grounding (reseau rosace) was used in certain Alencon designs. This ground consisted of buttonhole-stitched skeleton hexagons within each of which was worked a small hexagon of loiU connected with the outer surrounding hexagon by means of six little ties or brides (PI. V. fig. 21). Lace with this particular ground has been called " Argentella," and some writers have thought that it was a specialty of Genoese or Venetian work. But the character of the work and the style of the floral patterns are those of Alencon laces. The industry at Argentan was virtually an off- shoot of that nurtured at Alencon, where " lacis," " cut work " and " velin " (work on parchment) had been made for years before the well-developed needle-made " point d'Alencon " came into vogue under the favouring patronage of the state- aided lace company mentioned as having been formed in 1665. FIG. 32. — Border of Needlepoint Lace made in France about 1740-1750, the clear hexagonal mesh ground, which is compactly stitched, being usually regarded as characteristic of the point de France made at Argentan. Madame Despierre in her Histoire du point d'Alenfon gives an interesting and trustworthy account of the industry. In Belgium, Brussels has acquired some celebrity for needle- made laces. These, however, are chiefly in imitation of those made at Alencon, but the toiU is of less compact texture and sharpness in definition of pattern. Brussels needlepoint lace is often worked with meshed grounds made on a pillow, and a plain FIG. 33. — Shirt decorated with Insertions of Flat Needlepoint Lace. (English, I7th century. Victoria and Albert Museum.) thread is used as a cordonnet for their patterns instead of a thread overcast with buttonhole stitches as in the French needlepoint laces. Note the bright sharp outline to the various ornamental details in PI. V. fig. 206. Needlepoint lace has also been occasionally produced in LACE PLATE V. FIG. 18.— CHARLES GASPARD GUILLAUME DE VINTI- MILLE, WEARING LACE SIMILAR IN STYLE OF DESIGN SHOWN IN FIG. 19. About 1730. FIG 19— PORTION OF FLOUNCE, NEEDLEPOINT LACE COPIED AT THE BURANO LACE SCHOOL FROM THE ORIGINAL OF THE SO-CALLED "POINT DE VENISE A BRIDES PICOTEES." 1 7th century. Formerly belonging to Pope Clement XIII., but now the property of the queen of Italy. The design and work, however, are indistinguishable from those of important flounces of '' Point de France." The pattern consists of repetitions of two vertically-arranged groups of fantastic pine-apples and vases with flowers, intermixed with bold rococo bands and large leaf devices. The hexagonal meshes ^of the ground, although similar to the Venetian " brides picotees," are much akin to the button-hole stitched ground of " Point d'Atgentan." (Victoria and Albert Museum.) XVI. 42. A FIG. 20. B A.— A LAPPET OF " POINT DE VENISE A RESEAU." The conventional character of the pseudo-leaf and floral forms contrasts with that of the realistic designs of contemporary French laces. Italian. Early i8th century. B— A LAPPET OF FINE " POINT D'ALENgON." Louis XV. period. The variety of the fillings of geometric design is particularly remarkable in this specimen, as is the button-hole stitched cordonnat or outline to the various ornamental forms. FIG. 21.— BORDER OF FRENCH NEEDLEPOINT LACE, WITH GROUND OF "RESEAU ROSACE." 1 8th century. PLATE VI. LACE Flo. 22.— JABOT OR CRAVAT OF PILLOW-MADE LACE. Brussels. Late i;th century. (Victoria and Albert Museum.) FIG. 23.— JABOT OR CRAVAT OF PILLOW-MADE LACE OF FANTASTIC FLORAL DESIGN, THE GROUND OF WHICH IS COMPOSED OF LITTLE FLOWERS AND LEAVES ARRANGED WITHIN SMALL OPENWORK VERTICAL STRIPS. Brussels. i8th century. (Victoria and Albert Museum.) LACE 43 England. Whilst the character of its design in the early i7th century was rather more primitive, as a rule, than that of the contemporary Italian, the method of its workmanship is virtually the same and an interesting specimen of English needle-made lace inset into an early 17th-century shirt is illustrated in fig. 33. Specimens of needle-made work done by English school children may be met with in samplers of the i7th and i8th centuries. Needlepoint lace is successfully made at Youghal, Kenmare and New Ross in Ireland, where of late years attention has been given to the study of designs for it. The lace-making school at Burano near Venice produces hand-made laces which are, to a great extent, careful reproductions of the more celebrated classes of point laces, such as " punto in aria," " rose point de Venise," " point de Venise a reseau," "point d'Alencon," "point d'Argentan" and others. Some good needlepoint, lace is made in Bohemia and elsewhere in the Austrian empire. Pillow-made Lace. — Pillow-made lace is built upon no sub- structure corresponding with a skeleton thread pattern such as is used for needlepoint lace, but is the representation of a pattern obtained by twisting and plaiting threads. These patterns were never so strictly geometric in style as those adopted for the earliest point lace making from the ante- cedent cut linen and drawn thread embroideries. Curved forms, almost at the outset of pillow lace, seem to have been found easy of execution (see lower border, PL II. fig. 3); its texture was more lissom and less crisp and wiry in appearance than that of contemporary needle-made lace. The early twisted and plaited thread laces, which had the appearance of small cords merging into one another, were soon succeeded by laces of similar make but with flattened and broader lines more like fine braids or tapes (PL I. fig. 2, and PL III. fig. 10). But pillow laces of this tapey character must not be confused with laces in which actual tape or braid is used. That peculiar class of lace-work does not arise until after the beginning of the I7th century when the weaving of tape is said to have commenced in Flanders. In England this sort of tape-lace dates no farther back than 1747, when two Dutchmen named Lanfort were invited by an English firm to set up tape looms in Manchester. The process by which lace is made on the pillow is roughly and briefly as follows. A pattern is first drawn upon a piece of paper or parchment. It is then pricked with holes by a skilled " pattern pricker," who determines where the principal pins shall be stuck for guid- ing the threads. This pricked pattern is then fastened to the pillow. The pillow or cushion varies in shape in different countries. Some lace-makers use a circular pad, backed with a flat board, in order that it may be placed upon a table and easily moved. Other FIG. 34.— Diagram show- lace-workers use a well-stuffed round .bins in use. pnlow or short boisterj flaUened at the two ends, so that they may hold it conveniently on their laps. From the upper part of pillow with the pattern fastened on it hang the threads from the bobbins. The bobbin threads thus hang across the pattern. Fig. 34 shows the commence- ment, for instance, of a double set of three-thread , plaitings. The compact portion in a pillow lace as a woven appearance (fig. 35). About the middle of the i7th century pillow ' lace of formal scroll patterns somewhat in imita- FIG. 35. tion of those for point lace was made, chiefly in Flanders. The earlier of these had grounds of ties or brides and was often called " point de Flandres " (PL IV. fig. 14) in contradistinction to scroll patterns with a mesh ground, which were called " point d'Angleterre " (PL IV. fig. 16). Into Spain and France much lace from Venice and Flanders was imported as well as into England, where from the i6th century the manufacture of the simple pattern " bone lace " by peasants in the midland and southern counties was still being carried on. In Charles II.'s time its manufacture was threatened with extinction by the preference given to the more artistic and finer Flemish laces. The importation of the latter was accord- ingly prohibited. Dealers in Flemish lace sought to evade the prohibitions by calling certain of their laces " point d'Angleterre," FIG. 36. — Border of English Pillow-made (Devonshire) Lace in the style of a Brussels design of the middle of the 1 8th century. and smuggling them into England. But smuggling was made so difficult that English dealers were glad to obtain the services of Flemish lace-makers and to induce them to settle in England. It is from some such cause that the better I7th- and 18th-century FIG. 37. — Border of English (Bucks, or Beds.) Pillow-made Lace in the style of a Mechlin design of the latter part of the i8th century. English pillow laces bear resemblance to pillow laces of Brussels, of Mechlin and of Valenciennes. As skill in the European lace-making developed soon after the middle of the i7th century, patterns and particular plaitings FIG. 38. — Border of Pillow-made Lace, Mechlin, from a design similar to such as was used for point d'Alencpn of the Louis XV. period. came to be identified with certain localities. Mechlin, for instance, enjoyed a high reputation for her productions. The chief technical features of this pillow lace lie in the plaiting of the meshes, and the outlining of the clothing or toili with a thread cordonnet. The ordinary Mechlin mesh is hexagonal in shape. Four of the sides are of double twisted threads, two are of four threads plaited three times (fig- 39)- In Brussels pillow lace, which has greater variety of design, the mesh is also hexagonal; but in contrast with the Mechlin mesh whilst four of its sides are of double-twisted threads the other two are of four threads plaited four times (fig. 41). The finer specimens of'Brussels lace are remarkable for the fidelity and grace with which the botanical forms in many of its patterns are rendered (PL VI. fig; 23). These are mainly reproductions or adaptations of designs for point d'Alencon, and the soft quality imparted to them in the texture of pillow-made lace contrasts with the harder and more crisp appearance in needlepoint FIG. 39. — Mechlin Mesh. 44 LACE lace. An example of dainty Brussels pillow lace is given in fig. 42. In the Brussels pillow lace a delicate modelling effect FIG. 40. — Border of Pillow-made Lace, Mechlin, end of the l8th century. is often imparted to the close textures of the flowers by means of pressing them with a bone instrument which gives concave shapes to petals and leaves, the edges of which consist in part of slightly raised cordonnet of compact plaited work. Honiton pillow lace resembles Brussels lace, but in most of the English pillow laces (Devonshire, Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire) the reseau is of a simple character (fig. 43). As a rule, English lace is made with a rather coarser thread than that used in the older Flemish laces. In real Flemish Valenciennes lace there are no twisted sides to the mesh; all are closely plaited (fig. 44) and as a rule the shape of the mesh is diamond but without the openings as FIG. 41. — Enlargement shown in fig. 44. No outline or cordonnet of Brussels Mesh. to define the pattern is used in Valen- ciennes lace (see fig. 45). Much lace of the Valenciennes type (fig- 54) is made at Ypres. Besides these distinctive classes of pillow-like laces, there are others in which equal care in plait- FIG. 42. — Portion of a Wedding Veil, 7 ft. 6 in.X6 ft. 6 in., of Pillow-made Lace, Brussels, late l8th century. The design consists of light leafy garlands of orange blossoms and other flowers daintily festooned. Little feathery spirals and stars are powdered over the ground, which is of Brussels wo* reseau. In the centre upon a more open ground of pillow-made hexagonal brides is a group of two birds, one flying towards the other which appears ready to take wing from its nest; an oval frame containing two hearts pierced by an arrow, and a hymeneal torch. Throughout this veil is a profusion of pillow renderings of various modes, the reseau rosace, star devices, &c. The ornamental devices are partly applied and partly worked into the ground (Victoria and Albert Museum). ing and twisting threads is displayed, though the character of the design is comparatively simple, as for instance in ordinary pillow laces from Italy, from the Auvergne, from Bucking- hamshire, or rude and primitive as in laces from Crete, southern Spain and Russia. Pillow lace-making in Crete is now said to be extinct. The laces were made chiefly of silk. The FIG. 43. FIG. 44. patterns in many specimens are outlined with one, two or three bright-coloured silken threads. Uniformity in simple character of design may also be observed in many Italian, Spanish, Bohemian, Swedish and Russian pillow laces (see the lower edge of fig. 46). Guipure. — This name is often applied to needlepoint and pillow laces in which the ground consists of ties or brides, but it more properly designates a kind of lace qr " passementerie," made with gimp of fine wires whipped round with silk, and with cotton thread. An earlier kind of gimp was formed with " Cartisane," a little strip of thin parchment or vellum covered with silk, gold or silver thread. These stiff gimp threads, formed into a pattern, were held together by stitches worked with the needle. Gold and silver thread laces have been usually made on the pillow, though gold thread has been used with fine effect in 1 7th-century Italian needle- point laces. Machine-made Lace. — We have already seen that a technical peculi- arity in making needlepoint lace is that a single thread and needle are alone used to form the pattern, and that the buttonhole stitch and other loopings which can be worked by means of a needle and thread mark a distinction between lace made in this manner and lace made on the pillow. For the process of pillow lace making a series of threads are in constant employment, plaited and twisted the one with another. A buttonhole stitch is not producible by it. The Leavers lace machine does not make either a buttonhole stitch or a plait. An essential prin- FIG. 45.— Lappet of deli- ciple of this machine-made work is cate Pillow-made Lace, that the threads are twisted together Valenciennes, about 1750. as in stocking net. The Leavers lace T.he peculiarity of Valen- „ . ciennes lace is the filmy machine is that generally in use at cambric-like texture and Nottingham and Calais. French in- the absence of any cordon- genuity has developed improvements net to define the separate in this machine whereby laces of deli- Pafts of ,^e ornament such .1 j , , , . as is used in needlepoint lace cate thread are made; but as fast of Alencon, and in pillow as France makes an improvement Mechlin and Brussels lace. England follows with another, and both countries virtually maintain an equal position in this branch of industry. The number of threads brought into opera- tion in a Leavers machine is regulated by the pattern to be produced, the threads being of two sorts, beam or warp threads LACE 45 and bobbin or weft threads. Upwards of 8880 are sometimes used, sixty pieces of lace being made simultaneously, each piece requiring 148 threads — too beam threads and 48 bobbin threads. The ends of both sets of threads are fixed to a cylinder upon which as the manufacture proceeds the lace becomes wound. ^ FIG. 46. — Border to a Cloth. The wide part bearing the double- headed eagle of Russia is of drawn thread embroidery : the scalloped edging is of Russian pillow-made lace, though the style of its pattern is often seen in pillow laces made by peasants in Danubian provinces as well as in the south of Spain. The supply of the beam or warp threads is held upon reels, and that of the bobbins or weft threads is held in bobbins. The beam or warp thread reels are arranged in frames or trays beneath the stage, above which and between it and the cylinder the twisting of the bobbin or weft with beam or warp threads takes place. The bobbins containing the bobbin or weft threads are flat- tened in shape so as to pass conveniently be- tween the stretched beam or warp threads. Each bobbin can contain about 120 yds. of thread. By most ingenious mechan- ism varying degrees of tension can be imparted to warp and weft threads as required. As the bob- bins or weft threads pass like pendulums between the warp threads the latter are made to oscil- late, thus causing them to become twisted with the bobbin threads. As the twistings take place, combs passing through both warp and weft threads compress the FIG. 47. FIG. 48. twistings. Thus the tex- ture of the clothing or toils in machine-made lace may generally be detected by its ribbed appearance, due to the compressed twisted threads. Figs. 47 and 48 are intended to show effects obtained by varying the tensions of weft and warp threads. For in- stance, if the weft, as threads b, b, b, b in fig. 47, be tight and the warp thread slack, the warp thread a will be twisted upon the weft threads. But if the warp thread a be tight and the weft threads b, b, b, b, be slack, as in fig. 48, then the weft threads will be twisted on the warp thread. At the same time FIG. 49. — Section of Lace Machine. the twisting in both these cases arises from the conjunction of movements given to the two sets of threads, namely, an oscilla- tion or movement from side to side of the beam or warp threads, and the swinging or pendulum-like movement of the bobbin or weft threads between the warp threads. Fig. 49 is a diagram of a sectional eleva- tion of a lace machine repre- senting its more essential parts. E is the cylinder or beam upon which the lace is rolled as made, and upon which the ends of both warp and weft threads are fastened at starting. Beneath are w, w, w, a series of trays or beams, one above the other, containing the reels of the supplies of warp threads; c, c represent the slide bars for the passage of the bobbin b with fts ead from * to *, the FIG. 50.— Machine-made Lace in landing bars, one on each side of the rank of warp threads; s, t are the combs which take it in turns to press together the twistings as they are made. The combs come away dear from the threads as soon as they have pressed them together and fall into positions ready 46 LACE to perform their pressing operations again. The contrivances for giving each thread a particular tension and movement at a certain time are connected with an adaptation of the Jacquard system of pierced cards. The machine lace pattern drafter has to calculate how many holes shall be punched in a card, and to .determine the position of I such holes. Each hole I regulates the mechanism for giving movement to a thread. Fig. 54 displays a piece of hand-made Valen- ciennes (Ypres) lace and fig. 55 a corresponding piece I woven by the machine. The latter shows the advantage I that can be gained by using very fine gauge machines, thus enabling a very close imitation of the real lace to be made br securing a very °Pen and clear reseau or net, such as would be made on a Pillow Guipure Lace. coarse machine, and at the same time to keep the pattern fine and solid and standing out well from the net, as is the case with the real lace, which cannot be done by using a coarse gauge machine. In this example the machine used is a 16 point (that is 32 carriages to the inch), and the ground is made half gauge, that is 8 point, FIG. 52. — Border of Machine-made Lace in imitation of 17th- century Pillow Lace. and the weaving is made the full gauge of the machine, that is 16 point. Fig. 56 gives other examples of hand- and machine- made Valenciennes lace. The machine-made lace (6) imitating the real (a) is made on a i4-point machine (that is 28 carriages to the inch), the ground being 7 point and the pattern being full gauge or 14 point. Although the principle in these examples of machine work is exactly the same, in so far that they use half gauge net and full gauge clothing to produce the contrast as mentioned above, the fabrication of these two examples is quite different, that in fig. 55 being an example of tight bobbins or weft, and slack warp threads as shown in fig. 47. Whereas the ex- ample in fig. 56 is made with slack bobbins or weft threads and tight warp threads as in fig. 48. In fig. 57 is a piece of FIG. 53. — Machine-made Trim- ming Border in imitation of Irish Crochet Lace. hand-made laceofstoutthread, very similar to much Cluny lace made in the Auvergne and to the Buckinghamshire "Maltese" lace. Close to it are specimens of lace (figs. 58 and 59) made by the new patent circular lace machine of Messrs Birkin of Notting- ham. This machine although very slow in production actually reproduces the real lace, at a cost slightly below that of the hand- made lace. In another branch of lace-making by machinery, mechanical ingenuity, combined with chemical treatment, has FIG. 54. — A Piece of Hand-made Pillow Lace, Belgian (Ypres), aoth century. (The machine imitation is given in fig. 55.) led to surprising results (figs. 53 and 50). Swiss, German and other manufacturers use machines in which a principle of the sewing-machine is involved. A fine silken tissue is thereby FIG. 55. — Machine-made Lace in imitation of the Hand-made Speci- men of fig. 54. (Nottingham, 2Oth century.) FIG. 56.— Small Borders (a) Hand-made and (b) Machine-made Lace Valen- ciennes. (Nottingham, 20th- century.) enriched with an elaborately raised cotton or thread embroidery. The whole fabric is then treated with chemical mordants which, whilst dissolving the silky web, do not attack the cotton or FIG. 57.— Speci- FIG. 58. — Specimen of Machine-made Lace in men of Hand-made which the twisting and plaiting of the threads. Pillow Lace. are identical with those of the hand-made speci- men of fig. 57. (Nottingham, 2Oth century.) thread embroidery. A relief embroidery possessing the appear- ance of hand-made raised needlepoint lace is thus produced. LACE FIG. 59. — Specimens of Machine-made Torchon Lace, in the same manner as such lace is made on the pillow by hand. (Nottingham, 2Oth century.) Figs. 60 and 61 give some idea of the high quality to which this admirable counterfeit has been brought. Collections of hand-made lace chiefly exist in museums and technical institutions, as for instance the Victoria and Albert FIG. 60. — Machine-made Lace of Modern Design. Museum in London, the Musee des Arts Decoratifs in Paris, and museums at Lyons, Nuremberg, Berlin, Turin and elsewhere. FIG. 61. — Machine-made Lace in imitation of ijth-century Needlepoint Lace, " Gros point de Venise." In such places the opportunity is presented of tracing in chrono- logical sequence the stages of pattern and texture development. Literature. — The literature of the art of lace-making is considerable. The series of l6th- and 17th-century lace pattern-books, of which the more important are perhaps those by F. Vinciolo (Paris, 1587), Cesare Vecellio (Venice, 1592), and Isabella Catanea Parasole (Venice, 1600), not to mention several kindred works of earlier and later date published in Germany and the Netherlands, supplies a large field for exploration. Signor Ongania of Venice published a limited number of facsimiles of the majority of such works. M. Alvin of Brussels issued a brochure in 1863 upon these patterns, and in the same year the marquis Girolamo d'Adda contributed two biblio- graphical essays upon the same subject to the Gazette des Beaux- Arts (vol. xv. p. 342 seq., and voUxyii. p. 421 seq.). In 1864 Cavaliere A. Merli wrote a pamphlet (with illustrations) entitled Online ed uso delle trine afilp di rete; Mons F. de Fertiault compiled a brief and rather fanciful Histoire de la dentelle in 1843, in which he reproduced statements to be found in Diderot's Encyclopedic, subsequently quoted by Roland de la Platiere. The first Report of the Department of Practical Art (1853) contains a " Report on Cotton Print Works and Lace-Making " by Octavius Hudson, and in the first Report of the Department of Science and Art are some " Observations on Lace. Reports upon the International Exhibitions of 1851 (London) and 1867 (Paris), by M. Aubry, Mrs Palliser and others contain informa- tion concerning lace-making. The most important work first issued upon the history of lace-making is that by Mrs Bury Palliser (History of Lace, 1869). In this work the history is treated rather from an antiquarian than a technical point of view; and wardrobe accounts, inventories, state papers, fashionable journals, diaries, plays, poems, have been laid under contribution with surprising diligence. A new edition published in 1902 presents the work as entirely revised, re- written and enlarged under the editorship of M. Jourdain and Alice Dryden. In 1875 the Arundel Society brought out A ncient Needle- point and Pillow Lace, a folio volume of permanently printed photo- graphs taken from some of the finest specimens of ancient lace collected for the International Exhibition of 1874. These were accompanied by a brief history of lace, written from the technical aspect of the art, by Alan S. Cole. At the same time appeared a bulky imperial 410 volume by Seguin, entitled La Dentelle, illustrated with wood-cuts and fifty photo-typographical plates. Seguin divides his work into four sections. The first is devoted to a sketch of the origin of laces; the second deals with pillow laces, bibliography of lace and a review of sumptuary edicts; the third relates to needle- made lace ; and the fourth contains an account of places where lace has bjen and is made, remarks upon commerce in lace, and upon the industry of lace makers. Without sufficient conclusive evidence Seguin accords to France the palm for having excelled in producing practically all the richer sorts of laces, notwithstanding that both before and since the publication of his otherwise valuable work, many types of them have been identified as being Italian in origin. De- scriptive catalogues are issued of the lace collections at South Kensington Museum, at the Science and Art Museum, Dublin, and at the Industrial Museum, Nuremberg. In 1881 a series of four Cantor Lectures on the art of lace-making were delivered before the Society of Arts by Alan S. Cole. A Technical History of the Manufacture of Venetian Laces, by G. M. Urbani de Gheltof, with plates, was translated by Lady Layard, and published at Venice by Signor Ongania. The History of Machine-wrought Hosiery and Lace Manufacture (London, 1867), by Felkin, has already been referred to. There is also a technological essay upon lace made by machinery, with diagrams of lace stitches and patterns (Technologische Studien im sachsischen Erzgebirge, Leipzig, 1878), by Hugo Fischer. In 1886 the Libraire Renouard, Paris, published a History of Point d'Alenc.on, written by Madame G. Despierres, which gives a close and interesting account of the industry, together with a list, compiled from local records, of makers and dealers from 1602 onwards. — Embroidery and Lace: their manu- facture and history from the remotest antiquity to the present day, by Ernest Lefebure, lace-maker and administrator of the Ecole des Arts Deciratifs, translated and enlarged with notes by Alan S. Cole, was published in London in 1888. It is a well-illustrated handbook for amiteurs, collectors and general readers.— Irish laces made from modern designs are illustrated in a Renascence of the Irish Art of Lace- making, published in 1888 (London). — Anciennes Dentelles beiges formant la collection de feue madame Augusta Baronne Liedts el donnees au Musee de Grunthuis a Bruges, published at Antwerp in 1889, consists of a folio volume containing upwards of 181 photo- types— many full size — of fine specimens of lace. The ascriptions of country and date of origin are occasionally inaccurate, on account of a too obvious desire to credit Bruges with being the birthplace of all sorts of lace-work, much of which shown in this work is distinctly Italian in style. — The Encyclopaedia of Needlework, by Thdrese de Dillmont-Dornach (Alsace, 1891), is a detailed guide to several kinds of embroidery, knitting, crochet, tatting, netting and most of the essential stitches for needlepoint lace. It is well illustrated with wood-cuts and process blocks. — An exhaustive history of Russian lace-making is given in La Dentelle russe, by Madame Sophie Davidoff, published at Leipzig, 1895. Russian lace is principally pillow-work with rather heavy thread, and upwards of eighty specimens are reproduced by photo-lithography in this book. A short account of the best-known varieties of Point and Pillow Lace, by A. M. S. (London, 1899), is illustrated with typical specimens of Italian, Flemish, French and English laces, as well as with magni- fied details of lace, enabling any one to identify the plaits, the tw'sts and loops of threads in the actual making of the fabric. — L 'Industrie LACE-BARK TREE— LA CHAISE-DIEU des tulles el dentelles mecaniques dans le Pas de Calais, 1815-1900, by Henri H6non (Paris, 1900), is an important volume of over 600 pages of letterpress, interspersed with abundant process blocks of the several kinds of machine nets and laces made at Calais since 1815. It opens with a short account of the Arras hand-made laces, the pro- duction of which is now almost extinct. The book was sold for the benefit of a public subscription towards the erection of a statue in Calais to Jacquard, the inventor of the apparatus by means of which all figured textile fabrics are manufactured. It is of some interest to note that machine net and lace-making at Calais owe their origin to Englishmen, amongst whom " le sieur R. Webster arriv£ a St Pierre- les-Calais en Decembre, 1816, venant d'Angleterre, est 1'un des premiers qui ont etabli dans la communaute une fabrique de tulles," &c. Lace-making in the Midlands: Past and Present, by C. C. Channer and M. E. Roberts (London, 1900) upon the lace-making industry in Buckinghamshire, Bedforshire and Northamptonshire contains many illustrations of laces made in these counties from the 1 7th century to the present time. Musee retrospectif. Dentelles a I'exposition universelle Internationale de 1900 a Paris. Rapport de Mons. E. Lefebvre contains several good illustrations, especially of important specimens of Point de France of the 1 7th and i8th centuries. Le Point de France et les autres dentelliers au X VII' et au X VIII' siecles, by Madame Laurence de Laprade (Paris, 1905), brings together much hitherto scattered information throwing light upon operations in many localities in France where the industry has been carried on for considerable periods. The book is well and usefully illustrated. See also Irische Spitzen (30 half-tone plates), with a short historical introduction by Alan S. Cole (Stuttgart, 1002) ; Pillow Lace, a practical handbook by Elizabeth Mincoff and Margaret S. Marriage (London, 1907); The Art of Bobbin Lace, a practical text-book of workmanship, &c., by Louisa Tebbs (London, 1907); Antiche trine italiane, by Elisa Ricci (Bergamo, 1908), well illustrated; Seven Centuries of Lace, by Mrs John Hungerford Pollen (London and New York, 1908), very fully illustrated. (A. S. C.) LACE-BARK TREE, a native of Jamaica, known botanically as Lagetta lintearia, from its native name lagetto. The inner bark consists of numerous concentric layers of interlacing 'fibres resembling in appearance lace. Collars and other articles of apparel have been made of the fibre, which is also used in the manufacture of whips, &c. The tree belongs to the natural order Thymelaeaceae, and is grown in hothouses in Britain. LACEDAEMON, in historical times an alternative name of LACONIA (q.v.). Homer uses only the former, and in some passages seems to denote by it the Achaean citadel, the Therapnae of later times, in contrast to the lower town Sparta (G. Gilbert, Studien zur altspartanischen Geschichte, Gottingen, 1872, p. 34 foil.). It is described by the epithets wiXij (hollow) and lap-uitaaa. (spacious or hollow), and is probably connected etymologically with XifuKos, locus, any hollow place. Lacedaemon is now the name of a separate department, which had in 1907 a population of 87,106. LACEPEDE, BERNARD GERMAIN ETIENNE DE LA VILLE, COMTE DE (1756-1825), French naturalist, was born at Agen in Guienne on the 26th of December 1756. His education was carefully conducted by his father, and the early perusal of Buffon's Natural History awakened his interest in that branch of study, which absorbed his chief attention. His leisure he devoted to music, in which, besides becoming a good performer on the piano and organ, he acquired considerable mastery of composition, two of his operas (which were never published) meeting with the high approval of Gluck; in 1781-1785 he also brought out in two volumes his Poetique de la musique. Mean- time he wrote two treaties, Essai sur Velectricite (1781) and Physique generale et particuliere (1782-1784), which gained him the friendship of Buffon, who in 1785 appointed him sub- demonstrator in the Jardin du Roi, and proposed to him to become the continuator of his Histoire naturelle. This continuation was published under the titles Histoire des quadrupedes ovipares (A des serpents (2 vols., 1788-1789) and Histoire naturelle des reptiles (1789). After the Revolution Lacepe'de became a member of the legislative assembly, but during the Reign of Terror he left Paris, his life having become endangered by his disapproval of the massacres. When the Jardin du Roi was reorganized as the Jardin des Plantes, Lacepede was appointed to the chair allocated to the study of reptiles and fishes. In 1798 he published the first volume of Histoire naturelle des poissons, the fifth volume appearing in 1803; and in 1804 appeared his Histoire des cetaces. From this period till his death the part he took in politics prevented him making any further contribution of importance to science. In 1799 he became a senator, in 1801 president of the senate, in 1803 grand chancellor of the legion of honour, in 1804 minister of state, and at the Restoration in 1819 he was created a peer of France. He died at Epinay on the 6th of October 1825. During the latter part of his life he wrote Histoire generale physique et cimle de I' Europe, published posthumously in 18 vols., 1826. A collected edition of his works on natural history was published in 1826. LACEWING-FLY, the name given to neuropterous insects of the families Hemerobiidae and Chrysopidae, related to the ant- lions, scorpion-flies, &c., with long filiform antennae, longish bodies and two pairs of large similar richly veined wings. The larvae are short grubs beset with hair-tufts and tubercles. They feed upon Aphidae or " green fly " and cover themselves with the emptied skins of their prey. Lacewing-flies of the genus Chrysopa are commonly called golden-eye flies. LA CHAISE, FRANCOIS DE (1624-1709), father confessor of Louis XIV., was born at the chateau of Aix in Forey on the 25th of August 1624, being the son of Georges d'Aix, seigneur de la Chaise, and of Renee de Rochefort. On his mother's side he was a grandnephew of Pere Coton, the confessor of Henry IV. He became a novice of the Society of Jesus before completing his studies at the university of Lyons, where, after taking the final vows, he lectured on philosophy to students attracted by his fame from all parts of France. Through the influence of Camille de Villeroy, archbishop of Lyons, Pere de la Chaise was nominated in 1674 confessor of Louis XIV., who intrusted him during the lifetime of Harlay de Champvallon, archbishop of Paris, with the administration of the ecclesiastical patronage of the crown. The confessor united his influence with that of Madame de Maintenon to induce the king to abandon his liaison with Madame de Montespan. More than once at Easter he is said to have had a convenient illness which dispensed him from granting absolution to Louis XIV. With the fall of Madame de Montespan and the ascendancy of Madame de Maintenon his influence vastly increased. The marriage between Louis XIV. and Madame de Maintenon was celebrated in his presence at Versailles, but there is no reason for supposing that the subsequent coolness between him and Madame de Maintenon arose from his insistence on secrecy in this matter. During the long strife over the temporalities of the Gallican Church between Louis XIV. and Innocent XI. Pere de la Chaise supported the royal prerogative, though he used his influence at Rome to conciliate the papal authorities. He must be held largely responsible for the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, but not for the brutal measures applied against the Protestants. He exercised a moderating influence on Louis XIV. 's zeal against the Jansenists, and Saint-Simon, who was opposed to him in most matters, does full justice to his humane and honourable character. Pere de la Chaise had a lasting and unalterable affection for Fenelon, which remained unchanged by the papal condemnation of the Maximes. In spite of failing faculties he continued his duties as confessor to Louis XIV. to the end of his long life. He died on the 2oth of January 1709. The cemetery of Pe're-la-Chaise in Paris stands on property acquired by the Jesuits in 1826, and not, as is often stated, on property personally granted to him. See R. Chantelauze, Le Pere de la Chaise. Etudes d'histoire re- ligieuse (Paris and Lyons, 1859). LA CHAISE-DIEU, a town of central France, in the depart- ment of Haute Loire, 29 m. N.N.W. of Le Puy by rail. Pop. (1906) 1203. The town, which is situated among fir and pine woods, 3500 ft. above the sea, preserves remains of its ramparts and some houses of the i4th and isth centuries, but owes its celebrity to a church, which, after the cathedral of Clermont- Ferrand, is the most remarkable Gothic building in Auvergne. The west facade, approached by a flight of steps, is flanked by two massive towers. The nave and aisles are of equal height and are separated from the choir by a stone rood screen. The LA CHALOTAIS— LACHES choir, terminating in an apse with radiating chapel, contains th fine tomb and statue of Clement VI., carved stalls and some admirable Flemish tapestries of the early i6th century. There is a ruined cloister on the south side. The church, which dates from the i4th century, was built at the expense of Pope Clement VI., and belonged to a powerful Benedictine abbey founded in 1043. There are spacious monastic buildings of the i8th century The abbey was formerly defended by fortifications, the chief survival of which is a lofty rectangular keep to the south of the choir. Trade in timber and the making of lace chiefly occupy th inhabitants of the town. LA CHALOTAIS, LOUIS RENE DE CARADEUC DE (1701- 1785), French jurist, was born at Rennes, on the 6th of March 1701. He was for 60 years procureur general at the parliament of Brittany. He was an ardent opponent of the Jesuits, drew up in 1761 for the parliament a memoir on the constitu- tions of the Order, which did much to secure its suppression in France; and in 1763 published a remarkable "Essay on National Education," in which he proposed a programme of scientific studies as a substitute for those taught by the Jesuits. The same year began the conflict between the Estates of Brittany and the governor of the province, the due d'Aiguillon (q.v.). The Estates refused to vote the extraordinary imposts demanded by the governor in the name of the king. La Chalotais was the personal enemy of d'Aiguillon, who had served him an ill turn with the king, and when the parliament of Brittany sided with the Estates, he took the lead in its opposition. The parliament forbade by decrees the levy of imposts to which the Estates had not consented. The king annulling these decrees, all the members of the parliament but twelve resigned (October 1764 to May 1765). The government considered La Chalotais one of the authors of this affair. At this time the secretary of state who administered the affairs of the province, Louis Philypeaux, due de la Vrilliere, comte de Saint-Florentin (1705-1777), received two anonymous and abusive letters. La Chalotais was suspected of having written them, and three experts in handwriting declared that they were by him. The government therefore arrested him, his son and four other members of the parliament. The arrest made a great sensation. There was much talk of " despotism." Voltaire stated that the procureur general, in his prison of Saint Malo, was reduced, for lack of ink, to write his defence with a toothpick dipped in vinegar — which was apparently pure legend; but public opinion all over France was strongly aroused against the government. On the i6th of November 1765 a commission of judges was named to take charge of the trial. La Chalotais maintained that the trial was illegal; being procureur general he claimed the right to be judged by the parliament of Rennes, or failing this by the parliament of Bordeaux, according to the custom of the province. The judges did not dare to pronounce a condemnation on the evidence of experts in handwriting, and at the end of a year, things remained where they were at the first. Louis XV. then decided on a sovereign act, and brought the affair before his council, which without further formality decided to send the accused into exile. That expedient but increased the popular agitation; philosophes, members of the parliament, patriot Bretons and Jansenists all declared that La Chalotais was the victim of the personal hatred of the due d'Aiguillon and of the Jesuits. The govern- ment at last gave way, and consented to recaU the members of the parliament of Brittany who had resigned. This parliament, when it met again, after the formal accusation of the due d'Aiguillon, demanded the recall of La Chalotais. This was accorded in 1775, and La Chalotais was allowed to transmit his office to his son. In this affair public opinion showed itself stronger than the absolutism of the king. The opposition to the royal power gained largely through it, and it may be regarded as one of the preludes to the revolution of 1789. La Chalotais, who was personally a violent, haughty and unsympathetic character, died at Rennes on the 1 2th of July 1785. See, besides the Comptes-Rendus des Constitutions des Jesuites and the Essai d education nationals, the Memoires de la Chalotais (3 vols , 1766-1767). Two works containing detailed bibliographies are 49 Marion, La Bretagne et le due d'Aiguillon (Paris, 180-1) and B Pocquet, Le Due d'Aiguillon et La Chalotais (Paris, 1901). See also a controversy between these two authors in the Bulletin critique for 1902. LA CHARITE, a town of central France in the department of Nievre, on the right bank of the Loire, 17 m. N.N.W. of Nevers on the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway. Pop. (1906) 3990. La Charit6 possesses the remains of a fine Romanesque basilica, the church of Sainte-Croix, dating from the nth and early i2th centuries. The plan consists of a nave, rebuilt at the end of the 1 7th century, transept and choir with ambulatory and side chapels. Surmounting the transept is an octagonal tower of one story, and a square Romanesque tower of much beauty flanks the main portal. There are ruins of the ramparts, which date from the i4th century. The manufacture of hosiery, boots and shoes, files and iron goods, lime and cement and woollen and other fabrics are among the industries; trade is chiefly in wood and iron. La Charite" owes its celebrity to its priory, which was founded in the 8th century and reorganized as a dependency of the abbey of Cluny in 1052. It became the parent of many priories and monasteries, some of them in England and Italy. The possession of the town was hotly contested during the wars of religion of the i6th century, at the end of which its fortifications were dismantled. LA CHAUSSEE, PIERRE CLAUDE NIVELLE DE (1692- I7S4), French dramatist, was born in Paris in 1692. In 1731 he published an Epitre d Clio, a didactic poem in defence of Leriget de la Faye in his dispute with Antoine Houdart de la Motte, who had maintained that verse was useless in tragedy. La Chaussee was forty years old before he produced his first play, La Fausse Antipathie (1734). His second play, Le Prejuge d la mode (1735) turns on the fear of incurring ridicule felt by a man in love with his own wife, a prejudice dispelled in France, according to La Harpe, by La Chaussee's comedy. L'Ecole des amis (1737) followed, and, after an unsuccessful attempt at tragedy in Maximinien, he returned to comedy in Melanide (i74i)- In Melanide the type known as comedie larmoyante is fully developed. Comedy was no longer to provoke laughter, but tears. The innovation consisted in destroying the sharp distinction then existing between tragedy and comedy in French literature. Indications of this change had been already offered in the work of Marivaux, and La Chaussee's plays led naturally to the domestic drama of Diderot and of Sedaine. The new method found bitter enemies. Alexis Piron nicknames the author " le Reverend Pere Chaussee," and ridiculed him in one of his most famous epigrams. Voltaire maintained that the comedie larmoyante was a proof of the inability of the author o produce either of the recognized kinds of drama, though he limself produced a play of similar character in L' Enfant prodigue. The hostility of the critics did not prevent the public from shed- ding tears nightly over the sorrows of La Chaussee's heroine. L'Ecole des meres (1744) and La Gouvernante (1747) form, with those already mentioned, the best of his work. The strict moral aims pursued by La Chaussee in his plays seem hardly consistent with his private preferences. He frequented the same gay society as did the comte de Caylus and contributed to the Recueils de ces messieurs. La Chaussee died on the i4th of May 1754. Villemain said of his style that he wrote prosaic verses with purity, while Voltaire, usually an adverse critic of lis work, said he was " un des premiers apres ceux qui ont du genie." For the comedie larmoyante see G. Lanson, Nivelle de la Chaussee t la comedie larmoyante (1887). LACHES (from Anglo-French lachesse, negligence, from asche, modern Idche, unloosed, slack), a term for slackness >r negligence, used particularly in law to signify negligence >n the part of a person in doing that which he is by law bound o do, or unreasonable lapse of time in asserting a right, seeking elief, or claiming a privilege. Laches is frequently a bar to a remedy which might have been had if prosecuted in proper ime. Statutes of limitation specify the time within which /arious classes of actions may be brought. Apart from statutes of limitation courts of equity will often refuse relief to those LACHINE— LA CLOCHE who have allowed unreasonable time to elapse in seeking it, on the principle mgilanlibus ac non dormientibus jura sub- veniunt. LACHINE, an incorporated town in Jacques Cartier county, Quebec, Canada, 8 m. W. of Montreal, on Lake St Louis, an expansion of the St Lawrence river, and at the upper end of the Lachine canal. Pop. (1901) 5561. It is a station on the Grand Trunk railway and a port of call for ateamers plying between Montreal and the Great Lakes. It is a favourite summer resort for the people of Montreal. It was named in 1669 in mockery of its then owner, Robert Cavelier de la Salle (1643- 1687), who dreamed of a westward passage to China. In 1689 it was the scene of a terrible massacre of the French by the Iroquois. LACHISH. a town of great importance in S. Palestine, often mentioned in the Tell el-Amarna tablets. It was destroyed by Joshua for joining the league against the Gibeonites (Joshua x 3!-33) and assigned to the tribe of Judah (xv. 39). Rehoboam fortified it (2 Chron. xi. 9). King Amaziah having fled hither, was here murdered by conspirators (2 Kings xiv. 19). Sennacherib here conducted a campaign (2 Kings xviii. 13) during which Hezekiah endeavoured to make terms with him: the campaign is commemorated by bas-reliefs found in Nineveh, now in the British Museum (see G. Smith's History of Sennacherib, p. 69). It was one of the last cities that resisted Nebuchadnezzar (Jer. xxxiv. 7). The meaning of Micah's denunciation (i. 13) of the city is unknown. The Onomasticon places it 7 m. from Eleutheropolis on the S. road, which agrees with the generally received identification, Tell el-Hesi, an important mound excavated for the Palestine Exploration Fund by Petrie and Bliss, 1890-1893. The name is preserved in a small Roman site in the neighbourhood, Umm Lakis, which probably repre- sents a later dwelling-place of the descendants of the ancient inhabitants of the city. See W. M. Flinders Petrie, Tell el-Hesy, and F. J. Bliss, A Mound of many Cities, both published by the Palestine Exploration Fund. (R A. S. M.) LACHMANN, KARL KONRAD FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1793-1851), German philologist and critic, was born at Bruns- wick on the 4th of March 1793. He studied at Leipzig and Gottingen, devoting himself mainly to philological studies. In 1815 he joined the Prussian army as a volunteer chasseur and accompanied his detachment to Paris, but did not encounter the enemy. In 1816 he became an assistant master in the Friedrich Werder gymnasium at Berlin, and a privat-docentat the university. The same summer he became one of the principal masters in the Friedrichs-Gymnasium of Konigsberg, where he assisted his colleague, the Germanist Friedrich Karl Kopke (1785-1865) with his edition of Rudolf von Ems' Barlaam und Josaphat (1818), and also assisted his friend in a contemplated edition of the works of Walther von der Vogelweide. In January 1818 he became professor extraordinarius of classical philology in the university of Konigsberg, and at the same time began to lecture on Old German grammar and the Middle High German poets. He devoted himself during the following seven years to an extraordinarily minute study of those subjects, and in 1824 obtained leave of absence in order that he might search the libraries of middle and south Germany for further materials. In 1825 Lachmann was nominated extraordinary professor of classical and German philology in the university of Berlin (ordinary professor 1 82 7); and in 1830 he was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences. The remainder of his laborious and fruitful life as an author and a teacher was uneventful. He died on the i3th of March 1851. Lachmann, who was the translator of the first volume of P. E. Mtiller's Sagabibhothek des skandmavischen Altertums (1816), is a figure of considerable importance in the history of German philology (see Rudolf von Raumer. GeschichtedergermanischenPhilologie, 1870). In his " Habilitationsschrift " Vber die urspriingliche Gestalt des Gedichts der Nibelunge Not (1816), and still more in his review of Hagen's Nibelungen and Benecke's Bonerius, contributed in 1817 to the Jenaische Literaturzeitung he had already laid down the rules of textual criticism and elucidated the phonetic and metrical principles of Middle High German in a manner which marked a distinct advance in that branch of investigation. The rigidly scientific char- acter of his method becomes increasingly apparent in the Auswahl aus den hochdeutschen Dichlern des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts (1820), in the edition of Hartmann's Iwein (1827), in those of Walther von der Vogelweide (1827) and Wolfram von Eschenbach (1833), in the papers " Uber das Hildebrandslied," " tJber althochdeutsche Betonung und Verskunst," " tJber den Eingang des Parzivals," and " Uber drei Bruchstticke niederrheiniseher Gedichte " published in the Abhandlungen of the Berlin Academy, and in Der Nibelunge Not und die Klage (1826, nth ed., 1892), which was followed by a critical commentary in 1836. Lachmann's Betrachtungen iiber Homer's Ilias, first published in the Abhandlungen of the Berlin Academy in 1837 and 1841, in which he sought to show that the Iliad consists of sixteen independent " lays " variously enlarged and interpolated, have had considerable influence on modern Homeric criticism (see HOMER), although his views are no longer accepted. His smaller edition of the New Testament appeared in 1 83 1 , 3rd ed. 1 846 ; the larger, in two volumes, in 1842-1850. The plan of Lachmann's edition, explained by himself in the Stud. u. Krit. of 1830, is a modi- fication of the unaccomplished project of Bentley. It seeks to restore the most ancient reading current in Eastern MSS., using the consent of the Latin authorities (Old Latin and Greek Western Uncials) as the main proof of antiquity of a reading where the oldest Eastern authorities differ. Besides Propertius (1816), Lachmann edited Catullus (1829); Tibullus (1829); Cenesius (1834); Teren- tianus Maurus (1836) ; Babrius (1845) '< Avianus (1845) • Gaius (1841- 1842); the Agrimensores Romani (1848-1852); Lucilius (edited after his death by Vahlen, 1876); and Lucretius (1850). The last, which was the main occupation of the closing years of his life, from 1845, was perhaps his greatest achievement, and has been character- ized by Munro as " a work which will be a landmark for scholars as long as the Latin language continues to be studied." Lachmann also translated Shakespeare's sonnets (1820) and Macbeth (1829). See M. Hertz, Karl Lachmann, eine Biographie (1851), where a full list of Lachmann's works is given; F. Leo, Rede zur Sacularfeier K. Lachmanns (1893); J. Grimm, biography in Kleine Schriften; W. Scherer in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, xvii., and J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Classical Scholarship, iii. (1908), pp. 127-131. LACINIUM, PROMUNTURIUM (mod. Capo delle Colonne), 7 m S.E. of Crotona (mod. Cotrone); the easternmost point of Bruttii (mod. Calabria). On the cape still stands a single column of the temple erected to Hera Lacinia, which is said to have been fairly complete in the i6th century, but to have been destroyed to build the episcopal palace at Cotrone. It is a Doric column with capital, about 27 ft. in height. Remains of marble roof-tiles have been seen on the spot (Livy xlii. 3) and architectural fragments were excavated in 1886-1887 by the Archaeological Institute of America. The sculptures found were mostly buried again, but a few fragments, some decorative terra-cottas and a dedicatory inscription to Hera of the 6th century B.C., in private possession at Cotrone, are described by F. von Duhn in Nolizie degli scavi, 1897, 343 seq. The date of the erection of the temple may be given as 480-440 B.C.; it is not recorded by any ancient writer. See R. Koldewey and O. Puchstein, Die griechischen Tempel in Unteritalien und Sicilien (Berlin 1899, 41). LA CIOTAT, a coast town of south-eastern France in the department of Bouches-du-Rh6ne, on the west shore of the Bay of La Ciotat, 26 m. S.E. of Marseilles by rail. Pop. (1906) 10,562. The port is easily accessible and well sheltered. The large shipbuilding yards and repairing docks of the Messageries Maritimes Company give employment to between 2000 and 3000 workmen. Fishing and an active coasting trade are carried on; the town is frequented for sea-bathing. La Ciotat was in ancient times the port of the neighbouring town of Citharista (now the village of Ceyreste). LA CLOCHE, JAMES DE ["Prince James Stuart "] (1644 ?- 1669), a character who was brought into the history of England by Lord Acton in 1862 (Home and Foreign Review, i. 146- 174: "The Secret History of Charles II."). From informa- tion discovered by Father Boero in the archives of the Jesuits in Rome, Lord Acton averred that Charles II., when a lad at Jersey, had a natural son, James. The evidence follows. On the 2nd of April 1668, as the register of the Jesuit House of Novices at Rome attests, " there entered Jacobus de la Cloche." His baggage was exiguous, his attire was clerical. He is described as " from the island of Jersey, under the king of England, aged 24." He possessed two documents in French, purporting to have been written by Charles II. at Whitehall, on the 25th of LA CONDAMINE— LACONIA September 1665, and on the 7th of February 1667. In both Charles acknowledges James to be his natural son, he styles him " James de la Cloche de Bourg du Jersey," and avers that to recognize him publicly " would imperil the peace of the kingdoms " — why is not apparent. A third certificate of birth, in Latin, undated, was from Christina of Sweden, who declares that James, previously a Protestant, has been received into the church of Rome at Hamburg (where in 1667-1668 she was residing) on the 2gth of July 1667. The next paper purports to be a letter from Charles II. of August 3/13 to Oliva, general of the Jesuits. The king writes, in French, that he has long wished to be secretly received into the church. He therefore desires that James, his son by a young lady " of the highest quality," and born to him when he was about sixteen, should be ordained a priest, come to England, and receive him. Charles alludes to previous attempts of his own to be secretly admitted (1662). James must be sent secretly to London at once, and Oliva must say nothing to Christina of Sweden (then meditating a journey to Rome), and must never write to Charles except when James carries the letter. Charles next writes on August 29/September g. He is most anxious that Christina should not meet James; if she knows Charles's design of changing his creed she will not keep it secret, and Charles will infallibly lose his life. With this letter there is another, written when the first had been sealed. Charles insists that James must not be accompanied, as novices were, when travelling, by a Jesuit socius or guardian. Charles's wife and mother have just heard that this is the rule, but the rule must be broken. James, who is to travel as " Henri de Rohan," must not come by way of France. Oliva will supply him with funds. On the back of this letter Oliva has written the draft of his brief reply to Charles (from Leghorn, October 14, 1668). He merely says that the bearer, a French gentleman (James spoke only French), will inform the king that his orders have been executed. Besides these two letters is one from Charles to James, of date August 4/14. It is addressed to " Le Prince Stuart," though none of Charles's bastards was allowed to bear the Stuart name. James is told that he may desert the clerical profession if he pleases. In that case " you may claim higher titles from us than the duke of Monmouth." (There was no higher title save prince of Wales!) If Charles and his brother, the duke of York, die childless, " the kingdoms belong to you, and parliament cannot legally oppose you, unless as, at present, they can only elect Protestant kings." This letter ought to have opened the eyes of Lord Acton and other historians who accept the myth of James de la Cloche. Charles knew that the crown of England was not elective, that there was no Exclusion Act, and that there were legal heirs if he and his brother died without issue. The last letter of Charles is dated November 18/28, and purports to have been brought from England to Oliva by James de la Cloche on his return to Rome. It reveals the fact that Oliva, despite Charles's orders, did send James by way of France, with a socius or guardian whom he was to pick up in France on his return to England. Charles says that James is to com- municate certain matters to Oliva, and come back at once. Oliva is to give James all the money he needs, and Charles will later make an ample donation to the Jesuits. He acknow- ledges a debt to Oliva of £800, to be paid in six months. The reader will remark that the king has never paid a penny to James or to Oliva, and that Oliva has never communicated directly with Charles. The truth is that all of Charles's letters are forgeries. This is certain because in all he writes frequently as if his mother, Henrietta Maria, were in London, and constantly in company with him. Now she had left England for France in 1665, and to England she never returned. As the letters — including that to " Prince Stuart "—are all forged, it is clear that de la Cloche was an impostor. His aim had been to get money from Oliva, and to pretend to travel to England, meaning to enjoy himself. He did not quite succeed, for Oliva sent a socius with him into France. His precautions to avoid a meeting with Christina of Sweden were necessary. She knew no more of him than did Charles, and would have exposed him. The name of James de la Cloche appears no more in documents. He reached Rome in December 1668, and in January a person calling himself " Prince James Stuart " appears in Naples, accompanied by a socius styling himself a French knight of Malta. Both are on their way to England, but Prince James falls ill and stays in Naples, while his companion departs. The knight of Malta may be a Jesuit. In Naples, Prince James marries a girl of no position, and is arrested on suspicion of being a coiner. To his confessors (he had two in succession) he says that he is a son of Charles II. Our sources are the despatches of Kent, the English agent at Naples, and the Lettere, vol. iii., of Vincenzo Armanni (1674), who had his information from one of the confessors of the " Prince." The viceroy of Naples communicated with Charles II., who disowned the impostor; Prince James, however, was released, and died at Naples in August 1660, leaving a wild will, in which he claims for his son, still unborn, the " apanage " of Monmouth or Wales, " which it is usual to bestow on natural sons of the king." The son lived till about 1750, a penniless pretender, and writer of begging letters. It is needless to pursue Lord Acton's conjectures about later mysterious appearances of James de la Cloche at the court of Charles, or to discuss the legend that his mother was a lady of Jersey — or a sister of Charles! The Jersey myths may be found in The Man of the Mask (1908), by Monsignor Barnes, who argued that James was the man in the iron mask (see IRON MASK). Later Monsignor Barnes, who had observed that the letter of Charles to Prince James Stuart is a forgery, noticed the impossi- bility that Charles, in 1668, should constantly write of his mother as resident in London, which she left for ever in 1665. Who de la Cloche really was it is impossible to discover, but he was a bold and successful swindler, who took in, not only the general of the Jesuits, but Lord Acton and a generation of guileless historians. (A. L.) LA CONDAMINE, CHARLES MARIE DE (1701-1774), French geographer and mathematician, was born at Paris on the 28th of January 1701. He was trained for the military profession, but turned his attention to science and geographical exploration. After taking part in a scientific expedition in the Levant (1731), he became a member with Louis Godin and Pierre Bouguer of the expedition sent to Peru in 1733 to determine the length of a degree of the meridian in the neighbourhood of the equator. His associations with his principals were unhappy; the expedi- tion was beset by many difficulties, and finally La Condamine separated from the rest and made his way from Quito down the Amazon, ultimately reaching Cayenne. His was the first scientific exploration of the Amazon. He returned to Paris in 1744 and published the results of his measurements and travels with a map of the Amazon in Mem. de I' academic des sciences, 1745 (English translation 1745-1747). On a visit to Rome La Condamine made careful measurements of the ancient buildings with a view to a precise determination of the length of the Roman foot. The journal of his voyage to South America was published in Paris in 1751. He also wrote in favour of inoculation, and on various other subjects, mainly connected with his work in South America. He died at Paris on the 4th of February 1774. LACONIA (Gr. AaKowKi?), the ancient name of the south- eastern district of the Peloponnese, of which Sparta was the capital. It has an area of some 1,048,000 acres, slightly greater than that of Somersetshire, and consists of three well-marked zones running N. and S. The valley of the Eurotas, which occupies the centre, is bounded W. by the chain of Taygetus (mod. Pentedaktylon, 7900 ft.), which starts from the Arcadian mountains on the N., and at its southern extremity forms the promontory of Taenarum (Cape Matapan). The eastern portion of Laconia consists of a far more broken range of hill country, rising in Mt. Parnon to a height of 6365 ft. and terminating in the headland of Malea. The range of Taygetus is well watered and was in ancient times covered with forests which afforded excellent hunting to the Spartans, while it had also large iron mines and quarries of an inferior bluish marble, as well as of the famous rosso antico of Taenarum. Far poorer are the slopes of LACONIA— LACONICUM Parnon, consisting for the most part of barren limestone uplands scantily watered. The Eurotas valley, however, is fertile, and produces at the present day maize, olives, oranges and mulberries in great abundance. Laconia has no rivers of importance except the Eurotas and its largest tributary the Oenus (mod. Kelefma). The coast, expecially on the east, is rugged and dangerous. Laconia has few good harbours, nor are there any islands lying off its shores with the exception of Cythera (Cerigo), S. of Cape Malea. The most important towns, besides Sparta and Gythium, were Bryseae, Amyclae and Pharis in the Eurotas plain, Pellana and Belbina on the upper Eurotas, Sellasia on the Oenus, Caryae on the Arcadian frontier, Prasiae, Zarax and Epidaurus Limera on the east coast, Geronthrae on the slopes of Parnon, Boeae, Asopus, Helos, Las and Teuthrone on the Laconian Gulf, and Hippola, Messa and Oetylus on the Messenian Gulf. The earliest inhabitants of Laconia, according to tradition, were the autochthonous Leleges (q.v.). Minyan immigrants then settled at various places on the coast and even appear to have penetrated into the interior and to have founded Amyclae. Phoenician traders, too, visited the shores of the Laconian Gulf, and there are indications of trade at a very early period between Laconia and Crete, e.g. a number of blocks of green Laconian porphyry from the quarries at Croceae have been found in the palace of Minos at Cnossus. In the Homeric poems Laconia appears as the realm of an Achaean prince, Menelaus, whose capital was perhaps Therapne on the left bank of the Eurotas, S.E. of Sparta; the Achaean conquerors, however, probably contented themselves with a suzerainty over Laconia and part of Messenia (q.v.) and were too few to occupy the whole land. The Achaean kingdom fell before the incoming Dorians, and throughout the classical period the history of Laconia is that of its capital Sparta (q.v.). In 195 B.C. the Laconian coast towns were freed from Spartan rule by the Roman general T. Quinctius Flamininus, and became members of the Achaean League. When this was dissolved in 146 B.C., they remained independent under the title of the " Confederation of the Lacedaemonians " or "of the Free-Laconians " (icoiv6v rCiv Aa/ceScu/iocuoi' or "EXeuflepo- \ai«j)vuv) , the supreme officer Of which was a orparr/76s (general) assisted by a ra/uas (treasurer). Augustus seems to have reorganized the league in some way, for Pausanias (iii. 21, 6) speaks of him as its founder. Of the twenty-four cities which originally composed the league, only eighteen remained as members by the reign of Hadrian (see ACHAEAN LEAGUE). In A.D. 395 a Gothic horde under Alaric devastated Laconia, and subsequently it was overrun by large bands of Slavic immigrants. Throughout the middle ages it was the scene of vigorous struggles between Slavs, Byzantines, Franks, Turks and Venetians, the chief memorials of which are the ruined strongholds of Mistra near Sparta, Geraki (anc. Geronthrae) and Monemvasia, " the Gibraltar of Greece," on the east coast, and Passava near Gythium. A prominent part in the War of Independence was played by the Maniates or Mainotes, the inhabitants of the rugged peninsula formed by the southern part of Taygetus. They had all along maintained a virtual independence of the Turks and until quite recently retained their medieval customs, living in fortified towers and practising the vendetta or blood-feud. The district has be£n divided into two departments (nomes), Lacedaemon and Laconia, with their capitals at Sparta and Gythium respectively. Pop. of Laconia (1907) 61,522. Archaeology. — Until 1904 archaeological research in Laconia was carried on only sporadically. Besides the excavations under- taken at Sparta, Gythium and Vaphio (q.v.), the most important were those at the Apollo sanctuary of Amyclae carried out by C. Tsountas in 1890 ('E^rjji. dpxatoX. 1892, i ff.) and in 1904 by A. Furtwangler. At Kampos, on the western side of Taygetus, a small domed tomb of the " Mycenean " age was excavated in 1890 and yielded two leaden statuettes of great interest, while at Arkina a similar tomb of poor construction was unearthed in the previous year. Important inscriptions were found at Geronthrae (Geraki), notably five long fragments of the Edictum Diocleliani, and elsewhere. In 1904 the British Archaeological school at Athens undertook a systematic investigation of the ancient and medieval remains in Laconia. The results, of which the most important are summarized in the article SPARTA, are published in the British School Annual, x. ff. The acropolis of Geronthrae, a hero-shrine at Angelona in the south-eastern highlands, and the sanctuary of Ino-Pasiphae at Thalamae have also been investigated. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Besides the Greek histories and many of the works cited under SPARTA, see W. M. Leake, Travels in the Morea (London, 1830), cc. iv.-viii., xxii., xxiii. ; E. Curtius, Peloponnesos (Gotha, 1852), ii. 203 ff. ; C. Bursian, Geographic von Griechenland (Leipzig, 1868), ii. 102 ff.; Strabo viii. 5; Pausanias iii. and the commentary in J. G. Frazer, Pausanias' s Description of Greece (London, 1898), vol. iii.; W. G. Clark, Peloponnesus (London, 1858), 155 ff-I E- P. Boblaye, Recherches geographiques sur les mines de la Moree (Paris, 1835), 65 ff.; L. Ross, Reisen im Peloponnes (Berlin, 1841), 158 ff. ; W. Vischer, Erinnerungen u. Eindriicke aus Griechen- land (Basel, 1857), 360 ff.; J. B. G. M. Bory de Saint- Vincent, Relation du voyage de I'expedition scientifique de Moree (Paris, 1836), cc. 9, 10 ; G. A. Blouet, Expedition scientifique de Moree (Paris, 1831-1838), ii. 58 ff.; A. Philippson, Der Peloponnes (Berlin, 1892), 155 ff. ; Annual of British School at Athens, 1907-8. Inscriptions: Le Bas-Foucart, Voyage archeologique: Inscriptions, Nos. 160-290; Inscriptions Graecae, v. ; Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum (Berlin, 1828), Nos. 1237-1510; Collitz-Bechtel, Samm- lung der griech. Dialeklinschriften, iii. 2 (Gottingen, 1898), Nos. 4400- 4613. Coins: Catalogue of Greek Coins in the British Museum: Peloponnesus (London, 1887), xlvi. ff., 121 ff. ; B. V. Head, Historia Numorum (Oxford, 1887), 363 ff. Cults: S. Wide, Lakonische Kulte (Leipzig, 1893). Ancient roads: W. Loring, "Some Ancient Routes in the Peloponnese " in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xv. 25 ff (M. N. T.) LACONIA, a city and the county-seat of Belknap county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., on both sides of the Winnepesaukee river, 28 m. N.N.E. of Concord. Pop. (1900) 8042 (1770 foreign-born) ; (1910) 10,183. Laconia is served by two divisions of the Boston & Maine railway, which has a very handsome granite passenger station (1892) and repair shops here. It is pleasantly situated in the lake district of central New Hampshire, and in the summer season Lake Winnisquam on the S. and W. and Lake Winnepesaukee on the N.E. attract many visitors. The city covers an area of 24-65 sq. m. (5-47 sq. m. annexed since 1890). Within the city limits, and about 6 m. from its centre, are the grounds of the Winnepesaukee Camp-Meeting Association, and the camping place for the annual reunions of the New Hampshire Veterans of the Civil War, both at The Weirs, the northernmost point in the territory claimed by colonial Massachusetts; about 2 m. from the centre of Laconia is Lakeport (pop. 1900, 2137), which, like The Weirs, is a summer resort and a ward in the city of Laconia. Among the public institutions are the State School for Feeble-minded Children, a cottage hospital and the Laconia Public Library, lodged in the Gale Memorial Library building (1903). Another fine building is the Congregational Church (1906). The New Hamp- shire State Fish Hatchery is in Laconia. Water-power is furnished by the river. In 1905 Laconia ranked first among the cities of the state in the manufacture of hosiery and knit goods, and the value of these products for the year was 48-4% of the total value of the city's factory product; among its other manufactures are yarn, knitting machines, needles, sashes and blinds, axles, paper boxes, boats, gas and gasolene engines, and freight, passenger and electric cars. The total value of the factory products increased from $2,152,379 in 1900 to $3,096,878 in 1905, or 43-9%. The portion of the city N. of the river, formerly known as Meredith Bridge, was set apart from the town- ship of Meredith and incorporated as a township under the name of Laconia in 1855; a section S. of the river was taken from the township of Gilford in 1874; and Lakeport was added in 1893, when Laconia was chartered as a city. The name Laconia was first applied in New England to the region granted in 1629 to Mason and Gorges (see MASON, JOHN). LACONICUM (i.e. Spartan, sc. balneum, bath), the dry sweating room of the Roman thermae, contiguous to the caldarium or hot room. The name was given to it as being the only form of warm bath that the Spartans admitted. The laconicum was usually a circular room with niches in the axes of the diagonals and was covered by a conical roof with a circular opening at the top, LACORDAIRE— LACRETELLE 53 according to Vitruvius (v. 10), "from which a brazen shield is suspended by chains, capable of being so lowered and raised as to regulate the temperature." The walls of the laconicum were plastered with marble stucco and polished, and the conical roof covered with plaster and painted blue with gold stars. Sometimes, as in the old baths at Pompeii, the laconicum was provided in an apse at one end of the caldarium, but as a rule it was a separate room raised to a higher temperature and had no bath in it. In addition to the hypocaust under the floor the wall was lined with flue tiles. The largest laconicum, about 75 ft. in diameter, was that built by Agrippa in his thermae on the south side of the Pantheon, and is referred to by Cassius (liii. 23), who states that, in addition to other works, " he con- structed the hot bath chamber which he called the Laconicum Gymnasium." All traces of this building are lost; but in the additions made to the thermae of Agrippa by Septimius Severus another laconicum was built farther south, portions of which still exist in the so-called Arco di Giambella. LACORDAIRE, JEAN BAPTISTE HENRI (1802-1861), French ecclesiastic and orator, was born at Recey-sur-Ource, Cote d'Or, on the izth of March 1802. He was the second of a family of four, the eldest of whom, Jean Theodore (1801-1870), travelled a great deal in his youth, and was afterwards professor of com- parative anatomy at Liege. For several years Lacordaire studied at Dijon, showing a marked talent for rhetoric; this led him to the pursuit of law, and in the local debates of the advocates he attained a high celebrity. At Paris he thought of going on- the stage, but was induced to finish his legal training and began to practise as an advocate (1817-1824). Meanwhile Lamennais had published his Essai sur I' Indifference, — a passionate plea for Christianity and in particular for Roman Catholicism as necessary for the social progress of mankind. Lacordaire read, and his ardent and believing nature, weary of the theological negations of the Encyclopaedists, was convinced. In 1823 he became a theological student at the seminary of Saint Sulpice; four years later he was ordained and became almoner of the college Henri IV. He was called from it to co-operate with Lamennais in the editorship of L'Avenir, a journal estab- lished to advocate the union of the democratic principle with ultramontanism. Lacordaire strove to show that Catholicism was not bound up with the idea of dynasty, and definitely allied it with a well-defined liberty, equality and fraternity. But the new propagandism was denounced from Rome in an encyclical. In the meantime Lacordaire and Montalembert, believing that, under the charter of 1830, they were entitled to liberty of instruction, opened an independent free school. It was closed in two days, and the teachers fined before the court of peers. These reverses Lacordaire accepted with quiet dignity; but they brought his relationship with Lamennais to a close. He now began the course of Christian conferences at the College Stanislas, which attracted the art and intellect of Paris; thence he went to N&tre Dame, and for two years his sermons were the delight of the capital. His presence was dignified, his voice capable of indefinite modulation, and his gestures animated and attractive. He still preached the gospel of the people's sovereignty in civil life and the pope's supremacy in religion, but brought to his propagandism the full resources of a mind familiar with philo- sophy, history and literature, and indeed led the reaction against Voltairean scepticism. He was asked to edit the Univers, and to take a chair in the university of Louvain, but he declined both appointments, and in 1838 set out for Rome, revolving a great scheme for christianizing France by restoring the old order of St Dominic. At Rome he donned the habit of the preaching friar and joined the monastery 'of Minerva. His Mtmoire pour le relaUissement en France de I'ordre des freres prkheurs was then prepared and dedicated to his country; at the same time he collected the materials for the life of St Dominic. When he returned to France in 1841 he resumed his preaching at N6tre Dame, but he had small success in re-establishing the order of which he ever afterwards called himself monk. His funeral orations are the most notable in their kind of any delivered during his time, those devoted to Marshal Drouet and Daniel O'Connell being especially marked by point and clearness. He next thought that his presence in the National Assembly would be of use to his cause; but being rebuked by his ecclesiastical superiors for declaring himself a republican, he resigned his seat ten days after his election. In 1850 he went back to Rome and was made provincial of the order, and for four years laboured to make the Dominicans a religious power. In 1854 he retired to Sorreze to become director of a private lyceum, and remained there until he died on the 22nd of November 1861. He had been elected to the Academy in the preceding year. The best edition of Lacordaire's works is the CEuvres completes (6vols., Paris, 1872-1873), published by C. Poussielgue, which con- tains, besides the Conferences, the exquisitely written, but uncritical, Viede Saint Dominique and the beautiful Lettres d, unjeune homme sur la vie chretienne. For a complete list of his published correspondence see L. Petit de Julleville's Histoire de la langue et de la litterature fran^aise, vii. 598. The authoritative biography is by Ch. Foisset (2 vols., Paris, 1870). The religious aspect of his character is best shown in Pere B. Cho- carne's Vie du Pere Lacordaire (2 vols. , Paris, 1 866 — English translation by A. Th. Drane, London, 1868) ; see also Count C. F. R. de Montal- embert's Un Maine au XIXime siecle (Paris, 1862 — English transla- tion by F. Aylward, London, 1867). There are lives by Mrs H. L. Lear (London, 1882) ; by A. Ricard (l vol. of L'f.cole menaisienne, Paris, 1883); by Comte O. d'Haussonville (l vol., Les Grands ecrivains Frangais series, Paris, 1897); by Gabriel Ledos (Paris, 1901); by Dora Greenwell (1867); and by the due de Broglie (Paris, 1889). The Correspondance inedite du Pere Lacordaire, edited by H. Villard (Paris, 1870), may also be consulted. See also Saint- Beuve in Causeries de Lundi. Several of Lacordaire's Conferences have been translated into English, among these being, Jesus Christ (1869) ; God (1870); God and Man (1872); Life (1875). For a theological study of the Conferences de Notre Dame, see an article by Bishop J. C. Hedley in Dublin Review (October 1870). LACQUER, or LACKER, a general term for coloured and frequently opaque varnishes applied to certain metallic objects and to wood. The term is derived from the resin lac, which substance is the basis of lacquers properly so called. Technically, among Western nations, lacquering is restricted to the coating of polished metals or metallic surfaces, such as brass, pewter and tin, with prepared varnishes which will give them a golden, bronze-like or other lustre as desired. Throughout the East Indies the lacquering of wooden surfaces is universally practised, large articles of household furniture, as well as small boxes, trays, toys and papier-mache objects, being decorated with bright- coloured and variegated lacquer. The lacquer used in the East is, in general, variously coloured sealing-wax, applied, smoothed and polished in a heated condition; and by various devices intricate marbled, streaked and mottled designs are produced. Quite distinct from these, and from all other forms of lacquer, is the lacquer work of Japan, for which see JAPAN, § Art. LACRETELLE, PIERRE LOUIS DE (1751-1824), French politician and writer, was born at Metz on the gth of October 1751. He practised as a barrister in Paris; and under the Revolution was elected as a depute suppliant in the Constituent Assembly, and later as deputy in the Legislative Assembly. He belonged to the moderate party known as the " Feuillants," but after the loth of August 1792 he ceased to take part in public life. In 1803 he became a member of the Institute, taking the place of La Harpe. Under the Restoration he was one of the chief editors of the M inerve franc,aise; he wrote also an essay, Sur le 18 Brumaire (1799), some Fragments politiques et litteraires (1817), and a treatise Des partis politiques et des factions de la pretendue, aristocratie d'aujourd'hui (1819). His younger brother, JEAN CHARLES DOMINIQUE DE LACRE- TELLE, called Lacretelle le jeune (1766-1855), historian and journalist, was also born at Metz on the 3rd of September 1766. He was called to Paris by his brother in 1787, and during the Revolution belonged, like him, to the party of the Feuillants. He was for some time secretary to the due de la Rochefoucauld- Liancourt, the celebrated philanthropist, and afterwards joined the staff of the Journal de Paris, then managed by Suard, and where he had as colleagues Andre Chenier and Antoine Roucher. He made no attempt to hide his monarchist sympathies, and this, together with the way in which he reported the trial and death of Louis XVI., brought him in peril of his life ; to avoid this 54 LACROIX, A. F. A.— LACROSSE danger he enlisted in the army, but after Thermidor he returned to Paris and to his newspaper work. He was involved in the royalist movement of the i3th Vendemiaire, and condemned to deportation after the i8th Fructidor; but, thanks to powerful influence, he was left " forgotten " in prison till after the i8th Bru- maire, when he was set at liberty by Fouche. Under the Empire he was appointed a professor of history in the Faculte des lettres of Paris (1809), and elected as a member of the Academic fran- caise (1811). In 1827 he was prime mover in the protest made by the French Academy against the minister Peyronnet's law on the press, which led to the failure of that measure, but this step cost him, as it did Villemain, his post as censeur royal. Under Louis Philippe he devoted himself entirely to his teaching and literary work. In 1848 he retired to Macon; but there, as in Paris, he was the centre of a brilliant circle, for he was a wonderful causcur, and an equally good listener, and had many interesting ex- periences to recall. He died on the 26th of March 1855. His son Pierre Henri (1815-1899) was a humorous writer and politician of purely contemporary interest. J. C. Lacretelle's chief work is a series of histories of the i8th century, the Revolution and its sequel: Precis historique de la Revolution fran^aise, appended to the history of Rabaud St £tienne, and partly written in the prison of La Force (5 vols., 1801-1806); Histoire de France pendant le XVIII' siecle (6 vols., 1808); Histoire de I'Assemblee Constituante (2 vols., 1821); L'Assemblee Legislative (1822); La Convention Nationale (3 vols., 1824-1825); Histoire de France depuis la restauration (1829-1835); Histoire du consulat et de I'empire (4 vols., 1846). The author was a moderate and fair- minded man, but possessed neither great powers of style, nor striking historical insight, nor the special historian's power of writing minute accuracy of detail with breadth of view. Carlyle's sarcastic remark on Lacretelle's history of the Revolution, that it " exists, but does not profit much," is partly true of all his books. He had been an eye- witness of and an actor in the events which he describes, but his testimony must be accepted with caution. LACROIX, ANTOINE FRANCOIS ALFRED (1863- ), French mineralogist and geologist, was born at Macon, Saone et Loire, on the 4th of February 1863. He took the degree of D. es Sc. in Paris, 1889. In 1893 he was appointed professor of mineralogy at the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, and in 1896 director of the mineralogical laboratory in the £cole des Hautes £tudes. He paid especial attention to minerals connected with volcanic phenomena and igneous rocks, to the effects of metamorphism, and to mineral veins, in various parts of the world, notably in the Pyrenees. In his numerous contributions to scientific journals he dealt with the mineralogy and petrology of Mada- gascar, and published an elaborate and exhaustive volume on the eruptions in Martinique, La Montague Pelee et ses erup- tions (1904). He also issued an important work entitled Minera- logie de la France et de ses Colonies (1893-1898), and other works in conjunction with A. Michel Levy. He was elected member of the Academic des sciences in 1904. LACROIX, PAUL (1806-1884), French author and journalist, was born in Paris on the 27th of April 1806, the son of a novelist. He is best known under his pseudonym of P. L. Jacob, bibliophile, or " Bibliophile Jacob," suggested by the constant interest he took in public libraries and books generally. Lacroix was an extremely prolific and varied writer. Over twenty historical romances alone came from his pen, and he also wrote a variety of serious historical works, including a history of Napoleon III., and the life and times of the Tsar Nicholas I. of Russia. He was the joint author with Ferdinand Sere of a five- volume work, Le Moyen Age et La Renaissance (1847), a standard work on the manners, customs and dress of those times, the chief merit of which lies in the great number of illustrations it contains. He also wrote many monographs on phases of the history of culture. Over the signature Pierre Dufour was published an exhaustive Histoire de la Prostitution (1851-1852), which has always been attributed to Lacroix. His works on bibliography were also extremely numerous. In 1885 he was appointed librarian of the Arsenal Library, Paris. He died in Paris on the i6th of October 1884. LACROMA (Serbo-Croatian Lokrum), a small island in the Adriatic Sea, forming part of the Austrian kingdom of Dalmatia, and lying less than half a mile south of Ragusa. Though barely ij m. in length, Lacroma is remarkable for the beauty of its sub- tropical vegetation. It was a favourite resort of the archduke Maximilian, afterwards emperor of Mexico (1832-1867), who restored the chateau and park; and of the Austrian crown prince Rudolph (1857-1889). It contains an nth-century Benedictine monastery; and the remains of a church, said by a very doubtful local tradition to have been founded by Richard I. of England (1157-1199), form part of the imperial chateau. See Lacroma, an illustrated descriptive work by the crown princess St6phanie (afterwards Countess Lonyay ) (Vienna, 1892). LA CROSSE, a city and the county-seat of La Crosse county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 180 m. W.N.W. of Milwaukee, and about 1 20 m. S:E. of St Paul, Minnesota, on the E. bank of the Mississippi river, at the mouth of the Black and of the La Crosse rivers. Pop. (1900) 28,895; (191° census) 30,417. Of the total population in 1900, 7222 were foreign-born, 3130 being German and 2023 Norwegian, and 17,555 were of foreign- parentage (both parents foreign-born), including 7853 of German parentage, 4422 of Norwegian parentage, and 1062 of Bohemian parentage. La Crosse is served by the Chicago & North Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the La Crosse & South Eastern, and the Green Bay & Western railways, and by river steamboat lines on the Mississippi. The river is crossed here by a railway bridge (C.M. & St P.) and wagon bridge. The city is situated on a prairie, extending back from the river about 25 m. to bluffs, from which fine views may be obtained. Among the city's buildings and institutions are the Federal Building (1886-1887), the County Court House (1902- 1903), the Public Library (with more than 20,000 volumes), the City Hall (1891), the High School Building (1905-1906), the St Francis, La Crosse and Lutheran hospitals, a Young Men's Christian Association Building, a Young Women's Christian Association Building, a U.S. Weather Station (1907), and a U.S. Fish Station (1905). La Crosse is the seat of a state Normal School (1909). Among the city's parks are Pettibone (an island in the Mississippi), Riverside, Burns, Fair Ground and Myrick. The city is the see of a Roman Catholic bishop. La Crosse is an important lumber and grain market, and is the principal wholesale distributing centre for a large territory in S.W. Wis- consin, N. Iowa and Minnesota. Proximity to both pine and hardwood forests early made it one of the most important lumber manufacturing places in the North-west; but this industry has now been displaced by other manufactures. The city has grain elevators, flour mills (the value of flour and grist mill products in 1905 was $2,166,116), and breweries (product value in 1905, $1,440,659). Other important manufactures are agricultural implements ($542,425 in 1905), lumber and planing mill products, leather, woollen, knit and rubber goods, tobacco, cigars and cigarettes, carriages, foundry and machine-shop products, copper and iron products, cooperage, pearl buttons, brooms and brushes. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $8,139,432, as against $7,676,581 in 1900. The city owns and operates its water-works system, the wagon bridge (1890-1891) across the Mississippi, and a toll road (25 m. long) to the village of La Crescent, Minn. Father Hennepin and du Lhut visited or passed the site of La Crosse as early as 1680, but it is possible that adventurous coureurs-des-bois preceded them* The first permanent settlement was made in 1841, and La Crosse was made the county-seat in 1855 and was chartered as a city in 1856. LACROSSE, the national ball game of Canada. It derives its name from the resemblance of its chief implement used, the curved netted stick, to a bishop's crozier. It wa's borrowed from the Indian tribes of North America. In the old days, according to Catlin, the warriors of two tribes in their war-paint would form the sides, often 800 or 1000 strong. The goals were placed from 500 yds. to ^ m. apart with practically no side boundaries. A solemn dance preceded the game, after which the ball was tossed into the air and the two sides rushed to catch it on ' crosses," similar to those now in use. The medicine-men acted as umpires, and the squaws urged on the men by beating LA CRUZ— LACTANTIUS FIRMIANUS 55 them with switches. The game attracted much attention from the early French settlers in Canada. In 1763, after Canada had become British, the game was used by the aborigines to carry out an ingenious piece of treachery. On the 4th of June, when the garrison of Fort Michilimackinac (now Mackinac) was celebrating the king's birthday, it was invited by the Ottawas, under their chief Pontiac, to witness a game of " baggataway " (lacrosse). The players gradually worked their way close to the gates, when, throwing aside their crosses and seizing their tomahawks which the squaws suddenly produced from under their blankets, they rushed into the fort and massacred all the inmates except a few Frenchmen. The game found favour among the British settlers, but it was not until 1867, the year in which Canada became a Dominion, that G. W. Beers, a prominent player, suggested that Lacrosse should be recognized as the national game, and the National Lacrosse Association of Canada was formed. From that time the game has flourished vigorously in Canada and to a less extent in the United States. In 1868 an English Lacrosse Association was formed, but, although a team of Indians visited the United Kingdom in 1867, it was not until sometime later that the game became at all popular in Great Britain. Its progress was much encouraged by visits of teams representing the Toronto Lacrosse Club in 1888 and 1902, the methods of the Canadians and their wonderful " short-passing " exciting much admiration. In 1907 the Capitals of Ottawa visited England, playing six matches, all of which were won by the Canadians. The match North v. South has been played annually in England since 1882. A county championship was inaugurated in 1905. A North of England League, embracing ten clubs, began playing league matches in 1897; and a match between the universities of Oxford and Cambridge has been played annually since 1903. A match between England and Ireland was played annually from 1 88 1 to 1904. Implements of the Game. — The ball is made of indiarubber sponge, weighs between 4^ and 42 oz., and measures 8 to 8^ in. in circumfer- ence. The " crosse " is formed of a light staff of hickory wood, the top being bent to form a kind of hook, from the tip of which a thong is drawn and made fast to the shaft about 2 ft. from the other end. The oval triangle thus formed is covered with a network of gut or rawhide, loose enough to hold the ball but not to form a bag. At no The Crosse. part must the crosse measure more than 12 in. in breadth, and no metal must be used in its manufacture. It may be of any length to suit the player. The goals are set up not less than 100 nor more than 150 yds. apart, the goal-posts being 6 ft. high and the same distance apart. They are set up in the middle of the " goal-crease," a space of 12 ft. square marked with chalk. A net extends from the top rail and sides of the posts back to a point 6 ft. behind the middle of the line between the posts. Boundaries are agreed upon by the captains. Shoes may have indiarubber soles, but must be without spikes. The Game. — The object of the game is to send the ball, by means of the crosse, through the enemy's goal-posts as many times as possible during the two periods of play, precisely as in football and hockey. There are twelve players on each side. In every position save that of goal there are two men, one of each side, whose duties are to mark and neutralize each other's efforts. The game is opened by the act of " facing," in which the two centres, each with his left shoulder towards his opponents' goal, hold their crosses, wood down- wards, on the ground, the ball being placed between them. When the signal is given the centres draw their crosses sharply inwards in order to gain possession of the b/ill. The ball may be kicked or struck with the crosse, as at hockey, but the goal-keeper alone may handle it, and then only to block and not to throw it. Although the ball may be thrown with the crosse for a long distance — 220 yds. is about the limit— long throws are seldom tried, it being generally more advantageous for a player to run with the ball resting on the crosse, until he can pass it to a member of his side who proceeds with the attack, either by running, passing to another, or trying to throw the ball through the opponents' goal. The crosse, usually held in both hands, is made to retain the ball by an ingenious rocking motion only acquired by practice. As there is no " off-side " in Lacrosse, a player may pass the ball to the front, side or rear. No charging is allowed, but one player may interfere with another by standing directly in front of him (" body-check "), though without holding, tripping or striking with the crosse. No one may interfere with a player who is not in possession of the ball. Fouls are penalized either by the suspension of the offender until a goal has been scored or until the end of the game; or by allowing the side offended against a " free position." When a ' free position " is awarded each player must stand in the position where he is, excepting the goal-keeper who may get back to his goal, and any opponent who may be nearer the player getting the ball than 5 yds. ; this player must retire to that distance from the one who has been given the " free position," who then proceeds with the game as he likes when the referee says " play." This penalty may not be carried out nearer than 10 yds. from the goal. If the ball crosses a boundary the referee calls " stand," and all players stop where they are, the ball being then " faced " not less than 4 yds. within the boundary line by the two nearest players. See the official publications of the English Lacrosse Union; and Lacrosse by W. C. Schmeisser, in Spalding's " Athletic Library." Also Manners, Customs and Condition of the North American Indians, by George Catlin. LA CRUZ, RAMON DE (1731-1794), Spanish dramatist, was born at Madrid on the 28th of March 1731. He was a clerk in the ministry of finance, and is the author of three hundred saineles, little farcical sketches of city life, written to be played between the acts of a longer play. He published a selection in ten volumes (Madrid, 1786-1791), and died on the 5th of March 1794. The best of his pieces, such as Las Tertulias de Madrid, are delightful specimens of satiric observation. See E. Cotardo y Mori, Don Ramon de la Cruz y sus obras (Madrid, 1899); C. Cambronero, Sainetes inedites existentes en la Biblioteca Municipal de Madrid (Madrid, 1900). LACRYMATORY (from Lat. lacrima, a tear), a class of small vessels of terra-cotta, or, more frequently, of glass, found in Roman and late Greek tombs, and supposed to have been bottles into which mourners dropped their tears. They contained unguents, and to the use of unguents at funeral ceremonies the finding of so many of these vessels in tombs is due. They are shaped like a spindle, or a flask with a long small neck and a body in the form of a bulb. LACTANTIUS FIRMIANUS (c. 260-0.340), also called Lucius Caelius (or Caecilius) Lactantius Firmianus, was a Christian writer who from the beauty of his style has been called the " Christian Cicero." His history is very obscure. He was born of heathen parents in Africa about 260, and became a pupil of Arnobius, whom he far excelled in style though his knowledge of the Scriptures was equally slight. About 290 he went to Nicomedia in Bithynia while Diocletian was emperor, to teach rhetoric, but found little work to do in that Greek-speaking city. In middle age he became a convert to Christianity, and about 306 he went to Gaul (Treves) on the invitation of Constan- tine the Great, and became tutor to his eldest son, Crispus. He probably died about 340. Lactantius' chief work, Divinarum Institutionum Libri Septem, is an " apology " for and an introduction to Christianity, written in exquisite Latin, but displaying such ignorance as to have incurred the charge of favouring the Arian and Manichaean heresies. It seems to have been begun in Nicomedia about 304 and finished in Gaul before 311. Two long eulogistic addresses and most of the brief apostrophes to the emperor are from a later hand, which has added some dualistic touches. The seven books of the institutions have separate titles given to them either by the author or by a later editor. The first, De Falsa Religione, and the second, De Origine Erroris, attack the polytheism of heathendom, show the unity of the God of creation and providence, and try to explain how men have-been corrupted by demons. The third book, De Falsa Sapienlia, describes and criticizes the various systems of prevalent philosophy. The fourth book, De Vera Sapientia et Religione, insists upon the inseparable union of true wisdom and true religion, and maintains that this union is made real in the person of Christ. The fifth book, De Justitia, maintains that true righteousness is not to be found apart from Christianity, and that it springs from piety which consists in the knowledge of God. The sixth book, De Vero Cultu, describes the true worship of God, which is righteousness, LACTIC ACID— LACUZON and consists chiefly in the exercise of Christian love towards God and man. The seventh book, De Vila Beata, discusses, among a variety of subjects, the chief good, immortality, the second advent and the resurrection. Jerome states that Lactantius wrote an epitome of these Institutions, and such a work, which may well be authentic, was discovered in MS. in the royal library at Turin in 1711 by C. M. Pfaff. Besides the Institutions Lactantius wrote several treatises: (i) De Ira Dei, addressed to one Donatus and directed against the Epicurean philosophy. (2) De Opificio Dei sive de Formatione Hominis, his earliest work, and one which reveals very little Christian influence. He exhorts a former pupil, Demetrianus, not to be led astray by wealth from virtue; and he demonstrates the providence of God from the adaptability and beauty of the human body. (3) A celebrated incendiary treatise, De Mortibus Persecutorum, which describes God's judgments on the persecutors of his church from Nero to Diocletian, and has served as a model for numberless writings. De Mart. Persecut. is not in the earlier editions of Lactantius; it was discovered and printed by Baluze in 1679. Many critics ascribe it to an unknown Lucius Caecilius; there are certainly serious differences of grammar, style and temper between it and the writings already mentioned. It was probably composed in Nicomedia, c. 315. Jerome speaks of Lactantius as a poet, and several poems have been attributed to him: — De Aiie Phoenice (which Harnack thinks makes use of 1 Clement), De Passions Domini and De Resurrectione (Domini) or De Pascha ad Felicem Episcopum. The first of these may belong to Lactantius's heathen days, the second is a product of the Renaissance (c. 1500), the third was written by Venantius Fortunatus in the 6th century. Editions: O. F. Fritzsche in E. G. Gersdorf's Bill. pair. eccl. x., xi. (Leipzig, 1842-1844); Mignc, Pair. Lai. vi.,vii.; S. Brandt and G. Laubmann in the Vienna Corpus Script. Redes. Lat. xix., xxvii. I and 2 (1890-93-97). Translation: W. Fletcher in Ante-Nicene Fathers, vii. Literature : the German histories of early Christian literature, by A. Harnack, O. Bardenhewer, A. Ebert, A. Ehrhard, G. Kruger's Early Chr. Lit. p. 307 and Hauck-Herzog's Realencyk. vol. xi., give guides to the copious literature on the subject. LACTIC ACID (hydroxypropionic acid), C3H603. Two lactic acids are known, differing from each other in the position occupied by the hydroxyl group in the molecule; they are known respectively as a-hydroxypropionic acid (fermentation or inactivelactic acid) , CH3- CH(OH) -COjH, and/3-hydroxypropionic acid (hydracrylic acid), (q.v.), CH2(OH)-CH2-CO2H. Although on structural grounds there should be only two hydroxypropionic acids, as a matter of fact four lactic acids are known. The third isomer (sarcolactic acid) is found in meat extract (J. v. Liebig), and may be prepared by the action of Penicillium glaucum on a solution of ordinary ammonium lactate. It is identical with a-hydroxypropionic acid in almost every respect, except with regard to its physical properties. The fourth isomer, formed by the action of Bacillus laeoo-lacti on cane-sugar, resembles sarcolactic acid in every respect, except in its action on polarized light (see STEREOISOMERISM). Fermentation, or ethylidene lactic acid, was isolated by K. W. Scheele (Trans. Stockholm Acad. 1780) from sour milk (Lat. lac,lactis, milk, whence the name). About twenty-four years later Bouillon Lag- range, and independently A. F. de Fourcroy and L. N. Vauquelin, maintained that Scheele s new acid was nothing but impure acetic acid. This notion was combated by J. Berzelius, and finally refuted (in 1832) by J. v. Liebig and E. Mitscherlich, who, by the elementary analyses of lactates, proved the existence of this acid as a distinct compound. It may be prepared by the lactic fermentation of starches, sugars, gums, &c., the sugar being dissolved in water and acidified by a s^mall quantity of tartaric acid and then fermented by the addition of sour milk, with a little putrid cheese. Zinc carbonate is added to the mixture (to neutralize the acid formed), which is kept warm for some days and well stirred. On boiling and filtering the product, zinc lactate crystallizes out of the solution. The acid may also be synthesized by the decomposition of alanine (a-aminopro- pionic acid) by nitrous acid (K. Strecker, Ann., 1850, 75, p. 27) ; by the oxidation of propylene glycol (A. Wurtz); by boiling a-chlor- propionic acid with caustic alkalis, or with silver oxide and water; by the reduction of pyruvic acid with sodium amalgam; or from acetaldehyde by the cyanhydrin reaction (J. Wislicenus, Ann., 1863, 128, p. 13) CHa-CHO > CH,-CH(OH)-CN > CHa-CH(OH)-CO2H. It forms a colourless syrup, of specific gravity 1-2485 (i5°/4°), and decomposes on distillation under ordinary atmospheric pressure; but at very low pressures (about I mm.) it distils at about 85° C., and then sets to a crystalline solid, which melts at about 18° C. It possesses the properties both of an acid and of an alcohol. When heated with dilute sulphuric acid to 130° C., under pressure, it is resolved into formic acid and acetaldehyde. Chromic acid oxidizes it to acetic acid and carbon dioxide; potassium permanganate oxidizes it to pyruvic acid; nitric acid to oxalic acid, and a mixture of manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid to acetaldehyde and carbon dioxide. Hydrobromic acid converts it into o-brompropionic acid, and hydriodic acid into propionic acid. Lactide, ine solid, of melting-point 124° C., is one of the products obtained by the distillation of lactic acid. LACTONES, the cyclic esters of hydroxy acids, resulting from the internal elimination of water between the hydroxyl and carboxyl groups, this reaction taking place when the hydroxy acid is liberated from its salts by a mineral acid. The a and /3- hydroxy acids do not form lactones, the tendency for lactone formation appearing first with the 7-hydroxy acids, thus 7- hydroxybutyric acid, CH2OH-CH2-CH2-C02H, yields 7-butyro- lactone, CH2-CH2-CH2-CO-O. These compounds may also be prepared by the distillation of the 7-haIogen fatty acids, or by the action of alkaline carbonates on these acids, or from 07- or 75-unsaturated acids by digestion with hydrobromic acid or dilute sulphuric acid. The lactones are mostly liquids which are readily soluble in alcohol, ether and water. On boiling with water, they are partially reconverted into the hydroxy acids. They are easily saponified by the caustic alkalis. On the behaviour of lactones with ammonia, see H. Meyer, Monatshefte, 1899, 20, p. 717; and with phenylhydrazine and hydrazine hydrate, see R. Meyer, Ber., 1893, 26, p. 1273; L. Gatter- mann, Ber., 1899, 32, p. 1133, E. Fischer, Ber., 1889, 22, p. 1889. y-Butyrolactone is a liquid which boils at 206° C. It is miscible with water in all proportions and is volatile in steam, y-valero- I I lactone, CH3-CH-CH2-CH2-CO-0, is a liquid which boilsat 207-208° C. 5-lactones are also known, and may be prepared by distilling the S-chlor acids. LA CUEVA, JUAN DE (15507-1609?), Spanish dramatist and poet, was born at Seville, and towards 1579 began writing for the stage. His plays, fourteen in number, were published in 1588, and are the earliest manifestations of the dramatic methods developed by Lope de Vega. Abandoning the Senecan model hitherto universal in Spain, Cueva took for his themes matters of national legend, historic tradition, recent victories and the actualities of contemporary life: this amalgam of epical and realistic elements, and the introduction of a great variety of metres, prepared the way for the Spanish romantic drama of the 1 7 th century. A peculiar interest attaches to El Infamador, a play in which the character of Leucino anticipates the classic type of Don Juan. As an initiative force, Cueva is a figure of great historical importance; his epic poem, La Conquista de Betica (1603), shows his weakness as an artist. The last work to which his name is attached is the Ejemplar poitico (1609), and he is believed to have died shortly after its publication. See the editions of Saco de Roma and El Infamador, by E. de Ochoa, in the Tesoro del teatro espanol (Paris, 1838), vol. i. pp. 251-285; and of Ejemplar politico, by I. J. Lopez de Sedano, in the Parnaso espanol, vol. viii. pp. 1-68; also E. Walberg, " Juan de la Cueva et son Ejemplar poeticc " in the Ada Universitatis Lundensis (Lund, 1904), vol. xxix. ; " Poemes inedits de Juan de la Cueva (Viaje de Sannio,) " edited by F. A. Wulff, in the Ada Universitatis Lundensis (Lund, 1886-1887), vol. xxiii.; F. A. Wulff, " De la rimas de Juan de la Cueva, Primera Parte " in the Homenaje a Mentndez y Pelayo (Madrid, 1899), vol. ii. pp. 143-148. (J. F.-K.) LACUNAR, the Latin name in architecture for a panelled or coffered ceiling or soffit. The word is derived from lacuna, a cavity or hollow, a blank, hiatus or gap. The panels or coffers of a ceiling are by Vitruvius called lacunaria. LACUZON (0. Fr. la cuzon, disturbance), the name given to the Franc-Comtois leader CLAUDE PROST (1607-1681), who was born at Longchaumois (department of Jura) on the i7th of June 1607. He gained his first military experience when the French invaded Burgundy in 1636, harrying the French LACY, COUNT— LADAKH AND BALTISTAN 57 troops from the castles of Montaigu and St Laurent-la-Roche, and devastating the frontier districts of Bresse and Bugey with fire and sword (1640-1642). In the first invasion of Franche- Comte by Louis XIV. in 1668 Lacuzon was unable to make any effective resistance, but he played an important part in Louis's second invasion. In 1673 he defended Salins for some time; after the capitulation of the town he took refuge in Italy. He died at Milan on the 2ist of December 1681. LACY, FRANZ MORITZ, COUNT (1725-1801), Austrian field marshal, was born at St Petersburg on the 2ist of October 1725. His father, Peter, Count Lacy, was a distinguished Russian soldier, who belonged to an Irish family, and had followed the fortunes of the exiled James II. Franz Moritz was educated in Germany for a military career, and entered the Austrian service. He served in Italy, Bohemia, Silesia and the Netherlands during the War of the Austrian Succession, was twice wounded, and by the end of the war was a lieut. -colonel. At the age of twenty-five he became full colonel and chief of an infantry regiment. In 1756 with the opening of the Seven Years' War he was again on active service, and in the first battle (Lobositz) he distinguished himself so much that he was at once promoted major-general. He received his third wound on this occasion and his fourth at the battle of Prague in 1757. Later in 1757 Lacy bore a conspicuous part in the great victory of Breslau, and at Leuthen, where he received his fifth wound, he covered the retreat of the defeated army. Soon after this began his association with Field-Marshal Daun, the new generalissimo of the empress's forces, and these two commanders, powerfully assisted later by the genius of Loudon, made head against Frederick the Great for the remainder of the war. A general -staff was created, and Lacy, a lieutenant field-marshal at thirty-two, was made chief of staff (quartermaster-general) to Daun. That their cautiousness often degenerated into timidity may be admitted — Leuthen and many other bitter defeats had taught the Austrians to respect their great opponent — but they showed at any rate that, having resolved to wear out the enemy by Fabian methods, they were strong enough to persist in their resolve to the end. Thus for some years the life of Lacy, as of Daun and Loudon, is the story of the war against Prussia (see SEVEN YEARS' WAR). After Hochkirch (October 15, 1758) Lacy received the grand cross of the Maria Theresa order. In 1759 both Daun and Lacy fell into disfavour for failing to win victories, and Lacy owed his promotion to Feldzeugmeister only to the fact that Loudon had just received this rank for the brilliant conduct of his detachment at Kunersdorf. His responsi- bilities told heavily on Lacy in the ensuing campaigns, and his capacity for supreme command was doubted even by Daun, who refused to give him the command when he himself was wounded at the battle of Torgau. After the peace of Hubertusburg a new sphere of activity was opened, in which Lacy's special gifts had the greatest scope. Maria Theresa having placed her son, the emperor Joseph II., at the head of Austrian military affairs, Lacy was made a field- marshal, and given the task of reforming and administering the army (1766). He framed new regulations for each arm, a new code of military law, a good supply system. As the result of his work the Austrian army was more numerous, far better equipped, and cheaper than it had ever been before. Joseph soon became very intimate with his military adviser, but this did not prevent his mother, after she became estranged from the young emperor, from giving Lacy her full confidence. His activities were not confined to the army. He was in sympathy with Joseph's innovations, and was regarded by Maria Theresa as a prime mover in the scheme for the partition of Poland. But his self-imposed work broke down Lacy's health, and in 1773, in spite of the remonstrances of Maria Theresa and of the emperor, he laid down all his offices and went to southern France. On returning he was still unable to resume office, though as an unofficial adviser in political and military matters he was far from idle. In the brief and uneventful War of the Bavarian Succession, Lacy and Loudon were the chief Austrian commanders against the king of Prussia, and when Joseph II. at Maria Theresa's death, became the sovereign of the Austrian dominions as well as emperor, Lacy remained his most trusted friend. More serious than the War of the Bavarian Succession was the Turkish war which presently broke out. Lacy was now old and worn out, and his tenure of command therein was not marked by any greater measure of success than in the case of the other Austrian generals. His active career was at an end, although he continued his effective interest in the affairs of the state and the army throughout the reign of Joseph's successor, Leopold I. His last years were spent in retirement at his castle of Neuwaldegg near Vienna. He died at Vienna on the 24th of November 1801. See memoir by A. v. Arneth in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic (Leipzig, 1883). LACY, HARRIETTE DEBORAH (1807-1874), English actress, was born in London, the daughter of a tradesman named Taylor. Her first appearance on the stage was at Bath in 1827 as Julia in The Rivals, and she was immediately given leading parts there in both comedy and tragedy. Her first London appearance was in 1830 as Nina, in Dimond's Carnival of Naples. Her Rosalind, Aspatia (to Macready's Melantius) in The Bridal, and Lady Teazle to the Charles Surface of Walter Lacy (1809-1898) — to whom she was married in 1839 — confirmed her position and popularity. She was the original Helen in The Hunchback (1832), and also created Nell Gwynne in Jerrold's play of that name, and the heroine in his Housekeeper. She was considered the first Ophelia of her day. She retired in 1848. LACY, MICHAEL ROPHINO (1795-1867), Irish musician, son of a merchant, was born at Bilbao and appeared there in public as a violinist in 1801. He was sent to study in Paris under Kreutzer, and soon began a successful career, being known as " Le Petit Espagnol." He played in London for some years after 1805, and then became an actor, but in 1818 resumed the musical profession, and in 1820 became leader of the ballet at the King's theatre, London. He composed or adapted from other composers a number of operas and an oratorio, The Israelites in Egypt. He died in London on the 2oth of September 1867. LACYDES OF CYRENE, Greek philosopher, was head of the Academy at Athens in succession to Arcesilaus about 241 B.C. Though some regard him as the founder of the New Academy, the testimony of antiquity is that he adhered in general to the theory of Arcesilaus, and, therefore, that he belonged to the Middle Academy. He lectured in a garden called the Lacydeum, which was presented to him by Attalus I. of Pergamum, and for twenty-six years maintained the traditions of the Academy. He is said to have written treatises, but nothing survives. Before his death he voluntarily resigned his position to his pupils, Euander and Telecles. Apart from a number of anecdotes distinguished rather for sarcastic humour than for probability, Lacydes exists for us as a man of refined character, a hard worker and an accomplished orator. According to Athenaeus (x. 438) and Diogenes Laertius (iv. 60) he died from excessive drinking, but the story is discredited by the eulogy of Eusebius (Praep. Ev. xiv. 7), that he was in all things moderate. See Cicero, Acad. ii. 6; and Aelian, V.H. ii. 41; also articles ACADEMY, ARCESILAUS, CARNEADES. LADAKH AND BALTISTAN, a province of Kashmir, India. The name Ladak, commonly but less correctly spelt Ladakh, and sometimes Ladag, belongs primarily to the broad valley of the upper Indus in West Tibet, but includes several surrounding districts in political connexion with it; the present limits are between 75° 40' and 80° 30' E., and between 32° 25' and 36° N. It is bounded N. by the Kuenlun range and the slopes of the Karakoram, N.W. and W. by the dependency of Baltistan or Little Tibet, S.W. by Kashmir proper, S. by British Himalayan territory, and E. by the Tibetan provinces of Ngari and Rudok. The whole region lies very high, the valleys of Rupshu in the south-east being 15,000 ft., and the Indus near Leh 11,000 ft., while the average height of the surrounding ranges is 19,000 ft. The proportion of arable and even possible pasture land to barren rock and gravel is very small. Pop., including Baltistan (1901) LADAKH AND BALTISTAN 165,992, of whom 30, 2i6inLadakh proper are Buddhists, whereas the Baltis have adopted the Shiah form of Islam. The natural features of the country may be best explained by reference to two native terms, under one or other of which every part is included; viz. changtang, i.e. " northern, or high plain," where the amount of level ground is considerable, and rang, i.e. " deep valley," where the contrary condition prevails. The former predominates in the east, diminishing gradually westwards. There, although the vast alluvial deposits which once filled the valley to a remarkably uniform height of about 15,000 ft. have left their traces on the mountain sides, they have undergone immense denudation, and their debris now forms secondary deposits, flat bottoms or shelving slopes, the only spots available for cultivation or pasture. These masses of alluvium are often either metamorphosed to a subcrystalline rock still showing the composition of the strata, or simply con- solidated by lime. Grand scenery is exceptional, for the valleys are confined, and from the higher points the view is generally of a confused mass of brown or yellow hills, absolutely barren, and of no great apparent height. The parallelism characteristic of the Himalayan ranges continues here, the direction being north-west and south- east. A central range divides the Indus valley, here 4 to 8 m. wide, from that of its north branch the Shyok, which with its fertile tributary valley of Nubra is again bounded on the north by the Karakoram. This central ridge is mostly syenitic gneiss, and north-east from it are found, successively, Silurian slates, Carboniferous shales and Triassic limestones, the gneiss recurring at the Turkestan frontier. The Indus lies along the line which separates the crystalline rocks from the Eocene sandstones and shales of the lower range of hills on the left bank, the lofty mountains behind them consisting of parallel bands of rocks from Silurian to Cretaceous. Several lakes in the east districts at about 14,000 ft. have been of much greater extent, and connected with the river systems of the country, but they are now mostly without outlet, saline, and in process of desiccation. Leh is the capital of Ladakh, and the road toLehfrom Srinagar lies up the lovely Sind valley to the sources of the river at the Zoji La Pass (11,300 ft.) in the Zaskar range. This is the range which, skirting the sou them edge of the upland plains of Deosai in Baltistan, divides them from the valley of Kashmir, and then continues to Nanga Parbat (26,620 ft.) and beyond that mountain stretches to the north of Swat and Bajour. To the south-east it is an unbroken chain till it merges into the line of snowy peaks seen from Simla and the plains of India — the range which reaches past Chini to the famous peaks of Gangotri, Nandadevi and | Nampa. It is the most central and conspicuous range in the Himalaya. The Zoji La, which curves from the head of the Sind valley on to the bleak uplands of Dras (where lies the road to the trough of the Indus and Leh), is, in spite of its altitude, a pass on which little snow lies; but for local accumulations, it would be open all the year round. It affords a typical instance of that cutting-back process by which a river-head may erode a channel through a watershed into the plateau behind, there being no steep fall towards the Indus on the northern side of the range. From the Zoji La the road continues by easy gradients, following the line of the Dras drainage, to the Indus, when it turns up the valley to Leh. From Leh there are many routes into Tibet, the best known being that from the Indus valley to the Tibetan plateau, by the Chang La, to Lake Pangkong and Rudok (14,000 ft.). Rudok occupies a forward position on the western Tibetan border analogous to that of Leh in Kashmir. The chief trade route to Lhasa from Leh, however, follows the line offered by the valleys of the Indus and the Brahmaputra (or Tsanpo), crossing the divide between these rivers north of Lake Mana- sarowar. The observatory at Leh is the most elevated observatory in Asia. " The atmosphere of the Indus valley is remarkably clear and transparent, and the heat of the sun is very great. There is generally a difference of more than 60° between the read- ing of the exposed sun thermometer in vacua and the air tempera- ture in the shade, and this difference has occasionally exceeded 90° .... The mean annual temperature at Leh is 40°, that of the coldest months (January and February) only 18° and 19°,. but it rises rapidly from February to July, in which month it reaches 62° with a mean diurnal maximum of 80° both in that month and August, and an average difference of 29° or 30° between the early morning and afternoon. The mean highest temperature of the year is 90°, varying between 84° and 93° in the twelve years previous to 1893. On the other hand, in the winter the minimum thermometer falls occasionally below o°, and in 1878 reached as low as 17° below zero. The extreme range of recorded temperature is therefore not less than 110°. The air is as dry as Quetta, and rather more uniformly so. ... The amount of rain and snow is insignificant. The average rain (and snow) fall is only 2-7 in. in the year."1 The winds are generally light, and depend on the local direction of the valleys. At Leh, which stands at the entrance of the valley leading to the Kardang Pass, the most common directions are between south and west in the daytime and summer, and from north- east in the night, especially in the later months of the year. In January and February the air is generally calm, and April and May are the most windy months of the year. Vegetation is confided to valleys and sheltered spots, where a stunted growth of tamarisk and Myricaria, Hippophae and Elaeagnus, furze, and the roots of burlsi, a salsolaceous plant, supply the traveller with much-needed firewood. The trees are the pencil cedar (Juniperus excelsa), the poplar and willow (both extensively planted, the latter sometimes wild), apple, mulberry, apricot and walnut. Irrigation is skilfully managed, the principal products being wheat, a beardless variety of barley called grim, millet, buckwheat, pease, beans and turnips. Lucerne and prangos (an umbelliferous plant) are used as fodder. Among domestic animals are the famous shawl goat, two-kinds of sheep, of which the larger (huniya) is used for carrying burdens, and is a principal source of wealth, the yak and the dso, a valuable hybrid between the yak and common cow Among wild animals are the kiang or wild ass, ibex, several kinds of wild sheep, antelope (Pantholops), marmot, hare and other Tibetan fauna. The present value of the trade between British India and Tibet passing through Ladakh is inconsiderable Ladakh, however, is im- proving in its trade prospects apart from Tibet. It is curious that both Ladakh and Tibet import a considerable amount of treasure, for on the borders of western Tibet and within a radius of 100 or 200 m. of Leh there centres a gold-mining industry which apparently only requires scientific development to render it enorm- ously productive. Here the surface soil has been for many centuries washed for gold by bands of Tibetan miners, who never work deeper than 20 to 50 ft., and whose methods of washing are of the crudest description. They work in winter, chiefly because of the binding power of frost on the friable soil, suffering great hardships and ob- taining but a poor return for their labour. But the remoteness of Ladakh and its extreme altitude still continue to bar the way to substantial progress, though its central position naturally entitles it to be a great trade mart. The adjoining territory of Baltistan forms the west extremity of Tibet, whose natural limits here are the Indus from its abrupt south- ward bend in 74° 45' E., and the mountains to the north and west, separating a comparatively peaceful Tibetan population from the fiercer Aryan tribes beyond. Mahommedan writers about the i6th century speak of Baltistan as " Little Tibet," and of Ladakh as " Great Tibet," thus ignoring the really Great Tibet altogether. The Balti call Gilgit " a Tibet," and DrLeitner says that the Chilasi call themselves Bot or Tibetans; but, although these districts may have been overrun by the Tibetans, or have received rulers of that race, the ethnological frontier coincides with the geographical one given. Baltistan is a mass of lofty mountains, the prevailing forma- tion being gneiss. In the north is the Baltoro glacier, the largest out of the arctic regions, 35 m. long, contained between two ridges whose highest peaks to the south are 25,000 and to the north 28,265 ft. The Indus, as in Lower Ladakh, runs in a narrow gorge, widening for nearly 20 m. after receiving the Shyok. The capital, Skardu, a scattered collection of houses, stands here, perched on a rock 7250 ft. above the sea. The house roofs are flat, occupied only in part by a second story, the remaining space being devoted to drying apricots, the chief staple of the main valley, which supports little cultivation. But the rapid slope westwards is seen generally in the vegetation. Birch, plane, spruce and Pinus excelsa appear; the fruits are finer, including pomegranate, pear, peach, vine and melon, and where irrigation is available, as in the North Shigar, and at the deltas of the tributary valleys, the crops are more luxuriant and varied. History. — The earliest notice of Ladakh is by the Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien, A.D. 400, who, travelling in search of a purer 1 H. F. Blandford, Climate and Weather of India (London, 1889). LADD— LADISLAUS IV. 59 faith, found Buddhism flourishing there, the only novelty to him being the prayer-cylinder, the efficacy of which he declares is incredible. Ladakh formed part of the Tibetan empire until its disruption in the loth century, and since then has continued ecclesiastically subject, and sometimes tributary, to Lhasa. Its inaccessibility saved it from any Mussulman invasion until 1531, when Sultan Said of Kashgar marched an army across the Karakoram, one division fighting its way into Kashmir -and wintering there. Next year they invaded eastern Tibet, where nearly all perished from the effects of the climate. Early in the iyth century Ladakh was invaded by its Mahom- medan neighbours of Baltistan, who plundered and destroyed the temples and monasteries; and again, in 1685-1688, by the Sokpa, who were expelled only by the aid of the lieutenant of Aurangzeb in Kashmir, Ladakh thereafter becoming tributary. The gyalpo •or king then made a nominal profession of Islam, and allowed a mosque to be founded at Leh, and the Kashmiris have ever since addressed his successors by a Mahommedan title. When the Sikhs took Kashmir, Ladakh, dreading their approach, offered allegiance to Great Britain. It was, however, conquered and annexed in 1834-1841 by Gulab Singh of Jammu — the unwar- like Ladakhis, even with nature fighting on their side, and against indifferent generalship, being no match for the Dogra troops. These next turned their arms successfully against the Baltis (who in the i8th century were subject to the Mogul), and were then tempted to revive the claims of Ladakh to the Chinese provinces of Rudok and Ngari. This, however, brought down an army from Lhasa, and after a three days' fight the Indian force was almost annihilated — chiefly indeed by frostbite and other sufferings, for the battle was fought in mid-winter, 15,000 ft. above the sea. The Chinese then marched on Leh, but were soon driven out again, and peace was finally made on the basis of the old frontier. The widespread prestige of China is illustrated by the fact that tribute, though disguised as a present, is paid to her, for Ladakh, by the maharaja of Kashmir. The principal works to be consulted are F. Drew, The Jummoo and Kashmir Territories; Cunningham, Ladak; Major J. Biddulph, The Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh; Ramsay, Western Tibet; Godwin- Austen, " The Mountain Systems of the Himalaya," vol. vi., Proc. R.G.S. (1884); W. Lawrence, The Valley of Kashmir (1895); H. F. Blandford, The Climate and Weather of India (1889). (T. H. H.*) LADD, GEORGE TRUMBULL (1842- ), American philos- opher, was born in Painesville, Lake county, Ohio, on the 1 9th of January 1842. He graduated at Western Reserve College in 1864 and at Andover Theological Seminary in 1869; preached in Edinburg, Ohio, in 1869-1871, and in the Spring Street Congregational Church of Milwaukee in 1871-1879; and was professor of philosophy at Bowdoin College in 1879- 1881, and Clark professor of metaphysics and moral philosophy .at Yale from 1881 till 1901, when he took charge of the graduate department of philosophy and psychology; he became professor emeritus in 1905. In 1879-1882 he lectured on theology at Andover Theological Seminary, and in 1883 at Harvard, where in 1895-1896 he conducted a graduate seminary in ethics. He lectured in Japan in 1892, 1899 (when he also visited the uni- versities of India) and 1906-1907. He was much influenced by Lotze, whose Outlines of Philosophy he translated (6 vols., 1877), and was one of the first to introduce (1879) the study of experi- mental psychology into America, the Yale psychological laboratory being founded by him. PUBLICATIONS.— The Principles of Church Polity (1882); The Doctrine of Sacred Scripture (1884) ; 'What is the Bible? (1888) ; Essays on the Higher Education (1899), defending the " old " (Yale) system against the Harvard or " new " education, as praised by George H. Palmer; Elements of Physiological Psychology (1889, rewritten as Out- lines of Physiological Psychology, in 1890); Primer of Psychology (1894) ; Psychology, Descriptive and Explanatory (1894) ; and Outlines of Descriptive Psychology (1898); in a "system of philosophy," Philosophy of the Mind (1891); Philosophy of Knowledge (1897); A Theory of Reahty (1899) ; Philosophy of Conduct (1902) ; and Philosophy of Religion (2 vols., 1905) ; In Korea with Marquis Ito (1908) ; and Knowledge, Life and Reality (1909). LADDER, (O. Eng. hlaeder; of Teutonic origin, cf. Dutch leer, Ger. Letter; the ultimate origin is in the root seen in "lean," >Gr. K\i>a£), a set of steps or " rungs " between two supports to enable one to get up and down; usually made of wood and sometimes of metal or rope. Ladders are generally movable, and differ from a staircase also in having only treads and no " risers." The term " Jacob's ladder," taken from the dream of Jacob in the Bible, is applied to a rope ladder with wooden steps used at sea to go aloft, and to a common garden plant of the genus Polemonium on account of the ladder-like formation of the leaves. The flower known in England as Solomon's seal is in some countries called the " ladder of heaven." LADING (from " to lade," O. Eng. hladan, to put cargo on board; cf. *' load "), BILL OF, the document given as receipt by the master of a merchant vessel to the consignor of goods, as a guarantee for their safe delivery to the consignee. (See AFFREIGHTMENT.) LADISLAUS [I.], Saint (1040-1095), king of Hungary, the son of Bela I., king of Hungary, and the Polish princess Richeza, was born in Poland, whither his father had sought refuge, but was recalled by his elder brother Andrew I. to Hungary (1047) and brought up there. He succeeded to the throne on the death of his uncle Geza in 1077, as the eldest member of the royal family, and speedily won for himself a reputation scarcely inferior to that of Stephen I., by nationalizing Christianity and laying the foundations of Hungary's political greatness. Instinctively recognizing that Germany was the natural enemy of the Magyars, Ladislaus formed a close alliance with the pope and all the other enemies of the emperor Henry IV., including the anti-emperor Rudolph of Swabia and his chief supporter Welf, duke of Bavaria, whose daughter Adelaide he married. She bore him one son and three daughters, one of whom, Piriska, married the Byzantine emperor John Comnenus. The collapse of the German emperor in his struggle with the pope left Ladislaus free to extend his dominions towards the south, and colonize and Christianize the wildernesses of Transylvania and the lower Danube. Hungary was still semi-savage, and her native barba- rians were being perpetually recruited from the hordes of Peche- negs, Kumanians and other races which swept over her during the nth century. Ladislaus himsejf had fought valiantly in his youth against the Pechenegs, and to defend the land against the Kumanians, who now occupied Moldavia and Wallachia as far as the Alt, he built the fortresses of Turnu-Severin and Gyula Fehervar. He also planted in Transylvania the Szeklers, the supposed remnant of the ancient Magyars from beyond the Dnieper, and founded the bishoprics of Nagy-Varad, or Gross- Wardein, and of Agram, as fresh foci of Catholicism in south Hungary and the hitherto uncultivated districts between the Drave and the Save. He subsequently conquered Croatia, though here his authority was questioned by the pope, the Venetian republic and the Greek emperor. Ladislaus died suddenly in 1095 when about to take part in the first Crusade. No other Hungarian king was so generally beloved. The whole nation mourned for him for three years, and regarded him as a saint long before his canonization. A whole cycle of legends is associated with his name. See J. Babik, Life of St Ladislaus (Hung.) (Eger, 1892); Gyorgy Pray, Dissertatio de St Ladislao (Pressburg, 1774); Antal Ganoczy, Diss. hist. crit. de St Ladislao (Vienna, 1775). _ (R. N. B.) LADISLAUS IV.f The Kumanian (1262-1290), king of Hungary, was the son of Stephen V., whom he succeeded in 1272. From his tenth year, when he was kidnapped from his father's court by the rebellious vassals, till his assassination eighteen years later, his whole life, with one bright interval of military glory, was unrelieved tragedy. His minority, 1272-1277, was an alternation of palace revolutions and civil wars, in the course of which his brave Kumanian mother Elizabeth barely contrived to keep the upper hand. In this terrible school Ladislaus matured precociously. At fifteen he was a man, resolute, spirited, enter- prising, with the germs of many talents and virtues, but rough, reckless and very imperfectly educated. He was married betimes to Elizabeth of Anjou, who had been brought up at the Hungarian court. The marriage was a purely political one, arranged by his father and a section of the Hungarian magnates to counterpoise hostile German and Czech influences. During 6o LADISLAUS V.— LADO ENCLAVE the earlier part of his reign, Ladislaus obsequiously followed the direction of the Neapolitan court in foreign affairs. In Hungary itself a large party was in favour of the Germans, but the civil wars which raged between the two factions from 1276 to 1278 did not prevent Ladislaus, at the head of 20,000 Magyars and Rumanians, from co-operating with Rudolph of Habsburg in the great battle of Durnkriit (August 26th, 1278), which destroyed, once for all, the empire of the Pfemyslidae. A month later a papal legate arrived in Hungary to inquire into the conduct of the king, who was accused by his neighbours, and many of his own subjects, of adopting the ways of his Kumam'an kinsfolk and thereby undermining Christianity. Ladislaus was not really a pagan, or he would not have devoted his share of the spoil of Durnkriit to the building of the Franciscan church at Pressburg, nor would he have venerated as he did his aunt St Margaret. Political enmity was largely responsible for the movement against him, yet the result of a very careful investigation (1279-1281) by Philip, bishop of Fermo, more than justified many of the accusations brought against Ladislaus. He clearly preferred the society of the semi-heathen Rumanians to that of the Christians; wore, and made his court wear, Rumanian dress; surrounded himself with Rumanian concubines, and neglected and ill-used his ill-favoured Neapolitan consort. He was finally compelled to take up arms against his Rumanian friends, whom he routed at Hodmezo (May 1282) with fearful loss; but, previously to this, he had arrested the legate, whom he subse- quently attempted to starve into submission, and his conduct generally was regarded as so unsatisfactory that, after repeated warnings, the Holy See resolved to supersede him by his Angevin kinsfolk, whom he had also alienated, and on the 8th of August 1288 Pope Nicholas IV. proclaimed a crusade against him. For the next two years all Hungary was convulsed by a horrible civil war, during which the unhappy young king, who fought for his heritage to the last with desperate valour, was driven from one end of his kingdom to the other like a hunted beast. On the 25th of December 1289 he issued a manifesto to the lesser gentry, a large portion of whom sided with him, urging them to continue the struggle against the magnates and their foreign supporters; but on the loth of July 1290 he was murdered in his camp at Rorosszeg by the Rumanians, who never forgave him for deserting them. See Karoly Szab6, Ladislaus the Cumanian (Hung.), (Budapest, 1886); and Acsady, History of the Hungarian Realm, i. 2 (Budapest, 1903). The latter is, however, too favourable to Ladislaus. (R. N. B.) LADISLAUS V. (1440-1457), king of Hungary and Bohemia, the only son of Albert, king of Hungary, and Elizabeth, daughter of the emperor Sigismund, was born at Romarom on the 22nd of February 1440, four months after his father's death, and was hence called Ladislaus Posthumus. The estates of Hungary had already elected Wladislaus III. of Poland their king, but Ladislaus's mother caused the holy crown to be stolen from its guardians at Visegrad, and compelled the primate to crown the infant king at Szekesfejervir on the isth of May 1440; where- upon, for safety's sake, she placed the child beneath the guardian- ship of his uncle the emperor Frederick III. On the death of Wladislaus III. (Nov. loth, 1444), Ladislaus V. was elected king by the Hungarian estates, though not without considerable opposition, and a deputation was sent to Vienna to induce the emperor to surrender the child and the holy crown; but it was not till 1452 that Frederick was compelled to relinquish both. The child was then transferred to the pernicious guardianship of his maternal grandfather Ulrich Cillei, who corrupted him soul and body and inspired him with a jealous hatred of the Hunyadis. On the 28th of October 1453 he was crowned king of Bohemia, and henceforth spent most of his time at Prague and Vienna. He remained supinely indifferent to the Turkish peril; at the instigation of Cillei did his best to hinder the defensive preparations of the great Hunyadi, and fled from the country on the tidings of the siege of Belgrade. On the death of Hunyadi he made Cillei governor of Hungary at the diet of Futtak (October 1456), and when that traitor paid with his life for his murderous attempt on Laszlo Hunyadi at Belgrade, Ladislaus procured the decapitation of young Hunyadi (i6th of March 1457), after a mock trial which raised such a storm in Hungary that the king fled to Prague, where he died suddenly (Nov. 23rd, 1457), while making preparations for his marriage with Magdalena, daughter of Charles Vll. of France. He is supposed to have been poisoned by his political opponents in Bohemia. See F. Palacky, Zeugenverhor liber den Tod Konig Ladislaus von Ungarn u. Bohmen (Prague, 1856); Ignacz Acsady, History of the Hungarian State (Hung.), vol. i. (Budapest, 1903). LA DIXMERIE, NICOLAS BRICAIRE DE (c. 1730-1791), French man of letters, was born at Lamothe (Haute-Marne). While still young he removed to Paris, where the rest of his life was spent in literary activity. He died on the 26th of November 1791. His numerous works include Contes philo- sophiques et moraux (1765), Les Deux Ages du gout et du genie sous Louis XI V. et sous Louis X V. (1769), a parallel and contrast, in which the decision is given in favour of the latter; L'Espagne litter aire (1774) ; £loge de Voltaire (1779) and Eloge de Montaigne (1781). LADO ENCLAVE, a region of the upper Nile formerly ad- ministered by the Congo Free State, but since 1910 a province of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It has an area of about 15,000 sq. m., and a population estimated at 250,000 and consisting of Bari, Madi, Ruku and other Nilotic Negroes. The enclave is bounded S.E. by the north-west shores of Albert Nyanza — as far south as the port of Mahagi — E. by the western bank of the Nile (Bahr-el-Jebel) to the point where the river is intersected by 5° 30' N., which parallel forms its northern frontier from the Nile westward to 30° E. This meridian forms the west frontier to 4° N., the frontier thence being the Nile-Congo watershed to the point nearest to Mahagi and from that point direct to Albert Nyanza. The country is a moderately elevated plateau sloping north- ward from the higher ground marking the Congo-Nile watershed. The plains are mostly covered with bush, with stretches of forest in the northern districts. Traversing the plateau are two parallel mountainous chains having a general north to south direction. One chain, the Ruku Mountains (average height 2000 ft.), approaches close to the Nile and presents, as seen from the river, several apparently isolated peaks. At other places these mountains form precipices which stretch in a continuous line like a huge wall. From Dufile in 3° 34' N. to below the Bedden Rapids in 4° 40' N. the bed of the Nile is much obstructed and the river throughout this reach is unnavigable (see NILE). Below the Bedden Rapids rises the conical hill of Rejaf, and north of that point the Nile valley becomes flat. Ranges of hill, however, are visible farther westwards, and a little north of 5° N. is Jebel Lado, a conspicuous mountain 2500 ft. high and some 1 2 m. distant from the Nile. It has given its name to the district, being the first hill seen from the Nile in the ascent of some 1000 m. from Rhartum. On the river at Rejaf, at Lado, and at Riro, 28 m. N. of Lado, are government stations and trading establishments. The western chain of hills has loftier peaks than those of Ruku, Jebel Loka being about 3000 ft. high. This western chain forms a secondary watershed separating the basin of the Yei, a large river, some 400 m. in length, which runs almost due north to join the Nile, from the other streams of the enclave, which have an easterly or north-easterly direction and join the Nile, after comparatively short courses. The northern part of the district was first visited by Europeans in 1841-1842, when the Nile was ascended by an expedition despatched by Mehemet Ali to the foot of the rapids at Bedden. The neighbouring posts of Gondokoro, on the east bank of the Nile, and Lado, soon became stations of the Rhartum ivory and slave traders. After the discovery of Albert Nyanza by Sir Samuel Baker in 1864, the whole country was overrun by Arabs, Levantines, Turks and others, whose chief occupation was slave raiding. The region was claimed as part of the Egyptian Sudan, but it was not until the arrival of Sir Samuel Baker at Gondokoro in 1870 as governor of the equatorial provinces, LADOGA— LADY 61 that any effective control of the slave traders was attempted. Baker was succeeded by General C. G. Gordon, who established a separate administration for the Bahr-el-Ghazal. In 1878 Emin Pasha became governor of the Equatorial Province, a term henceforth confined to the region adjoining the main Nile above the Sobat confluence, and the region south of the Bahr-el-Ghazal province. (The whole of the Lado Enclave thus formed part of Emin's old province.) Emin made his headquarters at Lado, whence he was driven in 1885 by the Mahdists. He then removed to Wadelai, a station farther south, but in 1889 the pasha, to whose aid H. M. Stanley had conducted an expedition from the Congo, evacuated the country and with Stanley made his way to the east coast. While the Mahdists remained in possession at Rejaf, Great Britain in virtue of her position in Uganda claimed the upper Nile region as within the British sphere; a claim admitted by Germany in 1890. In February 1894 the union jack was hoisted at Wadelai, while in May of the same year Great Britain granted to Leopold II., as sovereign of the Congo State, a lease of large areas lying west of the upper Nile inclusive of the Bahr-el-Ghazal and Fashoda. Pressed however by France, Leopold II. agreed to occupy only that part of the leased area east of 30° E. and south of 5° 30' N., and in this manner the actual limits of the Lado Enclave, as it was thereafter called, were fixed. Congo State forces had penetrated to the Nile valley as early as 1891, but it was not until 1897, when on the i7th of February Commandant Chaltin inflicted a decisive defeat on the Mahdists at Rejaf, that their occupation of the Lado Enclave was assured. After the with- drawal of the French from Fashoda, Leopold II. revived (1899) his claim to the whole of the area, leased to him in 1894. In this claim he was unsuccessful, and the lease, by a new agreement made with Great Britain in 1906, was annulled (see AFRICA, § 5). The king however retained the enclave, with the stipulation that six months after the termination of his reign it should be handed over to the Anglo-Sudanese government (see Treaty Series, No. 4, 1906). See Le Mouvement^ geographique (Brussels) passim, and especially articles in the 1910 issues. LADOGA (formerly NEVO), a lake of northern Russia, between 59° 56' and 61° 46' N., and 29° 53' and 32° 50' E., surrounded by the governments of St Petersburg and Olonets, and of Viborg in Finland. It has the form of a quadrilateral, elongated from N.W. to S.E. Its eastern and southern shores are flat and marshy, the north-western craggy and fringed by numerous small rocky islands, the largest of which are Valamo and Konne- vitz, together having an area of 14 sq. m. Ladoga is 7000 sq. m. in area, that is, thirty-one times as large as the Lake of Geneva; but, its depth being less, it contains only nineteen times as much water as the Swiss lake. The greatest depth, 730 ft., is in a trough in the north-western part, the average depth not exceeding 250 to 350 ft. The level of Lake Ladoga is 55 ft. above the Gulf of Finland, but it rises and falls about 7 ft., according to atmospheric conditions, a phenomenon very similar to the seiches of the Lake of Geneva being observed in connexion with this. The western and eastern shores consist of boulder clay, as well as a narrow strip on the southern shore, south of which runs a ridge of crags of Silurian sandstones. The hills of the north-western shore afford a variety of granites and crystalline slates of the Laurentian system, whilst Valamo island is made up of a rock which Russian geologists describe as orthoclastic hypersthenite. The granite and marble of Serdobol, and the sandstone of Putilovo, are much used for buildings at St Petersburg; copper and tin from the Pitkaranta mine are exported. No fewer than seventy rivers enter Ladoga, pouring into it the waters of numberless smaller lakes which lie at higher levels round it. The Volkhov, which conveys the waters of Lake Ilmen, is the largest ; Lake Onega discharges its waters by the Svir; and the Saima system of lakes of eastern Finland contributes the Vuoxen and Taipale rivers; the Syas brings the waters from the smaller lakes and marshes of the Valdai plateau. Ladoga discharges its surplus water by means of the Neva, which flows from its south-western corner into the Gulf of Finland, rolling down its broad channel 104,000 cubic ft. of water per second. The water of Ladoga is very pure and cold ; in May the surface temperature does not exceed 36° Fahr., and even in August it reaches only 50° and 53°, the average yearly temperature of the air at Valamo being 36-8°. The lake begins to freeze in October, but it is only about the end of December that it is frozen in its deeper parts ; and it remains ice-bound until the end of March, though broad ice- fields continue to float in the middle of the lake until broken up by gales. Only a small part of the Ladoga ice is discharged by the Neva ; but it is enough to produce in the middle of June a return of cold in the northern capital. The thickness of the ice does not exceed 3 or 4 ft. ; but during the alternations of cold and warm weather, with strong gales, in winter, stacks of ice, 70 and 80 ft. high, are raised on the shores and on the icefields. The water is in continuous rotatory motion, being carried along the western shore from north to south, and along the eastern from south to north. The vegetation on the shores is poor; immense forests, which formerly covered them, are now mostly destroyed. But the fauna of the lake is somewhat rich; a species of seal which inhabits its waters, as well as several species of arctic crustaceans, recall its former connexion with the Arctic Ocean. The sweet water Diatomaceae which are found in great variety in the ooze of the deepest parts of the lake also have an arctic character. Fishing is very extensively carried on. Navigation, which is practicable for only one hundred and eighty days in the year, is rather difficult owing to fogs and gales, which are often accompanied, even in April and September, with snow-storms. The prevailing winds blow from N.W. and S.W. ; N.E. winds cause the water to rise in the south-western part, sometimes 3 to 5 ft. Steamers ply regularly in two directions from St Petersburg — to the monasteries of Konnevitz and Valamo, and to the mouth of the Svir, whence they go up that river to Lake Onega and Petrozavodsk; and small vessels transport timber, firewood, planks, iron, kaolin, granite, marble, fish, hay and various small wares from the northern shore to Schlusselburg, and thence to St Petersburg. Navigation on the lake being too danger- ous for small craft, canals with an aggregate length of 104 m. were dug in 1718-1731, and others in 1861-1886 having an aggregate length of 101 m. along its southern shore, uniting with the Neva at Schliisselburg the mouths of the rivers Volkhov, Syas and Svir, all links in the elaborate system of canals which connect the upper Volga with the Gulf of Finland. The population (35,000) on the shores of the lake is sparse, and the towns — Schlusselburg (5285 inhabitants in 1897); New Ladoga (4144); Kexholm (1325) and Serdobol — are small. The monasteries of Valamo, founded in 992, on the island of the same name, and Konnevskiy, on Konnevitz island, founded in 1393, are visited every year by many thousands of pilgrims. (P. A. K. ; J. T. BE.) LADY (O. Eng. hlaefdige, Mid. Eng. Idfdi, Idvedi; the first part of the word is Mdf, loaf, bread, as in the corresponding hldford, lord; the second part is usually taken to be from the root dig-, to knead, seen also in " dough "; the sense development from bread-kneader, bread-maker, to the ordinary meaning, though not clearly to be traced historically, may be illustrated by that of " lord "), a term of which the main applications are two, (i) as the correlative of " lord " (q.v.) in certain of the usages of that word, (2) as the correlative of " gentleman " (q.v.). The primary meaning of mistress of a household is, if not obsolete, in present usage only a vulgarism. The special use of the word as a title of the Virgin Mary, usually " Our Lady," represents the Lat. Domina Nostra. In Lady Day and Lady Chapel the word is properly a genitive, representing the O. Eng. hla/fdigan. As a title of nobility the uses of " lady " are mainly paralleled by those of " lord." It is thus a less formal alternative to the full title giving the specific rank, of marchioness, countess, vis- countess or baroness, whether as the title of the husband's rank by right or courtesy, or as the lady's title in her own right. In the case of the younger sons of a duke or marquess, who by courtesy have lord prefixed to their Christian and family name, the wife is known by the husband's Christian and family name with Lady prefixed, e.g. Lady John B.; the daughters of dukes, marquesses and earls are by courtesy Ladies; here that title is prefixed to the Christian and family name of the lady, e.g. Lady Mary B., and this is preserved if the lady marry a commoner, e.g. Mr and Lady Mary C. " Lady " is also the customary title of the wife of a baronet or knight; the proper title, now only used in legal documents or on sepulchral monuments, is " dame " (q.v.) ; in the latter case the usage is to prefix Dame to the Christian name of the wife followed by the surname of the husband, thus Dame Eleanor B., but in the former, Lady with the surname of the husband only, Sir A. and Lady B. During the isth and i6th centuries " princesses " or daughters of the blood royal were usually known by their Christian names with "the Lady " prefixed, e.g. the Lady Elizabeth. 62 LADYBANK— LAELIUS While " lord " has retained its original application as a title of nobility or rank without extension, an example which has been followed in Spanish usage by " don," " lady " has been extended in meaning to be the feminine correlative of " gentleman " throughout its sense developments, and in this is paralleled by Dame in German, madame in French, donna in Spanish, &c. It is the general word for any woman of a certain social position (see GENTLEMAN). LADYBANK, a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland, 5^ m. S.W. of Cupar by the North British railway, 5 m. from the left bank of the Eden. Pop. (1901) 1340. Besides having a station on the main line to Dundee, it is also connected with Perth and Kinross and is a railway junction of some importance and possesses a locomotive depot. It is an industrial centre, linen weaving, coal mining and malting being the principal industries. KETTLE, a village i m. S., has prehistoric barrows and a fort. At COLLESSIE, 2j m. N. by W., a standing stone, a mound and traces of ancient camps exist, while urns and coins have been found. Between the parishes of Collessie and Monimail the boundary line takes the form of a crescent known as the Bow of Fife. MONIMAIL contains the Mount, the residence of Sir David Lindsay the poet (1490-1555). Its lofty site is now marked by a clump of trees. Here, too, is the Doric pillar, too ft. high, raised to the memory of John Hope, 4th earl of Hopetoun. Melville House, the seat of the earls of Leven, lies amidst beautiful woods. LADYBRAND, a town of the Orange Free State, 80 m. E. of Bloemfontein by rail. Another railway connects it with Natal via Harrismith. Pop. (1904) 3862, of whom 2334 were whites. The town is pleasantly situated at the foot of a flat-topped hill (the Platberg), about 4 m. W. of the Caledon river, which separates the province from Basutoland. Ladybrand is the centre of a rich arable district, has a large wheat market and is also a health resort, the climate, owing to the proximity of the Maluti Mountains, being bracing even during the summer months (November-March). Coal and petroleum are found in the neighbourhood. It is named after the wife of Sir. J. H. Brand, president of the Orange Free State. LADY-CHAPEL, the chapel dedicated to the Blessed Virgin and attached to churches of large size. Generally the chapel was built eastward of the high altar and formed a projection from the main building, as in Winchester, Salisbury, Exeter, Wells, St Albans, Chichester, Peterborough and Norwich cathedrals, — in the two latter cases now destroyed. The earliest Lady-chapel built was that in the Saxon cathedral of Canterbury; this was transfered in the rebuilding by Archbishop Lanfranc to the west end of the nave, and again shifted in 1450 to the chapel on the east side of the north transept. The Lady-chapel at Ely cathedral is a distinct building attached to the north transept; at Rochester the Lady-chapel is west of the south transept. Probably the largest Lady-chapel was that built by Henry III. in 1220 at Westminster Abbey, which was 30 ft. wide, much in excess of any foreign example, and extended to the end of the site now occupied by Henry VII. 's chapel. Among other notable English examples of Lady-chapels are those at Ottery- St-Mary, Thetford, Bury St Edmund's, Wimborne, Christ- church, Hampshire; in Compton Church, Surrey, and Compton Martin, Somersetshire, and Darenth, Kent, it was built over the chancel. At Croyland Abbey there were two Lady-chapels. Lady-chapels exist in most of the French cathedrals and churches, where they form part of the chevet; in Belgium they were not introduced before the i4th century; in some cases they are of the same size as the other chapels of the chevet, but in others, probably rebuilt at a later period, they became much more important features, and in Italy and Spain during the Renais- sance period constitute some of its best examples. LADY DAY, originally the name for all the days in the church calendar marking any event in the Virgin Mary's life, but now restricted to the feast of the Annunciation, held on the 25th of March in each year. Lady Day was in medieval and later times the beginning of the legal year in England. In 1752 this was altered to the ist of January, but the 25th of March remains one of the Quarter Days; though in some parts old Lady Day, on the 6th of April, is still the date for rent paying. See ANNUNCIATION. LADYSMITH, a town of Natal, 189 m. N.W. of Durban by rail, on the left bank of the Klip tributary of the Tugela. Pop. (1904) 5568, of whom 2269 were whites. It lies 3284 ft. above the sea and is encircled by hills, while the Drakensberg are some 30 m. distant to the N.W. Ladysmith is the trading centre of northern Natal, and is the chief railway junction in the province, the main line from the south dividing here. One line crosses Van Reenen's pass into the Orange Free State, the other runs north- wards to the Transvaal. There are extensive railway workshops. Among the public buildings are the Anglican church and the town hall. The church contains tablets with the names of 3200 men who perished in the defence and relief of the town in the South African War (see below), while the clock tower of the town hall, partially destroyed by a Boer shell, is kept in its damaged condition. Ladysmith, founded in 1851, is named after Juana, Lady Smith, wife of Sir Harry Smith, then governor of Cape Colony. It stands near the site of the camp of the Dutch farmers who in 1848 assembled for the purpose of trekking across the Drakens- berg. Here they were visited by Sir Harry Smith, who induced the majority of the farmers to remain in Natal. The growth of the town, at first slow, increased with the opening of the railway from Durban in 1886 and the subsequent extension of the line to Johannesburg. In the first and most critical stage of the South African War of 1899-1902 (see TRANSVAAL) Ladysmith was the centre of the struggle. During the British concentration on the town there were fought the actions of Talana (or Dundee) on the 2oth, Elandslaagte on the 2ist and Rietfontein on the 24th of October 1899. On the 3oth of October the British sustained a serious defeat in the general action of Lombard's Kop or Farquhar's Farm, and Sir George White decided to hold the town, which had been fortified, against investment and siege until he was relieved directly or indirectly by Sir Redvers Buller's advance. The greater portion of Buller's available troops were despatched to Natal in November, with a view to the direct relief of Ladysmith, which meantime the Boers had closely invested. His first attempt was repelled on the i5th of December in the battle of Colenso, his second on the 24th of January 1900 by the successful Boer counterstroke against Spion Kop, and his third was abandoned without serious fighting (Vaalkranz, Feb. 5). But two or three days after Vaalkranz, almost simultaneously with Lord Roberts's advance on Bloemfontein Sir Redvers Buller resumed the offensive in the hills to the east of Colenso, which he gradually cleared of the enemy, and although he was checked after reaching the Tugela below Colenso (Feb. 24) he was finally successful in carrying the Boer positions (Pieter's Hill) on the 27th and relieving Ladysmith, which during these long and anxious months (Nov. i-Feb. 28) had suffered very severely from want of food, and on one occasion (Caesar's Camp, Jan. 6, 1900) had only with heavy losses and great difficulty repelled a powerful Boer assault. The garrison displayed its unbroken resolution on the last day of the investment by setting on foot a mobile column, composed of all men who were not too enfeebled to march out, in order to harass the Boer retreat. This expedition was however countermanded by Buller. LAELIUS, the name of a Roman plebeian family, probably settled at Tibur (Tivoli). The chief members were: — GAIUS LAELIUS, general and statesman, was a, friend of the elder Scipio, whom he accompanied on his Spanish campaign (210-206 B.C.). In Scipio's consulship (205), Laelius went with him to Sicily, whence he conducted an expedition to Africa. In 203 he defeated the Massaesylian prince Syphax, who, breaking his alliance with Scipio, had joined the Carthaginians, and at Zama (202) rendered considerable service in command of the cavalry. In 197 he was plebeian aedile and in 1 96 praetor of Sicily. As consul in 190 he was employed in organizing the recently conquered territory in Cisalpine Gaul. Placentia and Cremona were repeopled, and a new colony founded at Bononia. LAENAS— LAETUS He is last heard of in 170 as ambassador to Transalpine Gaul. Though little is known of his personal qualities, his intimacy with Scipio is proof that he must have been a man of some importance. Silius Italicus (Punica, xv. 450) describes him as a man of great endowments, an eloquent orator and a brave soldier. See Index to Liyy; Polybius x. 3. 9, 39, xi. 32, xiv. 4. 8, xv. 9. 12, 14; Appian, Hisp. 25-29; Cicero, PIMippica, xi. 7. His son, GAIUS LAELIUS, is known chiefly as the friend of the younger Scipio, and as one of the speakers in Cicero's De senectute, De amicitia (or Laelius) and De Republica. He was surnamed Sapiens (" the wise"), either from his scholarly tastes or because, when tribune, he " prudently " withdrew his proposal (151 B.C.) for the relief of the farmers by distributions of land, when he saw that it was likely to bring about disturbances. In the third Punic War (147) he accompanied Scipio to Africa, and dis- tinguished himself at the capture of the Cothon, the military harbour of Carthage. In 145 he carried on operations with moderate success against Viriathus in Spain; in 140 he was elected consul. During the Gracchan period, as a staunch supporter of Scipio and the aristocracy, Laelius became obnoxious to the democrats. He was associated with P. Popillius Laenas in the prosecution of those who had supported Tiberius Gracchus, and in 131 opposed the bill brought forward by C. Papirius Carbo to render legal the election of a tribune to a second year of office. The attempts of his enemies, however, failed to shake his reputa- tion. He was a highly accomplished man and belonged to the so-called " Scipionic circle." He studied philosophy under the Stoics Diogenes Babylonius and Panaetius of Rhodes; he was a poet, and the plays of Terence, by reason of their elegance of diction, were sometimes attributed to him. With Scipio he was mainly instrumental in introducing the study of the Greek language and literature into Rome. He was a gifted orator, though his refined eloquence was perhaps less suited to the forum than to the senate. He delivered speeches De Collegiis (145) against the proposal of the tribune C. Licinius Crassus to deprive the priestly colleges of their right of co-optation and to transfer the power of election to the people; Pro Publicanis (139), on behalf of the farmers of the revenue; against the proposal of Carbo noticed above; Pro Se, a speech in his own defence, delivered in answer to Carbo and Gracchus; funeral orations, amongst them two on his friend Scipio. Much informa- tion is given concerning him in Cicero, who compares him to Socrates. See Index to Cicero; Plutarch, Tib. Gracchus, 8; Appian, Punica, 126; Horace, Sat. ii. I. 72; Quintilian, Instil, xii. 10. 10; Suetonius, Vita Terentii; Terence, Adelphi, Prol. 15, with the commentators. LAENAS, the name of a plebeian family in ancient Rome, notorious for cruelty and arrogance. The two most famous of the name1 are: — GAIUS POPILLIUS LAENAS, consul in 172 B.C. He was sent to Greece in 174 to allay the general disaffection, but met with little success. He took part in the war against Perseus, king of Macedonia (Livy xliii. 17, 22). When Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, invaded Egypt, Laenas was sent to arrest his progress. Meeting him near Alexandria, he handed him the decree of the senate, demanding the evacuation of Egypt. Antiochus having asked time for consideration, Laenas drew a circle round him with his staff, and told him he must give an answer before he stepped out of it. Antiochus thereupon submitted (Livy xlv. 12; Polybius xxix. n; Cicero, Philippica, viii. 8; Veil. Pat. i. 10). PUBLIUS POPILLIUS LAENAS, son of the preceding. When consul in 132 B.C. he incurred the hatred of the democrats by his harsh measures as head of a special commission appointed to take measures against the accomplices of Tiberius Gracchus. In 123 Gaius Gracchus brought in a bill prohibiting all such commissions, and declared that, in accordance with the old laws of appeal, a magistrate who pronounced sentence of death 1 The name is said by Cicero to be derived from laena, the sacer- dotal cloak carried by Marcus Popillius (consul 359) when he went to the forum to quell a popular rising. against a citizen, without the people's assent, should be guilty of high treason. It is not known whether the bill contained a retrospective clause against Laenas, but he left Rome and sentence of banishment from Italy was pronounced against him. After the restoration of the aristocracy the enactments against him were cancelled, and he was recalled (121). See Cicero, Brutus, 25. 34, and De domo sua, 31 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 7; Plutarch, C. Gracchus, 4. LAER (or LAAR), PIETER VAN (i6i3-c. 1675), Dutch painter, was born at Laaren in Holland. The influence of a long stay in Rome begun at an early age is seen in his landscape and back- grounds, but in his subjects he remained true to the Dutch tradition, choosing generally lively scenes from peasant life, as markets, feasts, bowling scenes, farriers' shops, robbers, hunting scenes and peasants with cattle. From this taste, or from his personal deformity, he was nicknamed Bamboccio by the Italians. On his return to Holland about 1639, he lived chiefly at Amsterdam and Haarlem, in which latter city he died in 1674 or 1675. His pictures are marked by skilful composition and good drawing; he was especially careful in perspective. His colouring, according to Crowe, is " generally of a warm, brownish tone, sometimes very clear, but oftener heavy, and his execution broad and spirited." Certain etched plates are also attributed to him. LAESTRYGONES, a mythical race of giants and cannibals. According to the Odyssey (x. 80) they dwelt in the farthest north, where the nights were so short that the shepherd who was driving out his flock met another driving it in. This feature of the tale contains some hint of the long nightless summer in the Arctic regions, which perhaps reached the Greeks through the merchants who fetched amber from the Baltic coasts. Odysseus in his wanderings arrived at the coast inhabited by the Laestry- gones, and escaped with only one ship, the rest being sunk by the giants with masses of rock. Their chief city was Telepylus, founded by a former king Lamus, their ruler at that time being Antiphates. This is a purely fanciful name, but Lamus takes us into a religious world where we can trace the origin of the legend, and observe the god of an older religion becoming the subject of fairy tales (see LAMIA) in a later period. The later Greeks placed the country of the Laestrygones in Sicily, to the south of Aetna, near Leontini; but Horace (Odes, iii. 16. 34) and other Latin authors speak of them as living in southern Latium, near Formiae, which was supposed to have been founded by Lamus. LAETUS, JULIUS POMPONIUS [Giulio Pomponio Leto], (1425-1498), Italian humanist, was born at Salerno. He studied at Rome under Laurentius Valla, whom he succeeded (1457) as professor of eloquence in the Gymnasium Romanum. About this time he founded an academy, the members of which adopted Greek and Latin names, met on the Quirinal to discuss classical questions and celebrated the birthday of Romulus. Its constitu- tion resembled that of an ancient priestly college, and Laetus was styled pontifex maximus. The pope (Paul II.) viewed these proceedings with suspicion, as savouring of paganism, heresy and republicanism. In 1468 twenty of the academicians were arrested during the carnival; Laetus, who had taken refuge in Venice, was sent back to Rome, imprisoned and put to the torture, but refused to plead guilty to the charges of infidelity and immorality. For want of evidence, he was acquitted and allowed to resume his professorial duties; but it was for- bidden to utter the name of the academy even in jest. Sixtus IV. permitted the resumption of its meetings, which continued to be held till the sack of Rome (1527) by Constable Bourbon during the papacy of Clement VII. Laetus continued to teach in Rome until his death on the gth of June 1498. As a teacher, Laetus, who has been called the first head of a philological school, was extraordinarily successful; in his own words, like Socrates and Christ, he expected to live on in the person of his pupils, amongst whom were many of the most famous scholars of the period. His works, written in pure and simple Latin, were published in a collected form (Opera Pomponii Laeti •oaria, 1521). They contain treatises on the Roman magistrates, priests and lawyers, and a compendium of Roman history from LAEVIUS— LA FAYETTE, G. M. DE the death of the younger Gordian to the time of Justin III Laetus also wrote commentaries on classical authors, and pro- moted the publication of the editio princeps of Virgil at Rome in 1469. See The Life of Leto by Sabellicus (Strassburg, 1510); G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Alterthums, ii. ; F. Gregorovius Geschichte der Stadt Rom im Mittelalter, vii. (1894), p. 576, for an account of the academy; Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship (1908), ii. 92. LAEVIUS (? c. 80 B.C.), a Latin poet of whom practically nothing is known. The earliest reference to him is perhaps in Suetonius (De grammaticis, 3), though it is not certain that the Laevius Milissus there referred to is the same person. Definite references do not occur before the 2nd century (Pronto, Ep. ad M. Caes. i. 3; Aulus Gellius, Noct. Alt. ii. 24, xii. 10, xix. 9 ; Apuleius, De magia, 30; Porphyrion, Ad Horat. carm. iii. i, 2). Some sixty miscellaneous lines are preserved (see Bahrens, Fragm. poet. rom. pp. 287-293), from which it is difficult to see how ancient critics could have regarded him as the master of Ovid or Catullus. Gellius and Ausonius state that he composed an Erotopaegnia, and in other sources he is credited with Adonis, Alcestis, Cenlauri, Helena, Ino, Protesilaudamia, Sirenocirca, Phoenix, which may, however, be only the parts of the Eroto- paegnia. They were not serious poems, but light and often licentious skits on the heroic myths. See O. Ribbeck, Geschichte der romischen Dichtung, i.; H. de la Ville de Mirmont, Etude biographique et litteraire surle poete Laevius (Paris, 1900), with critical ed. of the fragments, and remarks on vocabulary and syntax; A. Weichert, Poetarum latinorum reliquiae (Leipzig, 1830); M. Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Litteratur (2nd ed.), pt. i. p. 163; W. Teuffel, Hist, of Roman Literature (Eng. tr.), § 150, 4; a convenient summary in F.Plessis, La Poesie latine (1909), pp. 139-142. LAEVULINIC ACID (/3-acetopropionic acid), C5H8O3 or CHsCO-CHi-CHfCOifl, a ketonic acid prepared from laevulose, inulin, starch, &c., by boiling them with dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric acids. It may be synthesized by condensing sodium acetoacetate with monochloracetic ester, the acetosuccinic ester produced being then hydrolysed with dilute hydrochloric acid (M. Conrad, Ann., 1877, 188, p. 222). CHj-CO-CH-Na CH,-COCH-CH2-CO2R ! -> I ->CH3COCH2-CH2-CO2OH. CO2R CO2R It may also be prepared by heating the anhydride of 7-methyloxy- glutaric acid with concentrated sulphuric acid, and by oxidation of methyl heptenone and of geraniol. It crystallizes in plates, which melt at 32-5-33° C. and boil at 148-149° (15 mm.) (A. Michael, Jour. prak. Chem., 1891 [2], 44, p. 114). It is readily soluble in alcohol, ether and water. The acid, when distilled slowly, is decomposed and yields a and ^-angelica lactones. When heated with hydriodic acid and phosphorus, it yields »-valeric acid; and with iodine and caustic soda solution it gives iodoform, even in the cold. With hydroxylamine it yields an oxime, which by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid rearranges itself to N-methylsuccinimide [CHz-COLN-CHi. LA FAROE, JOHN (1835-1910), American artist, was born in New York, on the 3ist of March 1835, of French parentage. He received instruction in drawing from his grandfather, Binsse de St Victor, a painter of miniatures; studied law and architecture; entered the atelier of Thomas Couture in Paris, where he remained a short time, giving especial attention to the study and copying of old masters at the Louvre; and began by making illustrations to the poets (1859). An intimacy with the artist William M. Hunt had a strong influence on him, the two working together at Newport, Rhode Island. La Farge painted landscape, still life and figure alike in the early sixties. But from 1866 on he was for some time incapacitated for work, and when he regained strength he did some decorative work for Trinity church, Boston, in 1876, and turned his attention to stained glass, becoming president of the Society of Mural Painters. Some of his important commissions include windows for St Thomas's church (1877), St Peter's church, the Paulist church, the Brick church (1882), the churches of the Incarnation (1885) and the Ascension (1887), New York; Trinity church, Buffalo, and the " Battle Window " in Memorial Hall at Harvard; ceilings and windows for the house of Cornelius Vanderbilt, windows for the houses of W. H. Vanderbilt and D. O. Mills, and panels for the house of Whitelaw Reid, New York; panels for the Congressional Library, Washington; Bowdoin College, the Capitol at St Paul, Minn., besides designs for many stained glass windows. He was also a prolific painter in oil and water colour, the latter seen notably in some water- colour sketches, the result of a voyage in the South Seas, shown in 1895. His influence on American art was powerfully exhibited in such men as Augustus St Gaudens, Wilton Lockwood, Francis Lathrop and John Humphreys Johnston. He became president of the Society of American Artists, a member of the National Academy of Design in 1869; an officer of the Legion of Honour of France; and received many medals and decorations. He published Considerations on Painting (New York, 1895), Hokusai: A Talk about Hoksuai (New York, 1897), and An Artist's Letters from Japan (New York, 1897). See Cecilia Waern, John La Farge, Artist and Writer (London, 1896, No. 26 of The Portfolio). LA FARINA, GIUSEPPE (1815-1863), Italian author and politician, was born at Messina. On account of the part he took in the insurrection of 1837 he had to leave Sicily, but returning in 1839 he conducted various newspapers of liberal tendencies, until his efforts were completely interdicted, when he removed to Florence. In 1840 he had published Messina ed i suoi monu- menti, and after his removal to Florence he brought out La Germania coi suoi monumenti (1842), L' Italia coi suoi monu- menti (1842), La Svizzera storica ed artistica (1842-1843), La China, 4 vols. (1843-1847), and Storia d' Italia, 7 vols. (1846-1854). In 1847 he established at Florence a democratic journal, L'Alba, in the interests of Italian freedom and unity, but on the outbreak of the revolution in Sicily in 1848 he returned thither and was elected deputy and member of the committee of war. In August of that year he was appointed minister of public instruction and later of war and marine. After vigorously conducting a campaign against the Bourbon troops, he was forced into exile, and repaired to France in 1849. In 1850 he published his Storia documentata della Rivoluzione Siciliana del 1848-1849, and in 1851-1852 his Sloria d' Italia dal 1815 al 1848, in 6 vols. He returned to Italy in 1854 and settled at Turin, and in 1856 he founded the Piccolo Corriere d' Italia, an organ which had great influence in propagating the political sentiments of the Societa Nazionale Italiana, of which he ulti- mately was chosen president. With Daniele Manin (q.v.), one of the founders of that society, he advocated the unity of Italy under Victor Emmanuel even before Cavour, with whom at one time he had daily interviews, and organized the emigration of volunteers from all parts of Italy into the Piedmontese army. He also negotiated an interview between Cavour and Garibaldi, with the result that the latter was appointed commander of the Cacciatori delle Alpi in the war of 1859. Later he supported Garibaldi's expedition to Sicily, where he himself went soon after the occupation of Palermo, but he failed to bring about the immediate annexation of the island to Piedmont as Cavour wished. In 1860 he was chosen a member of the first Italian parliament and was subsequently made councillor of state. He died on the sth of September 1863. See A. Franchi, Epistolario di Giuseppe La Farina (2 vols., 1869) and L. Carpi, // Risorgimento Italiano, vol. i. (Milan, 1884). LA FAYETTE, GILBERT MOTIER DE (1380-1462), marshal of France, was brought up at the court of Louis II., 3rd duke of Bourbon. He served under Marshal Boucicaut in Italy, and on his return to France after the evacuation of Genoa in 1409 >ecame seneschal of the Bourbonnais. In the English wars he was with John L, 4th duke of Bourbon, at the capture of Soubise "n 1413, and of Compiegne in 1415. The duke then made him ieutenant-general in Languedoc and Guienne. He failed to defend Caen and Falaise in the interest of the dauphin (after- wards Charles VII.) against Henry V. in 1417 and 1418, but in he latter year he held Lyons for some time against Jean sans Deur, duke of Burgundy. A series of successes over the English LA FAYETTE, LOUISE DE— LA FAYETTE, MARQUIS DE 65 and Burgundians on the Loire was rewarded in 1420 with the government of Dauphiny and the office of marshal of France. La Fayette commanded the Franco-Scottish troops at the battle of Bauge (1422), though he did not, as has been sometimes stated, slay Thomas, duke of Clarence, with his own hand. In 1424 he was taken prisoner by the English at Verneuil, but was released shortly afterwards, and fought with Joan of Arc at Orleans and Patay in 1429. The marshal had become a member of the grand council of Charles VII., and with the exception of a short disgrace about 1430, due to the ill-will of Georges de la Tremouille, he retained the royal favour all his life. He took an active part in the army reform initiated by Charles VII., and the establishment of military posts for the suppression of brigand- age. His last campaign was against the English in Normandy in 1449. He died on the 23rd of February 1462. His line was continued by Gilbert IV. de La Fayette, son of his second marriage with Jeanne de Joyeuse. LA FAYETTE, LOUISE DE (c. 1616-1665), was one of the fourteen children of John, comte de La Fayette, and Marguerite de Bourbon-Busset. Louise became maid of honour to Anne of Austria, and Richelieu sought to attract the attention of Louis XIII. to her in the hope that she might counterbalance the influence exercised over him by Marie de Hautefort. The affair did not turn out as the minister wished. The king did indeed make her the confidante of his affairs and of his resentment against the cardinal, but she, far from repeating his confidences to the minister, set herself to encourage the king in his resistance to Richelieu's dominion. She refused, nevertheless, to become Louis's mistress, and after taking leave of the king in Anne of Austria's presence retired to the convent of the Filles de Sainte- Marie in 1637. Here she was repeatedly visited by Louis, with whom she maintained a correspondence. Richelieu intercepted the letters, and by omissions and falsifications succeeded in destroying their mutual confidence. The cessation of their intercourse was regretted by the queen, who had been reconciled with her husband through the influence of Louise. At the time of her death in January 1665 Mile de La Fayette was superior of a convent of her order which she had founded at Chaillot. See Memoires de Madame de Motteville; Victor Cousin, Madame de Hautefort (Paris, 1868) ; L'Abbe Sorin, Louise-Angele de La Fayette (Paris, 1893). LA FAYETTE, MARIE JOSEPH PAUL YVES ROCH GILBERT DU MOTIER, MARQUIS DE (1757-1834), was born at the chateau of Chavaniac in Auvergne, France, on the 6th of September 1757. His father1 was killed at Minden in 1759, and his mother and his grandfather died in 1770, and thus at the age of thirteen he was left an orphan with a princely fortune. He married at sixteen Marie Adrienne Francoise de Noailles (d. 1807), daughter of the due d'Ayen and granddaughter of the due de Noailles, then one of the most influential families in the kingdom. La Fayette chose to follow the career of his father, and entered the Guards. La Fayette was nineteen and a captain of dragoons when the English colonies in America proclaimed their independence. " At the first news of this quarrel," he afterwards wrote in his memoirs, " my heart was enrolled in it." The count de Broglie, whom he consulted, discouraged his zeal for the cause of liberty. Finding his purpose unchangeable, however, he presented the young enthusiast to Johann Kalb, who was also seeking service in America, and through Silas Deane, American agent in Paris, an arrangement was concluded, on the 7th of December 1776, by which La Fayette was to enter the American service as major- general. At this moment the news arrived of grave disasters to the American arms. La Fayette's friends again advised him to abandon his purpose. Even the American envoys, Franklin and Arthur Lee, who had superseded Deane, withheld further encouragement and the king himself forbade his leaving. At the instance of the British ambassador at Versailles orders were issued to seize the ship La Fayette was fitting out at Bordeaux, and La Fayette himself was arrested. But the ship was sent 1 The family of La Fayette, to the cadet branch of which he be- longed, received its name from an estate in Aix, Auvergne, which belonged in the I3th century to the Metier family. xvi. 3 from Bordeaux to a neighbouring port in Spain, La Fayette escaped from custody in disguise, and before a second lettre de cachet could reach him he was afloat with eleven chosen companions. Though two British cruisers had been sent in pursuit of him, he landed safely near Georgetown, S.C., after a tedious voyage of nearly two months, and hastened to Phila- delphia, then the seat of government of the colonies. When this lad of nineteen, with the command of only what little English he had been able to pick up on his voyage, pre- sented himself to Congress with Deane's authority to demand a commission of the highest rank after the commander-in-chief, his reception was a little chilly. Deane's contracts were so numerous, and for officers of such high rank, that it was impossible for Congress to ratify them without injustice to Americans who had become entitled by their service to promotion. La Fayette appreciated the situation as soon as it was explained to him, and immediately expressed his desire to serve in the American army upon two conditions — that he should receive no pay, and that he should act as a volunteer. These terms were so different from those made by other foreigners, they had been attended with such substantial sacrifices, and they promised such import- ant indirect advantages, that Congress passed a resolution, on the 3ist of July 1777, " that his services be accepted, and that, in consideration of his zeal, illustrious family and connexions, he have the rank and commission of major-general of the United States." Next day La Fayette met Washington, whose lifelong friend he became. Congress intended his appointment as purely honorary, and the question of giving him a command was left entirely to Washington's discretion. His first battle was Brandy- wine (q.v.) on the nth of September 1777, where he showed courage and activity and received a wound. Shortly afterwards he secured what he most desired, the command of a division — the immediate result of a communication from Washington to Congress of November i, 1777, in which he said: — " The marquis de La Fayette is extremely solicitous of having a command equal to his rank. I do not know in what light Congress will view the matter, but it appears to me, from a consideration of his illustrious and important connexions, the attachment which he has manifested for our cause, and the consequences which his return in disgust might produce, that it will be advisable to gratify his wishes, and the more so as several gentlemen from France who came over under some assurances have gone back disappointed in their expectations. His conduct with respect to them stands in a favourable point of view — having interested himself to remove their uneasiness and urged the impropriety of their making any unfavour- able representations upon their arrival at home. Besides, he is sensible, discreet in his manners, has made great proficiency in our language, and from the disposition he discovered at the battle of Brandywine possesses a large share of bravery and military ardour." Of La Fayette's military career in the United States there is not much to be said. Though the commander of a division, he never had many troops in his charge, and whatever military talents he possessed were not of the kind which appeared to conspicuous advantage on the theatre to which his wealth and family influence rather than his soldierly gifts had called him. In the first months of 1778 he commanded troops detailed for the projected expedition against Canada. His retreat from Barren Hill (May 28, 1778) was commended as masterly; and he fought at the battle of Monmouth (June 28,) and received from Congress a formal recognition of his services in the Rhode Island expedition (August 1778). The treaties of commerce and defensive alliance, signed by the insurgents and France on the 6th of February 1778, were promptly followed by a declaration of war by England against the latter, and La Fayette asked leave to revisit France and to consult his king as to the further direction of his services. This leave was readily granted; it was not difficult for Washington to replace the major-general, but it was impossible to find another equally competent, influential and devoted champion of the American cause near the court of Louis XVI. In fact, he went on a mission rather than a visit. He embarked on the nth of January 1779, was received with enthusiasm, and was made a colonel in the French cavalry. On the 4th of March following Franklin wrote to the president of Congress: " The marquis de La Fayette. . . is infinitely esteemed and beloved here, and I am persuaded will 66 LA FAYETTE, MARQUIS DE do everything in his power to merit a continuance of the same affection from America." He won the confidence of Vergennes. La Fayette was absent from America about six months, and his return was the occasion of a complimentary resolution of Congress. From April until October 1781 he was charged with the defence of Virginia, in which Washington gave him the credit of doing all that was possible with the forces at his disposal; and he showed his zeal by borrowing money on his own account to provide his soldiers with necessaries. The battle of Yorktown, in which La Fayette bore an honourable if not a distinguished part, was the last of the war, and terminated his military career in the United States. He immediately obtained leave to return to France,where it was supposed he might be useful in negotiations for a general peace. He was also occupied in the preparations for a combined French and Spanish expedition against some of the British West India Islands, of which he had been appointed cfiief of staff, and a formidable fleet assembled at Cadiz, but the armistice signed on the 2oth of January 1783 between the belligerents put a stop to the expedition. He had been pro- moted (1781) to the rank of marichal de camp (major-general) in the French army, and he received every token of regard from his sovereign and his countrymen. He visited the United States again in 1784, and remained some five months as the guest of the nation. La Fayette did not appear again prominently in public life until 1787, though he did good service to the French Protestants, and became actively interested in plans to abolish slavery. In 1787 he took his seat in the Assembly of Notables. He demanded, and he alone signed the demand, that the king convoke the states-general, thus becoming a leader in the French Revolution. He showed Liberal tendencies both in that assembly and after its dispersal, and in 1788 was de- prived, in consequence, of his active command. In 1789 La Fayette was elected to the states-general, and took a prominent part in its proceedings. He was chosen vice-president of the National Assembly, and on the nth of July 1789 presented a declaration of rights, modelled on Jefferson's Declaration of Independence in 1776. On the isth of July, the second day of the new regime, La Fayette was chosen by acclamation colonel- general of the new National Guard of Paris. He also proposed the combination of the colours of Paris, red and blue, and the royal white, into the famous tricolour cockade of modern France (July 17). For the succeeding three years, until the end of the constitutional monarchy in 1792, his history is largely the history of France. His life was beset with very great responsibility and perils, for he was ever the minister of humanity and order among a frenzied people who had come to regard order and humanity as phases of treason. He rescued the queen from the hands of the populace on the 5th and 6th of October 1789, saved many humbler victims who had been condemned to death, and he risked his life in many unsuccessful attempts to rescue others. Before this, disgusted with enormities which he was powerless to prevent, he had resigned his commission; but so impossible was it to replace him that he was induced to resume it. In the Constituent Assembly he pleaded for the abolition of arbitrary imprisonment, for religious tolerance, for popular representation, for the establishment of trial by jury, for the gradual emancipation of slaves, for the freedom of the press, for the abolition of titles of nobility, and the suppression of privileged orders. In February 1790 he refused the supreme command of the National Guard of the kingdom. In May he founded the " Society of 1789 " which afterwards became the Feuillants Club. He took a prominent part in the celebration of July 14, 1790, the first anniversary of the destruction of the Bastille. After suppressing an imeule in April 1791 he again resigned his commission, and was again compelled to retain it. He was the friend of liberty as well as of order, and when Louis XVI. fled to Varennes he issued orders to stop him. Shortly afterwards he was made lieutenant-general in the army. He commanded the troops in the suppression of another Imeute, on the occasion of the proclamation of the constitution (September 18, 1791), after which, feeling that his task was done, he retired into private life. This did not prevent his friends from proposing him for the mayoralty of Paris in opposition to Petion. When, in December 1791, three armies were formed on the western frontier to attack Austria, La Fayette was placed in command of one of them. But events moved faster than La Fayette's moderate and humane republicanism, and seeing that the lives of the king and queen were each day more and more in danger, he definitely opposed himself to the further advance of the Jacobin party, intending eventually to use his army for the restoration of a limited monarchy. On the igth of August 1792 the Assembly declared him a traitor. He was compelled to take refuge in the neutral territory of Liege, whence as one of the prime movers in the Revolution he was taken and held as a prisoner of state for five years, first in Prussian and afterwards in Austrian prisons, in spite of the intercession of America and the pleadings of his wife. Napoleon, however, though he had a low opinion of his capacities, stipulated in the treaty of Campo Formio (1797) for La Fayette's release. He was not allowed to return to France by the Directory. He returned in 1799; in 1802 voted against the life consulate of Napoleon; and in 1804 he voted against the imperial title. He lived in retirement during the First Empire, but returned to public affairs under the First Restoration and took some part in the political events of the Hundred Days. From 1818 to 1824 he was deputy for the Sarthe, speaking and voting always on the Liberal side, and even becoming a carbonaro. He then revisited America (July i824-September 1825) where he was overwhelmed with popular applause and voted the sum of $200,000 and a township of land. From 1825 to his death he sat in the Chamber of Deputies for Meaux. During the revolution of 1830 he again took command of the National Guard and pursued the same line of conduct, with equal want of success, as in the first revolution. In 1834 he made his last speech — on behalf of Polish political refugees. He died at Paris on the 2oth of May 1834. In 1876 in the city of New York a monument was erected to him, and in 1883 another was erected at Puy. Few men have owed more of their success and usefulness to their family rank than La Fayette, and still fewer have abused it less. He never achieved distinction in the field, and his political career proved him to be incapable of ruling a great national movement; but he had strong convictions which always impelled him to study the interests of humanity, and a pertinacity in maintaining them, which, in all the strange vicissi- tudes of his eventful life, secured him a very unusual measure of public respect. No citizen of a foreign country has ever had so many and such warm admirers in America, nor does any states- man in France appear to have ever possessed uninterruptedly for so many years so large a measure of popular influence and respect. He had what Jefferson called a " canine appetite " for popularity and fame, but in him the appetite only seemed to make him more anxious to merit the fame which he enjoyed. He was brave to rashness; and he never shrank from danger or responsibility if he saw the way open to spare life or suffering, to protect the defenceless, to sustain the law and preserve order. His son, GEORGES WASHINGTON MOTIER DE LA FAYETTE (1779-1849), entered the army and was aide-de-camp to General Grouchy through the Austrian, Prussian and Polish (1805-07) campaigns. Napoleon's distrust of his father rendering promo- tion improbable, Georges de La Fayette retired into private life in 1807 until the Restoration, when he entered the Chamber of Representatives and voted consistently on the Liberal side. He was away from Paris during the revolution of July 1830, but he took an active part in the " campaign of the banquets," which led up to that of 1848. He died in December of the next year. His son, OSCAR THOMAS GILBERT MOTIER DE LA FAYETTE (1815-1881), was educated at the Ecole Polytechnique, and served as an artillery officer in Algeria. He entered the Chamber of Representatives in 1846 and voted, like his father, with the extreme Left. After the revolution of 1848 he received a post in the provisional government, and as a member of the Con- stituent Assembly he became secretary of the war committee. After the dissolution of the Legislative Assembly in 1851, he retired from public life, but emerged on the establishment of LA FAYETTE, COMTESSE DE— LA FERTfi 67 the third republic, becoming a life senator in 1875. His brother EDMOND MOTIER DE LA FAYETTE (1818-1890) shared his political opinions. He was one of the secretaries of the Constituent Assembly, and a member of the senate from 1876 to 1888. See Memoires historiques et pieces authentiques sur M. de La Fayette pour servir a I'histoire des revolutions (Paris, An II., 1793- ' 1794); B. Sarrans, La Fayette et la Revolution de 1830, histoire des chases et des hommes de Juillet (Paris, 1834); Memoires, correspond- ences et manuscrits de La Fayetle, published by his family (6 yols., Paris, 1837-1838) ; Regnault Warin, Memoires pour servir a la vie du general La Fayette (Paris, 1824); A. Bardoux, La jeunesse de La Fayette (Paris, 1892); Les Dernieres annees de La Fayette (Paris, 1893); E. Charavaray, Le General La Fayette (Paris, 1895); A. Levasseur, La Fayette en Amerique 1824 (Paris, 1829); J. Cloquet, Souvenirs de la vie privee du general La Fayette (Paris, 1836); Max Biidinger, La Fayette in Oesterreich (Vienna, 1898); and M. M. Crawford, The Wife of Lafayette (1908); Bayard Tuckerman, Life of Lafayette (New York, 1889) ; Charlemagne Tower, The Marquis de La Fayette in the American Revolution (Philadelphia, 1895). LA FAYETTE, MARIE-MADELEINE PIOCHE DE LA VERGNE, COMTESSE DE (1634-1692), French novelist, was baptized in Paris, on the i8th of March 1634. Her father, Marc Pioche de la Vergne, commandant of Havre, died when she was sixteen, and her mother seems to have been more occupied with her own than her daughter's interests. Mme de la Vergne married in 1651 the chevalier de Sevigne, and Marie thus became connected with Mme de Sevigne, who was destined to be a lifelong friend. She studied Greek, Latin and Italian, and in- spired in one of her tutors, Gilles de Menage, an enthusiastic admiration which he expressed in verse in three or four languages. Marie married in 1655 Francois Motier, comte de La Fayette. They lived on the count's estates in Auvergne, according to her own account (in a letter to Menage) quite happily; but after the birth of her two sons her husband disappeared so effectually that it was long supposed that he died about 1660, though he really lived until 1683. Mme de La Fayette had returned to Paris, and about 1665 contracted an intimacy with the due de la Rochefoucauld, then engaged on his Maximes. The con- stancy and affection that marked this liaison on both sides justified it in the eyes of society, and when in 1680 La Rochefou- cauld died Mme de La Fayette received the sincerest sympathy. Her first novel, La Princesse de Montpensier, was published anonymously in 1662; Zayde appeared in 1670 under the name of J. R. de Segrais; and in 1678 her masterpiece, La Princesse de Cleves, also under the name of Segrais. The history of the modern novel of sentiment begins with the Princesse de Cleves. The interminable pages of Mile de Scudery with the Precieuses and their admirers masquerading as Persians or ancient Romans had already been discredited by the burlesques of Paul Scarron and Antoine Furetiere. It remained for Mme de La Fayette to achieve the more difficult task of substituting something more satisfactory than the disconnected episodes of the roman comique. This she accomplished in a story offering in its short- ness and simplicity a complete contrast to the extravagant and lengthy romances of the time. The interest of the story depends not on incident but on the characters of the personages. They act in a perfectly reasonable wa.y and their motives are analysed with the finest discrimination. No doubt the semi- autobiographical character of the material partially explains Mme de La Fayette's refusal to acknowledge the book. Con- temporary critics, even Mme de Sevigne amongst them, found fault with the avowal made by Mme de Cleves to her husband. In answer to these criticisms, which her anonymity prevented her from answering directly, Mme de La Fayette wrote her last novel, the Comtesse de Tende. The character of her work and her history have combined to give an impression of melancholy and sweetness that only represents one side of her character, for a correspondence brought to light comparatively recently showed her as the acute diplomatic agent of Jeanne de Nemours, duchess of Savoy, at the court of Louis XIV. She had from her early days also been intimate with Henrietta of England, duchess of Orleans, under whose immediate direction she wrote her Histoire de Madame Henrielle d' Angleterre, which only appeared in 1720. She wrote memoirs of the reign of Louis XIV., which, with the exception of two chapters, for the years 1688 and 1689 (published at Amsterdam, 1731), were lost through her son's carelessness. Madame de La Fayette died on the 25th of May 1692. See Sainte-Beuve, Portraits de femmes; the comte d'Haussonville, Madame de La Fayette (1891), in the series of Grands ecrivains franc,ais; M. de Lescure's notice prefixed to an edition of the Princesse de Cleves (1881); and a critical edition of the historical memoirs by Eugene Asse (1890). See also L. Rea, Marie Madeleine, comtesse de La Fayette (1908). LAFAYETTE, a city and the county-seat of Tippecanoe county, Indiana, U.S.A., situated at the former head of naviga- tion on the Wabash river, about 64 m. N.W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1900) 18,116, of whom 2266 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 20,081. It is served by the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the Lake Erie & Western, and the Wabash railways, and by the Terre Haute, Indianapolis & Eastern (electric), and the Fort Wayne & Wabash Valley (electric) railways. The river is not now navigable at this point. Lafayette is in the valley of the Wabash river, which is sunk below the normal level of the plain, the surrounding heights being the walls of the Wabash basin. The city has an excellent system of public schools, a good public library, two hospitals, the Wabash Valley Sanitarium (Seventh Day Adventist), St Anthony's Home for old people and two orphan asylums. It is the seat of Purdue University, a co-educa- tional, technical and agricultural institution, opened in 1874 and named in honour of John Purdue (1802-1876), who gave it $150,000. This university is under state control, and received the proceeds of the Federal agricultural college grant of 1862 and of the second Merrill Act of 1890; in connexion with it there is an agricultural experiment station. It had in 1908- 1909 180 instructors, 1900 students, and a library of 25,000 volumes and pamphlets. Just outside the city is the State Soldiers' Home, where provision is also made for the wives and widows of soldiers; in 1908 it contained 553 men and 700 women. The city lies in the heart of a rich agricultural region, and is an important market for grain, produce and horses. Among its manufactures are beer, foundry and machine shop products (the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville railway has shops here), straw board, telephone apparatus, paper, wagons, packed meats, canned goods, flour and carpets; the value of the factory product increased from $3,514,276 in 1900 to $4,631,415 in 1905, or 31-8%. The municipality owns its water works. Lafayette is about 5 m. N.E. of the site of the ancient Wea (Miami) Indian village known as Ouiatanon, where the French established a post about 1720. The French garrison gave way to the English about 1760; the stockade fort was destroyed during the conspiracy of Pontiac, and was never rebuilt. The head-quarters of Tecumseh and his brother, the " Prophet," were established 7 m. N. of Lafayette near the mouth of the Tippecanoe river, ana the settlement there was known as the " Prophet's Town." Near this place, and near the site of the present village of Battle Ground (where the Indiana Methodists now have a summer encampment and a camp meeting in August), was fought on the 7th of November 1811 the battle of Tippecanoe, in which the Indians were decisively defeated by Governor William Henry Harrison, the whites losing 188 in killed and wounded and the Indians about an equal number. The battle ground is owned by the state; in 1907 the state legislature and the United States Congress each appropriated $12,500 for a monument, which took the form of a granite shaft 90 ft. high. The first American settlers on the site of Lafayette appeared about 1820, and the town was laid out in 1825, but for many years its growth was slow. The completion of the Wabash and Erie canal marked a new era in its development, and in 1854 Lafayette was incorporated. LA FERT& the name of a number of localities in France, differentiated by agnomens. La Ferte Imbault (department of Loir-et-Cher) was in the possession of Jacques d'Etampes (1590-1668), marshal of France and ambassador in England, 68 LA FERTE-BERNARD— LAFONT who was known as the marquis of La Ferte Imbault. La Ferte Nabert (the modern La Ferte Saint Aubin, department of Loiret) was acquired in the i6th century by the house of Saint Nectaire (corrupted to Senneterre), and erected into a duchy in the peerage of France (duche-pairie) in 1665 for Henri de Saint Nectaire, marshal of France. It was called La Ferte Lowendal after it had been acquired by Marshal Lowendal in 1748. LA FERTE-BERNARD, a town of western France, in the department of Sarthe, on the Huisne, 27 m. N.E. of Le Mans, on the railway from Paris to that town. Pop. (1906) 4358. La Ferte carries on cloth manufacture and flour-milling and has trade in horses and cattle. Its church of Notre Dame has a choir (i6th century) with graceful apse-chapels of Renaissance architecture and remarkable windows of the same period; the remainder of the church is in the Flamboyant Gothic style. The town hall occupies the superstructure and flanking towers of a fortified gateway of the i5th century. La Ferte-Bernard owes its origin and name to a stronghold (fermetf) built about the nth century and afterwards held by the family of Bernard. In 1424 it did not succumb to the English troops till after a four months' siege. It belonged in the i6th century to the family of Guise and supported the League, but was captured by the royal forces in 1590. LA FERTE-MILON, a town of northern France in the depart- ment of Aisne on the Ourcq, 47 m. W. by S. of Reims by rail. Pop. (1906) 1563. The town has imposing remains comprising one side flanked by four towers of an unfinished castle built about the beginning of the isth century by Louis of Orleans, brother of Charles VI. The churches of St Nicholas and Notre- Dame, chiefly of the i6th century, both contain fine old stained glass. Jean Racine, the poet, was born in the town, and a statue by David d'Augers has been erected to him. LAFFITTE, JACQUES (1767-1844), French banker and politician, was born at Bayonne on the 24th of October 1767, one of the ten children of a carpenter. He became clerk in the banking house of Perregaux in Paris, was made a partner in the business in 1800, and in 1804 succeeded Perregaux as head of the firm. The house of Perregaux, Laffitte et Cie. became one of the greatest in Europe, and Laffitte became regent (1809), then governor (1814) of the Bank of France and president of the Chamber of Commerce (1814). He raised large sums of money for the provisional government in 1814 and for Louis XVIII. during the Hundred Days, and it was with him that Napoleon deposited five million francs in gold before leaving France for the last time. Rather than permit the govern- ment to appropriate the money from the Bank he supplied two million from his own pocket for the arrears of the imperial troops after Waterloo. He was returned by the department of the Seine to the Chamber of Deputies in 1816, and took his seat on the Left. He spoke chiefly on financial questions; his known Liberal views did not prevent Louis XVIII. from insisting on his inclusion on the commission on the public finances. In 1818 he saved Paris from a financial crisis by buying a large amount of stock, but next year, in consequence of his heated defence of the liberty of the press and the electoral law of 1867, the governorship of the Bank was taken from him. One of the earliest and most determined of the partisans of a constitutional monarchy under the duke of Orleans, he was deputy for Bayonne in July 1830, when his house in Paris became the headquarters of the revolutionary party. When Charles X., after retracting the hated ordinances, sent the comte d'Argout1 to Laffitte to negotiate a change of ministry, the banker replied, " It is too late. There is no longer a Charles X.," and it was he who secured the nomination of Louis Philippe as lieutenant-general of the kingdom. On the 3rd of August he became president of the Chamber of Deputies, and on the gth he received in this capacity Louis Philippe's oath to the new constitution. The clamour of the Paris mob for the death of the imprisoned ministers of Charles X., which in October culminated in riots, induced the 1 Apollinaire Antoine Maurice, comte d'Argout (1782-1858), after- wards reconciled to the July monarchy, and a member of theLamtte, Casimir-Perier and Thiers cabinets. more moderate members of the government — including Guizot, the due de Broglie and Casimir-Perier — to hand over the administration to a ministry which, possessing the confidence of the revolutionary Parisians, should be in a better position to save the ministers from their fury. On the sth of November, accordingly, Laffitte became minister-president of a government pledged to progress (mouvement), holding at the same time the portfolio of finance. The government was torn between the necessity for preserving order and the no less pressing necessity (for the moment) of conciliating the Parisian populace; with the result that it succeeded in doing neither one nor the other. The impeached ministers were, indeed, saved by the courage of the Chamber of Peers and the attitude of the National Guard; but their safety was bought at the price of Laffitte's- popularity. His policy of a French intervention in favour of the Italian revolutionists, by which he might have regained his popularity, was thwarted by the diplomatic policy of Louis Philippe. The resignation of Lafayette and Dupont de 1'Eure still further undermined the government, which, incapable even of keeping order in the streets of Paris, ended by being discredited with afl parties. At length Louis Philippe, anxious to free himself from the hampering control of the agents of his fortune, thought it safe to parade his want of confidence in the man who had made him king. Thereupon, in March 1831, Laffitte resigned, begging pardon of God and man for the part he had played in raising Louis Philippe to the throne. He left office politically and financially a ruined man. His affairs were wound up in 1836, and next year he created a credit bank, which prospered as long as he lived, but failed in 1848. He died in Paris on the 26th of May 1844. See P. Thureau-Dangin, La Monarchic de Juillet (vol. i. 1884). LAFFITTE, PIERRE (1823-1903), French Positivist, was born on the 2ist of February 1823 at Beguey (Gironde). Residing at Paris as a teacher of mathematics, he became a disciple of Comte, who appointed him his literary executor. On the schism of the Positivist body which followed Comte's death, he was recognized as head of the section which accepted the full Comtian doctrine; the other section adhering to Littre, who rejected the religion of humanity as inconsistent with the materialism of Comte's earlier period. From 1853 Laffitte delivered Positivist lectures in the room formerly occupied by Comte in the rue Monsieur le Prince. He published Les Grands Types de I'humanite (1875) and Cours de philosophic premiere (1889). In 1893 he was appointed to the new chair founded at the College de France for the exposition of the general history of science, and it was largely due to his inspiration that a statue to Comte was erected in the Place de la Sorbonne in 1902. He died on the 4th of January 1903. LA FLECHE, a town of western France, capital of an arrond- issement in the department of Sarthe on the Loire, 31 m. S.S.W. of Le Mans by rail. Pop. (1906) town 7800; commune 10,663. The chief interest of the town lies in the Prytanee, a famous school for the sons of officers, originally a college founded for the Jesuits in 1607 by Henry IV. The buildings, including a fine chapel, were erected.from 1620 to 1653 and are surrounded by a park. A bronze statue of Henry IV. stands in the market- place. La Fleche is the seat of a sub-prefect and of a tribunal of first instance, and carries on tanning, flour-milling, and the manufacture of paper, starch, wooden shoes and gloves. It is an agricultural market. The lords of La Fleche became counts of Maine about noo, but the lordship became separate from the county and passed in the i6th century to the family of Bourbon and thus to Henry IV. LAFONT, PIERRE CHERI (1797-1873), French actor, was born at Bordeaux on the isth of May 1797. Abandoning his profession as assistant ship's doctor in the navy, he went to Paris to study singing and acting. He had some experience at a small theatre, and was preparing to appear at the Opera Comique when the director of the Vaudeville offered him an engagement. Here he made his debut in 1821 in La Somnambule, and his good looks and excellent voice soon brought him into LA FONTAINE 69 public favour. After several years at the Nouveautes and the Vaudeville, on the burning of the latter in 1838 he went to England, and married, at Gretna Green, Jenny Colon, from whom he was soon divorced. On his return to Paris he joined the Varietes, where he acted for fifteen years in such plays as Le Chevalier de Saint Georges, Le Lion empailU, Une derniere conquete, &c. Another engagement at the Vaudeville followed, and one at the Gaiete, and he ended his brilliant career at the Gymnase in the part of the noble father in such plays as Les Vieux Carbons and Nos bans villageois. He died in Paris on the igth of April 1873. LA FONTAINE, JEAN DE (1621-1695), French poet, was born at Chateau Thierry in Champagne, probably on the 8th of July 1621. His father was Charles de La Fontaine, " maitre des eaux et forets " — a kind of deputy-ranger — of the duchy of Chateau Thierry; his mother was Francoise Pidoux. On both sides his family was of the highest provincial middle class, but was not noble; his father was also fairly wealthy. Jean, the eldest child, was educated at the college (grammar- school) of Reims, and at the end of his school days he entered the Oratory in May 1641, and the seminary of Saint-Magloire in October' of the same year; but a very short sojourn proved to him that he had mistaken his vocation. He then apparently studied law, and is said to have been admitted as awcat, though there does not seem to be actual proof of this. He was, however, settled in life, or at least might have been so, somewhat early. In 1647 his father resigned his rangership in his favour, and arranged a marriage for him with Marie Hericart, a girl of sixteen, who brought him twenty thousand livres, and expectations. She seems to have been both handsome and intelligent, but the two did not get on well together. There appears to be absolutely no ground for the vague scandal as to her conduct, which was, for the most part long afterwards, raised by gossips or personal enemies of La Fontaine. All that is positively said against her is that she was a negligent housewife and an inveterate novel reader; La Fontaine himself was constantly away from home, was certainly not strict in point of conjugal fidelity, and was so bad a man of business that his affairs became involved in hopeless difficulty, and a separation de biens had to take place in 1658. This was a perfectly amicable transaction for the benefit of the family; by degrees, however, the pair, still without any actual quarrel, ceased to live together, and for the greater part of the last forty years of La Fontaine's life he lived in Paris while his wife dwelt at Chateau Thierry, which, however, he frequently visited. One son was born to them in 1653, and was educated and taken care of wholly by his mother. Even in the earlier years of his marriage La Fontaine seems to have been much at Paris, but it was not till about 1656 that he became a regular visitor to the capital. The duties of his office, which were only occasional, were compatible with this non-residence. It was not till he was past thirty that his literary career began. The reading of Malherbe, it is said, first awoke poetical fancies in him, but for some time he attempted nothing but trifles in the fashion of the time — epigrams, ballades, rondeaux, &c. His first serious work was a translation or adaptation of the Eunuchus of Terence (1654). At this time the Maecenas of French letters was the Superintendant Fouquet, to whom La Fontaine was introduced by Jacques Jannart, a connexion of his wife's. Few people who paid their court to Fouquet went away empty-handed, and La Fontaine soon received a pension of 1000 livres (1659), on the easy terms of a copy of verses for each quarter's receipt. He began too a medley of prose and poetry, entitled Le Songe de Vaux, on Fouquet's famous country house. It was about this time that his wife's property had to be separately secured to her, and he seems by degrees to have had to sell everything of his own; but, as he never lacked powerful and generous patrons, this was of small importance to him. In the same year he wrote a ballad, Les Rieurs du Beau-Richard, and this was followed by many small pieces of occasional poetry addressed to various personages from the king downwards. Fouquet soon incurred the royal displeasure, but La Fontaine, like most of his literary proteges, was not unfaithful to him, the well-known elegy Pleurez, nymphes de Vaux, being by no means the only proof of his devotion. Indeed it is thought not improbable that a journey to Limoges in 1663 in company with Jannart, and of which we have an account written to his wife, was not wholly spontaneous, as it certainly was not on Jannart's part. Just at this time his affairs did not look promis- ing. His father and himself had assumed the title of esquire, to which they were not strictly entitled, and, some old edicts on the subject having been put in force, an informer procured a sentence against the poet fining him 2000 livres. He found, however, a new protector in the duke and still more in the duchess of Bouillon, his feudal superiors at Chateau Thierry, and nothing more is heard of the fine. Some of La Fontaine's liveliest verses are addressed to the duchess, Anne Mancini, the youngest of Mazarin's nieces, and it is even probable that the taste of the duke and duchess for Ariosto had something to do with the writing of his first work of real importance, the first book of the Contes, which appeared in 1664. He was then forty-three years old, and his previous printed productions had been comparatively trivial, though much of his work was handed about in manuscript long before it was regularly published. It was about this time that the quartette of the Rue du Vieux Colombier, so famous in French literary history, was formed. It consisted of La Fontaine, Racine, Boileau and Moliere, the last of whom was almost of the same age as La Fontaine, the other two considerably younger. Chapelle was also a kind of outsider in the coterie. There are many anecdotes, some pretty obviously apocryphal, about these meetings. The most character- istic is perhaps that which asserts that a copy of Chapelain's unlucky Pucelle always lay on the table, a certain number of lines of which was the appointed punishment for offences against the company. The coterie furnished under feigned names the personages of La Fontaine's version of the Cupid and Psyche story, which, however, with Adonis, was not printed till 1669. Meanwhile the poet continued to find friends. In 1664 he was regularly commissioned and sworn in as gentleman to the duchess dowager of Orleans, and was installed in the Luxembourg. He still retained his rangership, and in 1666 we have something like a reprimand from Colbert suggesting that he should look into some malpractices at Chateau Thierry. In the same year appeared the second book of the Contes, and in 1668 the first six books of the Fables, with more of both kinds in 1671. In this latter year a curious instance of the docility with which the poet lent himself to any influence was afforded by his officiating, at the instance of the Port-Royalists, as editor of a volume of sacred poetry dedicated to the prince de Conti. A year after- wards his situation, which had for some time been decidedly flourishing, showed signs of changing very much for the worse. The duchess of Orleans died, and he apparently had to give up his rangership, probably selling it to pay debts. But there was always a providence for La Fontaine. Madame de la Sabliere, a woman of great beauty, of considerable intellectual power and of high character, invited him to make his home in her house, where he lived for some twenty years. He seems to have had no trouble whatever about his affairs thenceforward; and could devote himself to his two different lines of poetry, as well as to that of theatrical composition. In 1682 he was, at more than sixty years of age, recognized as one of the first men of letters of France. Madame de Sevigne, one of the soundest literary critics of the time, and by no means given to praise mere novelties, had spoken of his second collection of Fables published in the winter of 1678 as divine; and it is pretty certain that this was the general opinion. It was not unreasonable, therefore, that he should present himself to the Academy, and, though the subjects of his Contes were scarcely calculated to propitiate that decorous assembly, while his attachment to Fouquet and to more than one representative of the old Frondeur party made him suspect to Colbert and the king, most of the members were his personal friends. He was first proposed in 1682, but was rejected for Dangeau. The next year Colbert died and La Fontaine was again nominated. Boileau was also a candidate, but the first ballot gave the fabulist 7o LA FONTAINE sixteen votes against seven only for the critic. The king, whose assent was necessary, not merely for election but for a second ballot in case of the failure of an absolute majority, was ill-pleased, and the election was left pending. Another vacancy occurred, however, some months later, and to this Boileau was elected. The king hastened to approve the choice effusively, adding, " Vous pouvez incessamment recevoir La Fontaine, U a promis d'etre sage." His admission was indirectly the cause of the only serious literary quarrel of his life. A dispute took place between the Academy and one of its members, Antoine Furetiere, on the subject of the latter's French dictionary, which was decided to be a breach of the Academy's corporate privileges. Furetiere, a man of no small ability, bitterly assailed those whom he considered to be his enemies, and among them La Fontaine, whose unlucky Contes made him peculiarly vulnerable, his second collection of these tales having been the subject of a police condemnation. The death of the author of the Roman Bourgeois, however, put an end to this quarrel. Shortly after- wards La Fontaine had a share in a still more famous affair, the celebrated Ancient-and-Modern squabble in which Boileau and Perrault were the chiefs, and in which La Fontaine (though he had been specially singled out by Perrault for favourable comparison with Aesop and Phaedrus) took the Ancient side. About the same time (1685-1687) he made the acquaintance of the last of his many hosts and protectors, Monsieur and Madame d'Hervart, and fell in love with a certain Madame Ulrich, a lady of some position but of doubtful character. This acquaintance was accompanied by a great familiarity with Vend6me, Chaulieu and the rest of the libertine coterie of the Temple; but, though Madame de la Sabliere had long given herself up almost entirely to good works and religious exercises, La Fontaine continued an inmate of her house until her death in 1693. What followed is told in one of the best known of the many stories bearing on his childlike nature. Hervart on hearing of the death, had set out at once to find La Fontaine. He met him in the street in great sorrow, and begged him to make his home at his house. " J'y allais " was La Fontaine's answer. He had already undergone the process of conversion during a severe illness the year before. An energetic young priest, M. Poucet, had brought him, not indeed to understand, but to acknowledge the impropriety of the Contes, and it is said that the destruction of a new play of some merit was demanded and submitted to as a proof of repentance. A pleasant story is told of the young duke of Burgundy, Fenelon's pupil, who was then only eleven years old, sending 50 louis to La Fontaine as a present of his own motion. But, though La Fontaine recovered for the time, he was broken by age and infirmity, and his new hosts had to nurse rather than to entertain him, which they did very carefully and kindly. He did a little more work, com- pleting his Fables among other things; but he did not survive Madame de la Sabliere much more than two years, dying on the i3th of April 1695, at the age of seventy-three. He was buried in the cemetery of the Holy Innocents. His wife survived him nearly fifteen years. The curious personal character of La Fontaine, like that of some other men of letters, has been enshrined in a kind of legend by literary tradition. At an early age his absence of mind and indifference to business gave a subject to Tallemant des Reaux. His later contemporaries helped to swell the tale, and the i8th century finally accepted it, including the anecdotes of his meeting his son, being told who he was, and remarking, "Ah, yes, I thought I had seen him somewhere! " of his insisting on fighting a duel with a supposed admirer of his wife, and then imploring him to visit at his house just as before; of his going into company with his stockings wrong side out, &c., with, for a contrast, those of his awkwardness and silence, if not positive rudeness, in company. It ought to be remembered, as a comment on the unfavourable description by La Bruyere, that La Fontaine was a special friend and ally of Benserade, La Bruyere's chief literary enemy. But after all deductions much will remain, especially when it is remembered that one of the chief authorities for these anecdotes is Louis Racine, a man who possessed intelligence and moral worth, and who received them from his father, La Fontaine's attached friend for more than thirty years. Perhaps the best worth recording of all these stories is one of the Vieux Colombier quartette, which tells how Moliere, while Racine and Boileau were exercising their wits upon " le bonhomme " or " le bon " (by both which titles La Fontaine was familiarly known), remarked to a bystander," Nos beaux esprits ont beau faire, ils n'effaceront pas le bonhomme." They have not. The works of La Fontaine, the total bulk of which is considerable, fall no less naturally than traditionally into three divisions, the Fables, the Contes and the miscellaneous works. Of these the first may be said to be known universally, the second to be known to all lovers of French literature, the third to be with a few exceptions practically forgotten. This distribution of the judgment of posterity is as usual just in the main, but not wholly. There are excellent things in the QLuvres Diverses, but their excellence is only occasional, and it is not at the best equal to that of the Fables or the Contes. It was thought by contemporary judges who were both competent and friendly that La Fontaine attempted too many styles, and there is something in the criticism. His dramatic efforts are especially weak. The best pieces usually published under his name — Ragotin, Le Florentin, La Coupe enchantee, were originally fathered not by him but by Champmesle, the husband of the famous actress who captivated Racine and Charles de Sevigne. His avowed work was chiefly in the form of opera, a form of no great value. at its best. Psyche has all the advantages of its charming story and of La Fontaine's style, but it is perhaps principally interesting nowadays because of the framework of personal conversation already alluded to. The mingled prose and verse of the Songe de Vaux is not uninterest- ing, but its best things, such as the description of night — " Laissant tomber les flours et ne les semant pas," which has enchanted French critics, are little more than conceits, though as in this case sometimes very beautiful conceits. The elegies, the epistles, the epigrams, the ballades, contain many things which would be very creditable to a minor poet or a writer of vers de societe, but even if they be taken according to the wise rule of modern criticism, each in its kind, and judged simply according to their rank in that kind, they fall far below the merits of the two great collections of verse narratives which have assured La Fontaine's immortality. Between the actual literary merits of the two there is not much to choose, but the change of manners and the altered standard of literary decency have thrown the Contes into the shade. These tales are identical in general character with those which amused Europe from the days of the early fabliau writers. Light love, the mis- fortunes of husbands, the cunning of wives, the breach of their vows by ecclesiastics, constitute the staple of their subject. In some respects La Fontaine is the best of such tale-tellers, while he is certainly the latest who deserves such excuse as may be claimed by a writer who does not choose indecent subjects from a deliberate knowledge that they are considered indecent, and with a deliberate desire to pander to a vicious taste. No one who followed him in the style can claim this excuse; he can, and the way in which contempor- aries of stainless virtue such as Madame de Sevign£ speak of his work shows that, though the new public opinion was growing up, it was not finally accepted. In the Contes La Fontaine for the most part attempts little originality of theme. He takes his stories (varying them, it is true, in detail not a little) from Boccaccio, from Marguerite, from the Cent Nouvelles Nouvettes, &c. He applies to them his marvellous power of easy sparkling narration, and his hardly less marvellous faculty of saying more or less outrageous things in the most polite and gentlemanly manner. These Contes have indeed certain drawbacks. They are not penetrated by the half pagan ardour for physical beauty and the delights of sense which animates and excuses the early Italian Renaissance. They have not the subtle mixture of passion and sensuality, of poetry and appetite, which distinguishes the work of Marguerite and of the Pleiade. They are emphatically conies pour rire, a genuine expression of the esprit gaulois of the fabliau writers and of Rabelais, destitute of the gross- ness of envelope which had formerly covered that spirit. A com- parison of " La Fiancee du roi de Garbe " with its original in Boccaccio (especially if the reader takes M. Emile Montegut's ad- mirable essay as a commentary) will illustrate better than anything else what they have and what they have not. Some writers have pleaded hard for the admission of actual passion of the poetical sort in such pieces as " La Courtisane amoureuse," but as a whole it must be admitted to be absent. The Fables, with hardly less animation and narrative art than the Contes, are free from disadvantages (according to modern notions) of subject, and exhibit the versatility and fecundity of the author's talent perhaps even more fully. La Fontaine had many predecessors in the fable and especially in the beast fable. In his first issue, comprising what are now called the first six books, he adhered to the path of these predecessors with some closeness; but in the later collections he allowed himself far more liberty, and it is in these parts that his genius is most fully manifested. The boldness of the politics is as much to be considered as the ingenuity of the moralizing, as the intimate knowledge of human nature displayed in the substance of LAFONTAINE, SIR L. H.— LAFOSSE the narratives, or as the artistic mastery shown in their form. It has sometimes been objected that the view of human character which La Fontaine expresses is unduly dark, and resembles too much that of La Rochefoucauld, for whom the poet certainly had a profound admiration. The discussion of this point would lead us too far here. It may only be said that satire (and La Fontaine is eminently a satirist) necessarily concerns itself with the darker rather than with the lighter shades. Indeed the objection has become pretty nearly obsolete with the obsolescence of what may be called the sentimental- ethical school of criticism. Its last overt expression was made by Lamartine, excellently answered by Sainte-Beuve. Exception has also been taken to the Fables on more purely literary, but hardly less purely arbitrary grounds by Lessing. Perhaps the best criticism ever passed upon La Fontaine's Fables is that of Silvestre de Sacy, to the effect that they supply three several delights to three several ages: the child rejoices in the freshness and vividness of the story, the eager student of literature in the consummate art wifh which it is told, the experienced man of the world in the subtle reflections on character and life which it conveys. Nor" has any one, with the ex- ception of a few paradoxers like Rousseau and a few sentimentalists like Lamartine, denied that the moral tone of the whole is as fresh and healthy as its literary interest is vivid. The book has therefore naturally become the standard reading book of French both at home and abroad, a position which it shares in verse with the Telemaque of Fdnelon in prose. It is no small testimony to its merit that not even this use or misuse has interfered with its popularity. The general literary character of La Fontaine is, with allowance made for the difference of subject, visible equally in the Fables and in the Contes. Perhaps one of the hardest sayings in French literature for an English student is the dictum of Joubert to the effect that " II y a dans La Fontaine une plenitude de poesie qu'on ne trouve nulls part dans les autres auteurs franc,ais." The difficulty arises from the ambiguity of the terms. For inventiveness of fancy and for diligent observation of the rules of art La Fontaine deserves, if not the first, almost the first place among French poets. In his hands the oldest story becomes novel, the most hackneyed moral piquant, the most commonplace details fresh and appropriate. As to the second point there has not been such unanimous agreement. It used to be con- sidered that La Fontaine's ceaseless diversity of metre, his archaisms, his licences in rhyme and orthography, were merely ingenious devices for the sake of easy writing, intended to evade the trammels of the stately couplet and rimes difficiles enjoined by Boileau. Lamartine in the attack already mentioned affects contempt of the " vers boiteux, disloqu6s, inegaux, sans symmetric ni dans 1'oreille ni sur la page." This opinion may be said to have been finally exploded by the most accurate metrical critic and one of the most skilful metrical practitioners that France has ever had, Thdodore de Banville; and it is only surprising that it should ever have been entertained by any professional maker of verse. La Fontaine's irregularities are strictly regulated, his cadences carefully arranged, and the whole effect may be said to be (though, of course, in a light and tripping measure instead of a stately one) similar to that of the stanzas of the English pindaric ode in the hands of Dryden or Collins. There is therefore nothing against La Fontaine on the score of invention and nothing on the score of art. But something more, at least according to English standards, is wanted to make up a " plenitude of poesy," and this something more La Fontaine seldom or never exhibits. In words used by Joubert himself elsewhere, he never " transports." The faculty of transporting is possessed and used in very different manners by different poets. In some it takes the form of passion, in some of half mystical enthusiasm for nature, in some of commanding elo- quence, in some of moral fervour. La Fontaine has none of these things: he is always amusing, always sensible, always clever, some- times even affecting, but at the same time always more or less prosaic, were it not for his admirable versification. He is not a great poet, perhaps not even a great humorist; but he is the most admirable teller of light tales in verse that has ever existed in any time or country; and he has established in his verse-tale a model which is never likely to be surpassed. La Fontaine did not during his life issue any complete edition of his works, nor even of the two greatest and most important divisions of them. The most remarkable of his separate publications have already been noticed. Others were the Poeme de la captivile de St Male (1673), one of the pieces inspired by the Port- Royalists, the Poeme du Quinquina (1692), a piece of task work also, though of a very different kind, and a number of pieces published either in small pamphlets or with the works of other men. Among the latter may be singled out the pieces published by the poet with the works of his friend Maucroix (1685). The year after his death some post- humous works appeared, and some years after his son's death the scattered poems, letters, &c., with the addition of some unpublished work bought from the family in manuscript, were carefully edited and published as (Enures diverse* (1729). During the l8th century two of the most magnificent illustrated editions ever published of any poet reproduced the two chief works of La Fontaine. The Fables were illustrated by Oudry (1755-1759), the Contes by Eisen (1762). This latter under the title of " Edition des Fermiers- G6n6raux " fetches a high price. During the first thirty years of the igth century Walckenaer, a great student of French 17th-century classics, published for the house of Didot three successive editions of La Fontaine, the last (1826-1827) being perhaps entitled to the rank of the standard edition, as his Histoire de la vie et des ouvrages de La Fontaine is the standard biography and bibliography. The later editions of M. Marty-Laveaux in the Bibliolheque elzevirienne, A. Pauly in the Collection des classiques franc,aises of M. Lemerre and L. Mpland in that of M. Gamier supply in different forms all that can be wished. The second is the handsomest, the third, which is com- plete, perhaps the most generally useful. Editions, selections, trans- lations, &c., of the Fables, especially for school use, are innumerable; but an illustrated edition published by the Librairie des Bibliophiles (1874) deserves to be mentioned as not unworthy of its 18th-century predecessors. The works of M. Grouchy, Documents inedits sur La Fontaine (1893); of G. Lafenestre, Jean de La Fontaine (1895); and of Emile Faguet, Jean de La Fontaine (1900), should be mentioned. (G. SA.) LAFONTAINE, SIR LOUIS HIPPOLYTE, BART. (1807-1864), Canadian statesman and judge, third son of Antoine Mdnard LaFontaine (1772-1813) and Marie-J-Fontaine Bienvenue, was born at Boucherville in the province of Quebec on the 4th of October 1807. LaFontaine was educated at the College de Montreal under the direction of the Sulpicians, and was Called to the bar of the province of Lower Canada on the i8th of August 1829. He married firstly Adele, daughter of A. Berthelot of Quebec; and, secondly, Jane, daughter of Charles Morrison, of Berthier, by whom he had two sons. In 1830 he was elected a member of the House of Assembly for the county of Terrebonne, and became an ardent supporter of Louis Joseph Papineau in opposing the administration of the governor-in-chief, which led to the rebellion of 1837. LaFontaine, however, did not approve the violent methods of his leader, and after the hostilities at Saint Denis he presented a petition to Lord Gosford requesting him to summon the assembly and to adopt measures to stem the revolutionary course of events in Lower Canada. The rebellion broke out afresh in the autumn of 1838; the constitution of 1791 was suspended; LaFontaine was imprisoned for a brief period; and Papineau, who favoured annexation by the United States, was in exile. At this crisis in Lower Canada the French Canadians turned to LaFontaine as their leader, and under his direction maintained their opposition to the special council, composed of nominees of the crown. In 1839 Lord Sydenham, the governor-general, offered the solicitor generalship to LaFontaine, which he refused; and after the Union of 1841 LaFontaine was defeated in the county of Terrebonne through the governor's influence. During the next year he obtained a seat in the assembly of the province of Canada, and on the death of Sydenham he was called by Sir Charles Bagot to form an administration with Robert Baldwin. The ministry resigned in November 1843, as a protest against the actions of Lord Metcalfe, who had succeeded Bagot. In 1848 LaFontaine formed a new administration with Baldwin, and remained in office until 1851, when he retired from public life. It was during the ministry of LaFontaine-Baldwin that the Amnesty Bill was passed, which occasioned grave riots in Montreal, personal violence to Lord Elgin and the destruction of the parliament buildings. After the death of Sir James Stuart in 1853 La- Fontaine was appointed chief justice of Lower Canada and president of the seigneurial court, which settled the vexed question of land tenure in Canada; and in 1854 he was created a baronet. He died at Montreal on the 26th of February 1864. LaFontaine was well versed in constitutional' history and French law ; he reasoned closely and presented his conclusions with directness. He was upright in his conduct, sincerely attached to the traditions of his race, and laboured conscientiously to establish responsible govern- ment in Canada. His principal works are : L' Analyse de I'ordonnance du conseil special sur les bureaux d' hypothkques (Montreal, 1842); Observations sur les questions seigneuriales (Montreal, 1854); see La- Fontaine, by A. DeCelles (Toronto, 1906). (A. G. D.) LAFOSSE, CHARLES DE (1640-1716), French painter, was born in Paris. He was one of the most noted and least servile pupils of Le Brun, under whose direction he shared in the chief of the great decorative works undertaken in the reign of Louis XIV. Leaving France in 1662, he spent two years in Rome and three in Venice, and the influence of his prolonged studies of Veronese is evident in his " Finding of Moses " (Louvre), and in his " Rape of Proserpine " (Louvre), which he presented to the Royal Academy as his diploma picture in 1673. H° was LAGARDE— LAGHMAN at once named assistant professor, and in 1674 the full responsi- bilities of the office devolved on him, but his engagements did not prevent his accepting in 1689 the invitation of Lord Montagu to decorate Montagu House. He visited London twice, remaining on the second occasion — together with Rousseau and Monnoyer — more than two years. William III. vainly strove to detain him in England by the proposal that he should decorate Hampton Court, for Le Brun was dead, and Mansart pressed Lafosse to return to Paris to take in hand the cupola of the Invalides. The decorations of Montagu House are destroyed, those of Versailles are restored, and the dome of the Invalides (engraved, Picart and Cochin) is now the only work existing which gives a full measure of his talent. During his latter years Lafosse executed many other important decorations in public buildings and private houses, notably in that of Crozat, under whose roof he died on the i3th of December 1716. LAGARDE, PAUL ANTON DE (1827-1891), German biblical scholar and orientalist, was born at Berlin on the 2nd of November 1827. His real name was Botticher, Lagarde being his mother's name. At Berlin (1844-1846) and Halle (1846- 1847) he studied theology, philosophy and oriental languages. In 1852 his studies took him to London and Paris. In 1854 he became a teacher at a Berlin public school, but this did not interrupt his biblical studies. He edited the Didascalia aposto- lorum syriace (1854), and other Syriac texts collected in the British Museum and in Paris. In 1866 he received three years' leave of absence to collect fresh materials, and in 1869 succeeded Heinrich Ewald as professor of oriental languages at Gottingen. Like Ewald, Lagarde was an active worker in a variety of subjects and languages; but his chief aim, the elucidation of the Bible, was almost always kept in view. He edited the Aramaic translation (known as the Targum) of the Prophets according to the Codex Reuchlinianus preserved at Carlsruhe, Prophetae chaldaice (1872), the Hagiographa chaldaice (1874), ah Arabic translation of the Gospels, Die vier Evangelien, arabisch aus der Wiener Handschrift herausgegeben (1864), a Syriac translation of the Old Testament Apocrypha, Libri V. T. apocryphi syriace (1861), a Coptic translation of the Pentateuch, Der Pentateuch koptisch (1867), and a part of the Lucianic text of the Septuagint, which he was able to reconstruct from manu- scripts for nearly half the Old Testament. He devoted himself ardently to oriental scholarship, and published Zur Urgeschichte der Armenier (1854) and Armenische Studien (1877). He was also a student of Persian, publishing Isaias persice (1883) and Persische Studien (1884). He followed up his Coptic studies with Aegyptiaca (1883), and published many minor contributions to the study of oriental languages in Gesammelte Abhandlungen (1866), Symmicta (i. 1877, ii. 1880), Semitica (i. 1878, ii. 1879), Orientalia (1879-1880) and Mittheilungen (1884). Mention should also be made of the valuable Onomastica sacra (1870; 2nd ed., 1887). Lagarde also took some part in politics. He belonged to the Prussian Conservative party, and was a violent anti-Semite. The bitterness which he felt appeared in his writings. He died at Gottingen on the 22nd of December 1891. See the article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopiidie; and cf. Anna de Lagarde, Paul de Lagarde (1894). LAGASH, or SIRPURLA, one of the oldest centres of Sumerian civilization in Babylonia. It is represented by a rather low, lojig line of ruin mounds, along the dry bed of an ancient canal, some 3 m. E. of the Shatt-el-Hal and a little less than 10 m. N. of the modern Turkish town of Shatra. These ruins were dis- covered in 1877 by Ernest de Sarzec, at that time French consul at Basra, who was allowed, by the Montefich chief, Nasir Pasha, the first Wali-Pasha, or governor-general, of Basra, to excavate at his pleasure in the territories subject to that official. At the outset on his own account, and later as a representative of the French government, under a Turkish firman, de Sarzec continued excavations at this site, with various intermissions, until his death in 1901, after which the work was continued under the supervision of the Commandant Cros. The principal excava- tions were made in two larger mounds, one of which proved to be the site of the temple, E-Ninnu, the shrine of the patron god of Lagash, Nin-girsu or Ninib. This temple had been razed and a fortress built upon its ruins, in the Greek or Seleucid period, some of the bricks found bearing the inscription in Aramaic and Greek of a certain Hadad-nadin-akhe, king of a small Babylonian kingdom. It was beneath this fortress that the numerous statues of Gudea were found, which constitute the gem of the Babylonian collections at the Louvre. These had been decapitated and otherwise mutilated, and thrown into the foundations of the new fortress. From this stratum came also various fragments of bas reliefs of high artistic excellence. The excavations in the other larger mound resulted in the discovery of the remains of buildings containing objects of all sorts in bronze and stone, dating from the earliest Sumerian period onward, and enabling us to trace the art history of Babylonia to a date some hundreds of years before the time of Gudea. Apparently this mound had been occupied largely by store houses, in which were stored not only grain, figs, &c., but also vessels, weapons, sculptures and every possible object connected with the use and administration of palace and temple. In a small outlying mound de Sarzec discovered the archives of the temple, about 30,000 inscribed clay tablets, containing the business records, and revealing with extraordinary minute- ness the administration of an ancient Babylonian temple, the character of its property, the method of farming its lands, herding its flocks, and its commercial and industrial dealings and enter- prises; for an ancient Babylonian temple was a great industrial, commercial, agricultural and stock-raising establishment. Un- fortunately, before these archives could be removed, the galleries containing them were rifled by the Arabs, and large numbers of the tablets were sold to antiquity dealers, by whom they have been scattered all over Europe and America. From the inscrip- tions found at Tello, it appears that Lagash was a city of great importance in the Sumerian period, some time probably in the 4th millennium B.C. It was at that time ruled by independent kings, Ur-Nina and his successors, who were engaged in contests with the Elamites on the east and the kings of Kengi and Kish on the north. With the Semitic conquest it lost its independence, its rulers becoming patesis, dependent rulers, under Sargon and his successors; but it still remained Sumerian and continued to be a city of much importance, and, above all, a centre of artistic development. Indeed, it was in this period and under the immediately succeeding supremacy of the kings of Ur, Ur-Gur and Dungi, that it reached its highest artistic development. At this period, also, under its patesis, Ur-bau and Gudea, Lagash had extensive commercial communications with distant realms. According to his own records, Gudea brought cedars from the Amanus and Lebanon mountains in Syria, diorite or dolorite from eastern Arabia, copper and gold from central and southern Arabia and from Sinai, while his armies, presumably under his over-lord, Ur-Gur, were engaged in battles in Elam on the east. His was especially the era of artistic development. Some of the earlier works of Ur-Nina, En-anna-tum, Entemena and others, before the Semitic conquest, are also extremely interesting, especially the famous stele of the vultures and a great silver vase ornamented with what may be called the coat of arms of Lagash, a lion-headed eagle with wings outspread, grasping a lion in each talon. After the time of Gudea, Lagash seems to have lost its importance; at least we know nothing more about it until the construction of the Seleucid fortress mentioned, when it seems to have become part of the Greek kingdom of Characene. The objects found at Tello are the most valuable art treasures up to this time discovered in Babylonia. See E. de Sarzec, Decouverles en Chaldfe (1887 foil.). Q. P. PE.) LAGHMAN, a district of Afghanistan, in the province of Jalalabad, between Jalalabad and Kabul, on the northern side of the Peshawar road, one of the richest and most fertile tracts in Afghanistan. It is the valley of the Kabul river between the Tagao and the Kunar and merges on the north into Kafiristan. The inhabitants, Ghilzais and Tajiks, are supposed to be the cleverest business people in the country. Sugar, cotton and rice are exported to Kabul. The Laghman route between Kabul LAGOON— LAGOS 73 and India crossing the Kunar river into the Mohmand country is the route followed by Alexander the Great and Baber; but it has now been supplanted by the Khyber. LAGOON (Fr. lagune, Lat. lacuna, a pool), a term applied to (i) a sheet of salt or brackish water near the sea, (2) a sheet of fresh water of no great depth or extent, (3) the expanse of smooth water enclosed by an atoll. Sea lagoons are formed only where the shores are low and protected from wave action. Under these conditions a bar may be raised above sea-level or a spit may grow until its end touches the land. The enclosed shallow water is then isolated in a wide stretch, the seaward banks broaden, and the lagoon becomes a permanent area of still shallow water with peculiar faunal features. In the old lake plains of Australia there are occasional wide and shallow depressions where water collects permanently. Large numbers of aquatic birds, black swans, wild duck, teal, migrant spoon-bills or pelicans, resort to these fresh-water lagoons. LAGOS, the western province of Southern Nigeria, a British colony and protectorate in West Africa. The province consists of three divisions: (i) the coast region, including Lagos Island, being the former colony of Lagos; (2) small native states adjacent to the colony; and (3) the Yoruba country, farther inland. The total area is some 27,000 sq. m., or about the size of Scotland. The province is bounded S. by the Gulf of Guinea, (from 2° 46' 55" to 4° 30' E.); W. by the French colony of Dahomey; N. and E. by other provinces of Nigeria. Physical Features. — The coast is low, marshy and malarious, and all along the shore the great Atlantic billows cause a dangerous surf. Behind the coast-line stretches a series of lagoons, in which are small islands, that of Lagos having an area of 3! sq. m. Beyond the lagoons and mangrove swamps is a broad zone of dense primeval forest — " the bush " — which completely separates the arable lands from the coast lagoons. The water-parting of the streams flowing north to the Niger, and south to the Gulf of Guinea, is the main physical feature. The general level of Yorubaland is under 2000 ft. But towards the east, about the upper course of the river Oshun, the elevation is higher. Southward from the divide the land, which is intersected by the nearly parallel courses of the rivers Ogun, Omi, Oshun, Oni and Oluwa, falls in continuous undulations to the coast, the open cultivated ground gradually giving place to forest tracts, where the most characteristic tree is the oil-palm. Flowering trees, certain kinds of rubber vines, and shrubs are plentiful. In the northern regions the shea-butter tree is found. The fauna resembles that of the other regions of the Guinea coast, but large game is becoming scarce. Leopards, antelopes and monkeys are common, and alligators infest the rivers. The lagoons, lying between the outer surf-beaten beach and the inner shore line, form a navigable highway of still waters, many miles in extent. They are almost entirely free from rock, though they are often shallow, with numerous mud banks. The most extensive are Lekki in the east, and Ikoradu (Lagos) in the west. At its N.W. extremity the Lagos lagoon receives the Ogun, the largest river in Yorubaland, whose current is strong enough to keep the seaward channel open throughout the year. Hence the importance of the port of Lagos, which lies in smooth water at the northern end of this channel. The outer entrance is obstructed by a dangerous sand bar. Climate and Health. — The climate is unhealthy, especially for Europeans. The rainfall has not been ascertained in the interior. In the northern districts it is probably considerably less than at Lagos, where it is about 70 in. a year. The variation is, however, very §reat. In 1901 the rainfall was 112 in., in 1902 but 47, these figures eing respectively the highest and lowest recorded in a period of seventeen years. The mean temperature at Lagos is 82-5° F., the range being from 68° to 91 °. At certain seasons sudden heavy squalls of wind and rain that last for a few hours are common. The hurri- cane and typhoon are unknown. The principal diseases are malarial fever, smallpox, rheumatism, peripheral neuritis, dysentery, chest diseases and guinea-worm. Fever not unfrequently assumes the dangerous form known as " black-water fever." The frequency of smallpox is being much diminished outside the larger towns in the interior, in which vaccination is neglected. The absence of plague, yellow fever, cholera, typhoid fever and scarlatina is noteworthy. A mild form of yaws is endemic. Inhabitants. — The population is estimated at 1,750,000. The Yoruba people, a Negro race divided into many tribes, form the majority of the inhabitants. Notwithstanding their political feuds and their proved capacity as fighting men, the Yoruba are distinguished above all the surrounding races for their generally peaceful disposition, industry, friendliness, courtesy and hospitality towards strangers. They are also intensely patriotic. Physically they resemble closely their Ewe and Dahomey neighbours, but are of somewhat lighter complexion, taller and of less pronounced Negro features. They exhibit high administrative ability, possess a marked capacity for trade, and have made remarkable progress in the industrial arts. The different tribes are distinguished by tattoo markings, usually some simple pattern of two or more parallel lines, disposed horizontally or vertically on the cheeks or other parts of the face. The feeling for religion is deeply implanted among the Yoruba. The majority are pagans, or dominated by pagan beliefs, but Islam has made great progress since the cessation of the Fula wars, while Protestant and Roman Catholic missions have been at work since 1848 at Abeokuta, Oyo, Ibadan and other large towns. Samuel Crowther, the first Negro bishop in the Anglican church, who was distinguished as an explorer, geo- grapher and linguist, was a native of Yorubaland, rescued (1822) by the English from slavery and educated at Sierra Leone (see YORUBAS). Towns. — Besides Lagos (q.v.), pop. about 50,000, the chief towns in the colony proper are Epe, pop. 16,000, on the northern side of the lagoons, and Badagry (a notorious place during the slave-trade period) and Lekki, both on the coast. Inland the chief towns are Abeokuta (q.v.), pop. about 60,000, and Ibadan (q.v.), pop. estimated at 150,000. Agriculture and Trade. — The chief wealth of the country consists in forest produce, the staple industries being the collec- tion of palm-kernels and palm oil. Besides the oil-palm forests large areas are covered with timber trees, the wood chiefly cut for commercial purposes being a kind of mahogany. The destruc- tion of immature trees and the fluctuations in price render this a very uncertain trade. The rubber industry was started in 1894, and in 1896 the rubber exported was valued at £347,000. In 1899, owing to reckless methods of tapping the vines, 75% of the rubber plants died. Precautions were then taken to preserve the remainder and allow young plants to grow. The collection of rubber recommenced in 1904 and the industry again became one of importance. A considerable area is devoted to cocoa plantations, all owned by native cultivators. Coffee and tobacco of good quality are cultivated and shea-butter is largely used as an illuminant. The Yoruba country is the greatest agricultural centre in West Africa. For home consumption the Yoruba grow yams, maize and millet, the chief articles of food, cassava, sweet potatoes, sesame and beans. Model farms have been established for experimental culture and for the tuition of the natives. A palatable wine is obtained from the Raphia vinifera and native beers are also brewed. Imported spirits are largely consumed. There are no manufactures on a large scale save the making of " country cloths " (from cotton grown, spun and woven in the country) and mats. Pottery and agricultural implements are made, and tanning, dyeing and forging practised in the towns, and along the rivers and lagoons boats and canoes are built. Fishing is extensively engaged in, the fish being dried and sent up country. Except iron there are no valuable minerals in the country. The cotton plant from which the " country cloths " are made is native to the country, the soil of which is capable of producing the very finest grades of cotton. The Egba branch of the Yoruba have always grown the plant. In 1869 the cotton exported was valued at £76,957, but owing to low prices the natives ceased to grow cotton for export, so that in 1879 the value of exported cotton was only £526. In 1902 planting for export was recom- menced by the Egba on scientific lines, and was started in the Abeokuta district with encouraging results. The Yoruba profess to be unable to alienate land in per- petuity, but native custom does not preclude leasing, and land concessions have been taken up by Europeans on long leases. Some concessions are only for cutting and removing timber; others permit of cultivation. The northern parts of the pro- tectorate are specially suitable for stock raising and poultry culture. The chief exports are palm-kernels, palm-oil, timber, rubber and cocoa. Palm-kernels alone constitute more than a half in value of the total exports, and with palm-oil over three-fourths. 74 LAGOS The trade in these products is practically confined to Great Britain and Germany, the share of the first-named being 25% to Germany's 75%. Minor exports are coffee, "country cloths," maize, shea-butter and ivory. Cotton goods are the most important of the imports, spirits coming next, followed by building material, haberdashery and hardware and tobacco. Over 90% of the cotton goods are imported from Great Britain, whilst nearly the same proportion of the spirit imports come from Germany. Nearly all the liquors consist of " Trade Spirits," chiefly gin, rum and a con- coction called " alcohol," introduced (1901) to meet the growing taste of the people for stronger liquor. This stuff contained 90 % of pure alcohol and sometimes over 4% of fusel oil. To hinder the sale of this noxious compound legislation was passed in 1903 prohibiting the import of liquor containing more than 5% of fusel oil, whilst the states of Abeokuta and Ibadan prohibited the importation of liquor stronger than proof. The total trade of the country in 1905 was valued at £2,224,754, the imports slightly exceeding the exports. There is a large transit trade with Dahomey. Communications. — Lagos is well supplied with means of com- munication. A 3 ft. 6 in. gauge railway starts from Iddo Island, and extends past Abeokuta, 64 m. from Lagos, Ibadan (123111.), Oshogbo (175 m.), to Illorin (247 m.) in Northern Nigeria, whence the line is continued to Jebba and Zunguru (see NIGERIA). Abeokuta is served by a branch line, I ^m. long, from Aro on the main line. Railway bridges connect Iddo Island both with the mainland and with Lagos Island (see LAGOS, town). This line was begun in 1896 and opened to Ibadan in 1901. In 1905 the building of the section Ibadan- Illorin was undertaken. The railway was built by the government and cost about £7000 per mile. Thelagoonsofferconvenientchannels for numerous small craft, which, with the exception of steam- launches, are almost entirely native-built canoes. Branch steamers run between the Forcados mouth of the Niger and Lagos, and also between Lagos and Porto Novo, in French territory, and do a large transit trade. Various roads through the bush have been made by the government. There is telegraphic communication with Europe, Northern Nigeria and South Africa, and steamships ply regularly between Lagos and Liverpool, and Lagos and Hamburg (see LAGOS, town). Administration, Justice, Education, &c. — The small part of the province which constitutes " the colony of Southern Nigeria " is governed as a crown colony. Elsewhere the native governments are retained, the chiefs and councils of eldcre receiving the advice and support of British commissioners. There is also an advisory native central council which meets at Lagos. The great majority of the civil servants are natives of the country, some of whom have been educated in England. The legal status of slavery is not recognized by the law courts and dealing in slaves is suppressed. As an institu- tion slavery is dying out, and only exists in a domestic form. The cost of administration is met, mainly, by customs, largely de- rived from the duties on imported spirits. From the railways, a government monopoly, a considerable net profit is earned. Ex- penditure is mainly under the heads of railway administration, other public works, military and police, health, and education. The revenue increased in the ten years 1895-1905 from £142,049 to £410,250. In the same period the expenditure rose from £144,484 to £354.25.4- The defence of the province is entrusted to the Lagos battalion of the West African Frontier Force, a body under the control of the Colonial Office in London and composed of Hausa (four-fifths) and Yoruba. It is officered from the British army. The judicial system in the colony proper is based on that of England. The colonial supreme court, by agreement with the rulers of Abeokuta, Ibadan and other states in the protectorate, tries, with the aid of native assessors, all cases of importance in those countries. Other cases are tried by mixed courts, or, where Yoruba alone are concerned, by native courts. There is a government board of education which maintains a few schools and supervises those voluntarily established. These are chiefly those of various missionary societies, who, besides primary schools, have a few secondary schools. The Mahommedans have their own schools. Grants from public funds are made to the voluntary schools. Considerable attention is paid to manual train- ing, the laws of health and the teaching of English, which is spoken by about one-fourth of the native population. History. — Lagos Island was so named by the Portuguese explorers of the isth century, because of the numerous lagoons or lakes on this part of the coast. The Portuguese, and after them the French, had settlements here at various points. In the 1 8th century Lagos Lagoon became the chief resort of slavers frequenting the Bight of Benin, this portion of the Gulf of Guinea becoming known pre-eminently as the Slave Coast. British traders established themselves at Badagry, 40 m. W. of Lagos, where in 1851 they were attacked by Kosoko, the Yoruba king of Lagos Island. As a result a British naval force seized Lagos after a sharp fight and deposed the king, placing his cousin, Akitoye, on the throne. A treaty was concluded under which Akitoye bound himself to put down the slave trade. This treaty was not adhered to, and in 1861 Akitoye's son and successor, King Docemo, was induced to give up his territorial jurisdiction and accept a pension of 1200 bags of cowries, afterwards commuted to £1000 a year, which pension he drew until his death in 1885. Immediately after the proclama- tion of the British annexation, a steady current of immigration from the mainland set in, and a flourishing town arose on Lagos Island. Iddo Island was acquired at the same time as Lagos Island, and from 1862 to 1894 various additions by purchase or cession were made to the colony. In 1879 the small kingdom of Kotonu was placed under British protection. Kotonu lies south and east of the Denham Lagoon (see DAHOMEY). In 1889 it was exchanged with the French for the kingdom of Pokra which is to the north of Badagry. In the early years of the colony Sir John Glover, R.N., who was twice governor (1864-1866 and 1871-1872), did much pioneer work and earned the confidence of the natives to a remarkable degree. Later Sir C. A. Moloney (governor 1886-1890) opened up relations with the Yoruba and other tribes in the hinterland. He despatched two com- missioners whose duty it was to conclude commercial treaties and use British influence to put a stop to intertribal fighting and the closing of the trade routes. In 1892 the Jebu, who acted as middlemen between the colony and the Yoruba, closed several trade routes. An expedition sent against them resulted in their subjugation and the annexation of part of their country. An order in council issued in 1899 extended the protectorate over Yorubaland. The tribes of the hinterland have largely welcomed the British protectorate and military expeditions have been few and unimportant. (For the history of the Yoruba states see YORUBAS.) Lagos was made a separate government in 1863; in 1866 it was placed in political dependence upon Sierra Leone; in 1874 it became (politically) an integral part of the Gold Coast Colony, whilst in 1886 it was again made a separate government, ad- ministered as a crown colony. In Sir William Macgregor, M.D., formerly administrator of British New Guinea, governor 1899- 1904, the colony found an enlightened ruler. He inaugurated the railway system, and drew much closer the friendly ties between the British and the tribes of the protectorate. Mean- time, since 1884, the whole of the Niger delta, lying immediately east of Lagos, as well as the Hausa states and Bornu, had been acquired by Great Britain. Unification of the British possessions in Nigeria being desirable, the delta regions and Lagos were formed in 1906 into one government (see NIGERIA). See C. P. Lucas, Historical Geography of the British Colonies, vol. iii. West Africa (Oxford, 1896) ; the annual Reports issued by the Colonial Office, London; A. B. Ellis, The Yoruba-speaking Peoples (London, 1894); Lady Glover, The Life of Sir John Hawley Glover (London, 1897). Consult also the works cited under NIGERIA and DAHOMEY. LAGOS, a seaport of West Africa, capital of the British colony and protectorate of Southern Nigeria, in 6° 26' N., 3° 23' E. on an island in a lagoon named Lagos also. Between Lagos and the mainland is Iddo Island. An iron bridge for road and rail- way traffic 2600 ft. long connects Lagos and Iddo Islands, and another iron bridge, 917 ft. long, joins Iddo Island to the main- land. The town lies but a foot or two above sea-level. The principal buildings are a large government house, the law courts, the memorial hall erected to commemorate the services of Sir John Glover, used for public meetings and entertainments, an elaborate club-house provided from public funds, and the police quarters. There are many substantial villas that serve as quarters for the officers of the civil service, as well as numerous solidly-built handsome private buildings. The streets are well kept; the town is supplied with electric light, and there is a good water service. The chief stores and dep6ts for goods are LAGOS— LAGRANGE 75 all on the banks of the lagoon. The swamps of which originally Lagos Island entirely consisted have been reclaimed. In connexion with this work a canal, 25 ft. wide, has been cut right through the island and a sea-wall built round its western half. There is a commodious public hospital, of the cottage type, on a good site. There is a racecourse, which also serves as a general public recreation ground. Shifting banks of sand form a bar at the sea entrance of the lagoon. Extensive works were undertaken in 1908 with a view to making Lagos an open port. A mole has been built at the eastern entrance to the harbour and dredgers are at work on the bar, which can be crossed by vessels drawing 13 ft. Large ocean-going steamers anchor not less than 2 m. from land, and goods and passengers are there transhipped into smaller steamers for Lagos. Heavy cargo is carried by the large steamers to Forcados, 200 m. farther down the coast, transhipped there into branch boats, and taken via the lagoons to Lagos. The port is 4279 m. from Liverpool, 1203 from Freetown, Sierra Leone (the nearest safe port west- ward), and 315 from Cape Coast. The inhabitants, about 50,000, include, besides the native tribes, Sierra Leonis, Fanti, Krumen and the descendants of some 6000 Brazilian emancipados who were settled here in the early days of British rule. The Europeans number about 400. Rather more than half the populace are Moslems. LAGOS, a seaport of southern Portugal, in the district of Faro (formerly the province of Algarve) ; on the Atlantic Ocean, and on the estuary of the small river Lagos, here spanned by a fine stone bridge. Pop. (1900) 8291. The city is defended by fortifi- cations erected in the lyth century. It is supplied with water by an aqueduct 800 yds. long. The harbour is deep, capacious, and completely sheltered on the north and west; it is frequently visited by the British Channel fleet. Vines and figs are extensively cultivated in the neighbourhood, and Lagos is the centre of important sardine and tunny fisheries. Its trade is chiefly carried on by small coasting vessels, as there is no railway. Lagos is on or near the site of the Roman Lacobriga. Since the 1 5th century it has held the formal rank and title of city. Cape St Vincent, the ancient Promontorium Sacrum, and the south- western extremity of the kingdom, is 22 m. W. It is famous for its connexion with Prince Henry (q.v.), the Navigator, who here founded the town of Sagres in 1421; and for several British naval victories, the most celebrated of which was won in 1797 by Admiral Jervis (afterwards Earl St Vincent) over a larger Spanish squadron. In 1759 Admiral Boscawen defeated a French fleet off Lagos. The great earthquake of 1755 destroyed a large part of the city. LA GRACE, or LES GRACES, a game invented in France during the first quarter of the igth century and called there le jcu dcs Graces. It is played with two light sticks about 16 in. long and a wicker ring, which is projected into the air by placing it over the sticks crossed and then separating them rapidly. The ring is caught upon the stick of another player and thrown back, the object being to prevent it from falling to the ground. LA GRAND' COMBE, a town of southern France, in the depart- ment of Card on the Garden, 39 m. N.N.W. of Nimes by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 6406; commune, 11,292. There are extensive coal mines in the vicinity. LAGRANGE, JOSEPH LOUIS (1736-1813), French mathe- matician, was born at Turin, on the 25th of January 1736. He was of French extraction, his great grandfather, a cavalry captain, having passed from the service of France to that of Sardinia, and settled in Turin under Emmanuel II. His father, Joseph Louis Lagrange, married Maria Theresa Gros, only daughter of a rich physician at Cambiano, and had by her eleven children, of whom only the eldest (the subject of this notice) and the youngest survived infancy. His emoluments as treasurer at war, together with his wife's fortune, provided him with ample means, which he lost by rash speculations, a circumstance regarded by his son as the prelude to his own good fortune; for had he been rich, he used to say, he might never have known mathematics. The genius of Lagrange did not at once take its true bent. His earliest tastes were literary rather than scientific, and he learned the rudiments of geometry during his first year at the college of Turin, without difficulty, but without distinction. The perusal of a tract by Halley (Phil. Trans, xviii. 960) roused his enthusiasm for the analytical method, of which he was destined to develop the utmost capabilities. He now entered, unaided save by his own unerring tact and vivid apprehension, upon a course of study which, in two years, placed him on a level with the greatest of his contemporaries. At the age of nineteen he communicated to Leonhard Euler his idea of a general method of dealing with " isoperimetrical " problems, known later as the Calculus of Variations. It was eagerly welcomed by the Berlin mathematician, who had the generosity to withhold from publication his own further researches on the subject, until his youthful correspondent should have had time to complete and opportunity to claim the invention. This prosperous opening gave the key-note to Lagrange's career. Appointed, in 1754, professor of geometry in the royal school of artillery, he formed with some of his pupils — for the most part his seniors — friend- ships based on community of scientific ardour. With the aid of the marquis de Saluces and the anatomist G. F. Cigna, he founded in 1758 a society which became the Turin Academy of Sciences. The first volume of its memoirs,' published in the following year, contained a paper by Lagrange entitled Recherches sur la nature et la propagation du son, in which the power of his analysis and his address in its application were equally con- spicuous. He made his first appearance in public as the critic of Newton, and the arbiter between d'Alembert and Euler. By considering only the particles of air found in a right line, he reduced the problem of the propagation of sound to the solution of the same partial differential equations that include the motions of vibrating strings, and demonstrated the insufficiency of the methods employed by both his great contemporaries in dealing with the latter subject. He further treated in a masterly manner of echoes and the mixture of sounds, and explained the pheno- menon of grave harmonics as due to the occurrence of beats so rapid as to generate a musical note. This was followed, in the second volume of the Miscellanea Taurinensia (1762) by his " Essai d'une nouvelle methode pour determiner les maxima et les minima des formules integrates indefinies," together with the application of this important development of analysis to the solution of several dynamical problems, as well as to the demon- stration of the mechanical principle of " least action." The essential point in his advance on Euler's mode of investigating curves of maximum or minimum consisted in his purely analytical conception of the subject. He not only freed it from all trammels of geometrical construction, but by the introduction of the symbol & gave it the efficacy of a new calculus. He is thus justly regarded as the inventor of the " method of variations " — a name supplied by Euler in 1766. By these performances Lagrange found himself, at the age of twenty-six, on the summit of European fame. Such a height had not been reached without cost. Intense application during early youth had weakened a constitution never robust, and led to accesses of feverish exaltation culminating, in the spring of I76r, in an attack of bilious hypochondria, which permanently lowered the tone of his nervous system. Rest and exercise, however, temporarily restored his health, and he gave proof of the undiminished vigour of his powers by carrying off, in 1 764, the prize offered by the Paris Academy of Sciences for the best essay on the libration of the moon. His treatise was remark- able, not only as offering a satisfactory explanation of the coin- cidence between the lunar periods of rotation and revolution, but as containing the first employment of his radical formula of mechanics, obtained by combining with the principle of d'Alembert that of virtual velocities. His success encouraged the Academy to propose, in 1766, as a theme for competition, the hitherto unattempted theory of the Jovian system. The prize was again awarded to Lagrange; and he earned the same dis- tinction with essays on the problem of three bodies, in 1772, on the secular equation of the moon in 1774, and in 1778 on the theory of cometary perturbations. 76 LAGRANGE He had in the meantime gratified a long felt desire by a visit to Paris, where he enjoyed the stimulating delight of conversing with such mathematicians as A. C. Clairault, d'Alembert, Condorcet and the Abbe Marie. Illness prevented him from visiting London. The post of director of the mathematical department of the Berlin Academy (of which he had been a member since 1759) becoming vacant by the removal of Euler to St Petersburg, the latter and d'Alembert united to recommend Lagrange as his successor. Euler's eulogium was enhanced by his desire to quit Berlin, d'Alembert's by his dread of a royal command to repair thither; and the result was that an invita- tion, conveying the wish of the " greatest king in Europe " to have the " greatest mathematician " at his court, was sent to Turin. On the 6th of November 1766, Lagrange was installed in his new position, with a salary of 6000 francs, ample leisure for scientific research, and royal favour sufficient to secure him respect without exciting envy. The national jealousy of foreigners, was at first a source of annoyance to him; but such prejudices were gradually disarmed by the inoffensiveness of his demeanour. We are told that the universal example of his colleagues, rather than any desire for female society, impelled him to matrimony; his choice being a lady of the Conti family, who, by his request, joined him at Berlin. Soon after marriage his wife was attacked by a lingering illness, to which she suc- cumbed, Lagrange devoting all his time, and a considerable store of medical knowledge, to her care. The long series of memoirs — some of them complete treatises of great moment in the history of science — communicated by Lagrange to the Berlin Academy between the years 1767 and 1787 were not the only fruits of his exile. His Mecanique analytique, in which his genius most fully displayed itself, was produced during the same period. This great work was the perfect realization of a design conceived by the author almost in boyhood, and clearly sketched in his first published essay.1 Its scope may be briefly described as the reduction of the theory of mechanics to certain general formulae, from the simple development of which should be derived the equations necessary for the solution of each separate problem.2 From the funda- mental principle of virtual velocities, which thus acquired a new significance, Lagrange deduced, with the aid of the calculus of variations, the whole system of mechanical truths, by pro- cesses so elegant, lucid and harmonious as to constitute, in Sir William Hamilton's words, " a kind of scientific poem." This unification of method was one of matter also. By his mode of regarding a liquid as a material system characterized by the unshackled mobility of its minutest parts, the separation between the mechanics of matter in different forms of aggregation finally disappeared, and the fundamental equation of forces was for the first time extended to hydrostatics and hydrodynamics.3 Thus a universal science of matter and motion was derived, by an unbroken sequence of deduction, from one radical principle; and analytical mechanics assumed the clear and complete form of logical perfection which it now wears. A publisher having with some difficulty been found, the book appeared at Paris in 1 788 under the supervision of A. M. Legendre. But before that time Lagrange himself was on the spot. After the death of Frederick the Great, his presence was competed for by the courts of France, Spain and Naples, and a residence in Berlin having ceased to possess any attraction for him, he removed to Paris in 1787. Marie Antoinette warmly patronized him. He was lodged in the Louvre, received the grant of an income equal to that he had hitherto enjoyed, and, with the title of " veteran pensioner " in lieu of that of " foreign associate " (conferred in 1772), the right of voting at the deliberations of the Academy. In the midst of these distinctions, a profound melancholy seized upon him. His mathematical enthusiasm was for the time completely quenched, and during two years the printed volume of his Mfcanique, which he had seen only in manuscript, lay unopened beside him. He relieved his dejection 1 (Euvres, i. 15. ! Mec. An., Advertisement to 1st ed. 3 E. Duhring, Krilische Gesch. der Mechanik, 220, 367; Lagrange, Met. An. i. 166-172, 3rd ed. with miscellaneous studies, especially with that of chemistry, which, in the new form given to it by Lavoisier, he found " aisee comme 1'algebre." The Revolution roused him once more to activity and cheerfulness. Curiosity impelled him to remain and watch the progress of such a novel phenomenon; but curiosity was changed into dismay as the terrific character of the phenomenon unfolded itself. He now bitterly regretted his temerity in braving the danger. " Tu 1'as voulu " he would repeat self-reproachfully. Even from revolutionary tribunals, however, the name of Lagrange uniformly commanded respect. His pension was continued by the National Assembly, and he was partially indemnified for the depreciation of the currency by remunerative appointments. Nominated president of the Academical commission for the reform of weights and measures, his services were retained when its " purification " by the Jacobins removed his most distinguished colleagues. He again sat on the commission of 1799 for the construction of the metric system, and by his zealous advocacy of the decimal principle largely contributed to its adoption. Meanwhile, on the 3ist of May 1792 he married Mademoiselle Lemonnier, daughter of the astronomer of that name, a young and beautiful girl, whose devotion ignored disparity of years, and formed the one tie with life which Lagrange found it hard to break. He had no children by either marriage. Although specially exempted from the operation of the decree of October 1793, imposing banishment on foreign residents, he took alarm at the fate of J. S. Bailly and A. L. Lavoisier, and prepared to resume his former situation in Berlin. His design was frus- trated by the establishment of and his official connexion with the Ecole Normale, and the Ecole Polytechnique. The former institution had an ephemeral existence; but amongst the benefits derived from the foundation of the Ecole Polytechnique one of the greatest, it has been observed,4 was the restoration of Lagrange to mathematics. The remembrance of his teachings was long treasured by such of his auditors — amongst whom were J. B. J. Delambre and S. F. Lacroix — as were capable of appreciating them. In expounding the principles of the differ- ential calculus, he started, as it were, from the level of his pupils, and ascended with them by almost insensible gradations from elementary to abstruse conceptions. He seemed, not a professor amongst students, but a learner amongst learners; pauses for thought alternated with luminous exposition; invention accompanied demonstration; and thus originated his Theorie des f auctions analytiques (Paris, 1797). The leading idea of this work was contained in a paper published in the Berlin Memoirs for 1772. 6 Its object was the elimination of the, to some minds, unsatisfactory conception of the infinite from the metaphysics of the higher mathematics, and the substitution for the differential and integral calculus of an analogous method depending wholly on the serial development of algebraical functions. By means of this " calculus of derived functions " Lagrange hoped to give to the solution of all analytical problems the utmost " rigour of the demonstrations of the ancients";6 but it cannot be said that the attempt was successful. The validity of his fundamental position was impaired by the absence of a well-constituted theory of series; the notation employed was inconvenient, and was abandoned by its inventor in the second edition of his Mecanique; while his scruples as to the admission into analytical investigations of the idea of limits or vanishing ratios have long since been laid aside as idle. Nowhere, however, were the keenness and clearness of his intellect more conspicuous than in this brilh'ant effort, which, if it failed in its immediate object, was highly effective in secondary results. His purely abstract mode of regarding functions, apart from any mechanical or geometrical considerations, led the way to a new and sharply characterized development of the higher analysis in the hands of A. Cauchy, C. G. Jacobi, and others.7 The Thtorie des fonctions is divided into three parts, of which the first explains the general doctrine of functions, the second deals with its * Notice by J. Delambre, (Euvres de Lagrange, i. p. xlii. 6 (Euvres, lii. 441. * Theorie des fonctions, p. 6. 7 H. Suter, Geschichte der math. Wiss. ii. 222-223. LAGRANGE 77 application to geometry, and the third with its bearings on mechanics. On the establishment of the Institute, Lagrange was placec at the head of the section of geometry; he was one of the first members of the Bureau des Longitudes; and his name appeared in 1791 on the list of foreign members of the Royal Society. On the annexation of Piedmont to France in 1796, a touching compliment was paid to him in the person of his aged father. By direction of Talleyrand, then minister for foreign affairs, the French commissary repaired in state to the old man's residence in Turin, to congratulate him on the merits of his son, whom they declared " to have done honour to mankind by his genius, and whom Piedmont was proud to have produced, and France to possess." Bonaparte, who styled him " la haute pyramide des sciences mathematiques," loaded him with personal favours and official distinctions. He "became a senator, a count of the empire, a grand officer of the legion of honour, and just before his death received the grand cross of the order of reunion. The preparation of a new edition of his Mecanique exhausted his already failing powers. Frequent fainting fits gave presage of a speedy end, and on the 8th of April 1813 he had a final interview with his friends B. Lacepede, G. Monge and J. A. Chaptal. He spoke with the utmost calm of his approaching death; " c'est une derniere fonction," he said, " qui n'est ni penible ni desagreable." He nevertheless looked forward to a future meeting, when he promised to complete the autobio- graphical details which weakness obliged him to interrupt. They remained untold, for he died two days later on the loth of April, and was buried in the Pantheon, the funeral oration being pronounced by Laplace and Lacepede. Amongst the brilliant group of mathematicians whose magnani- mous rivalry contributed to accomplish the task of generalization and deduction reserved for the l8th century, Lagrange occupies an eminent place. It is indeed by no means easy to distinguish and apportion the respective merits of the competitors. This is especially the case between Lagrange and Euler on the one side, and between Lagrange and Laplace on the other. The calculus of variations lay undeveloped in Euler's mode of treating isoperimetrical problems. The fruitful method, again, of the variation of elements was intro- duced by Euler, but adopted and perfected by Lagrange, who first recognized its supreme importance to the analytical investigation of the planetary movements. Finally, of the grand scries of researches by which the stability of the solar system was ascertained, the glory must be almost equally divided between Lagrange and Laplace. In analytical invention, and mastery over the calculus, the Turin mathematician was admittedly unrivalled. Laplace owned that he had despaired of effecting the integration of the differential equations relative to secular inequalities until Lagrange showed him the way. But Laplace unquestionably surpassed his rival in practical sagacity and the intuition of physical truth. Lagrange saw in the problems of nature so many occasions for analytical triumphs; Laplace re- garded analytical triumphs as the means of solving the problems of nature. _ One mind seemed the complement of the other; and both, united in honourable rivalry, formed an instrument of unexampled perfection for the investigation of the celestial machinery. What may be called Lagrange's first period of research into planetary perturbations extended from 1 774 to 1 784 (see AST RONOMY : History) . The notable group of treatises communicated, 1781-1784, to the Berlin Academy was designed, but did not prove to be his final contribution to the theory of the planets. After an interval of twenty-four years the subject, re-opened by S. D. Poisson in a paper read on the aoth of June 1808, was once more attacked by Lagrange with all his pristine vigour and fertility of invention. Resuming the inquiry into the invariability of mean motions, Poisson carried the approximation, with Lagrange's formulae, as far as the squares of the disturbing forces, hitherto neglected, with the same result as to the stability of the system. He had not attempted to include in his calculations the orbital variations of the disturbing bodies; but Lagrange, by the happy artifice of transferring the origin of co- ordinates from the centre of the sun to the centre of gravity of the sun and planets, obtained a simplification of the formulae, by which the same analysis was rendered equally applicable to each of the planets severally. It deserves to be recorded as one of the numerous coincidences of discovery that Laplace, on being made acquainted by Lagrange with his new method, produced analogous expressions, to which his independent researches had led him. The final achieve- ment ot Lagrange in this direction was the extension of the method oi the variation of arbitrary constants, successfully used by him in the investigation of periodical as well as of secular inequalities, to any system whatever of mutually interacting bodies.1 " Not 1 (Euvres, vi. 771. without astonishment," even to himself, regard being had to the great generality of the differential equations, he reached a result so wide as to include, as a particular case, the solution of the planetary problem recently obtained by him. He proposed to apply the same principles to the calculation of the disturbances produced in the rotation of the planets by external action on their equatorial pro- tuberances, but was anticipated by Poisson, who gave formulae for the variation of the elements of rotation strictly corresponding with those found by Lagrange for the variation of the elements of revolu- tion. The revision of the M6canique analytique was undertaken mainly for the purpose of embodying in it these new methods and final results, but was interrupted, when two-thirds completed bv the death of its author. In the advancement of almost ever)' branch of pure mathematics Lagrange took a conspicuous part. The calculus of variations is indissolubly associated with his name. In the theory of numbers he furnished solutions of many of P. Fermat's theorems, and added some of his own. In algebra he discovered the method of approxi- mating to the real roots of an equation by means of continued frac- tions, and imagined a general process of solving algebraical equations of every degree. The method indeed fails for equations of an order above the fourth, because it then involves the solution of an equa- tion of higher dimensions than they proposed. Yet it possesses the great and characteristic merit of generalizing the solutions of his predecessors, exhibiting them all as modifications of one principle. To Lagrange, perhaps more than to any other, the theory of differ- ential equations is indebted for its position as a science, rather than a collection of ingenious artifices for the solution of particular problems. To the calculus of finite differences he contributed the beautiful formula of interpolation which bears his name ; although substantially the same result seems to have been previously obtained by Euler. But it was in the application to mechanical questions of the instrument which he thus helped to form that his singular merit lay. It was his just boast to have transformed mechanics (defined by him as a " geometry of four dimensions ") into a branch of analysis, and to have exhibited the so-called mechanical " principles " as simple results of the calculus. The method of " generalized co- ordinates," as it is now called, by which he attained this result, is the most brilliant achievement of the analytical method. Instead of following the motion of each individual part of a material system, he showed that, if we determine its configuration by a sufficient number of variables, whose number is that of the degrees of freedom to move (there being as many equations as the system has degrees of freedom), the kinetic and potential energies of the system can be expressed in terms of these, and the differential equations of motion thence deduced by simple differentiation. Besides this most im- portant contribution to the general fabric of dynamical science, we owe to Lagrange several minor theorems of great elegance, — among which may be mentioned his theorem that the kinetic energy im- parted by given impulses to a material system under given con- straints is a maximum. To this entire branch of knowledge, in short, he successfully imparted that character of generality and com- pleteness towards which his labours invariably tended. His share in the gigantic task of verifying the Newtonian theory would alone suffice to immortalize his name. His co-operation was indeed more indispensable than at first sight appears. Much as was done by him, what was done through him was still more import- ant. Some of his brilliant rival's most conspicuous discoveries were implicitly contained in his writings, and wanted but one step for completion. But that one step, from the abstract to the concrete, was precisely that which the character of Lagrange's mind indisposed him to make. As notable instances may be mentioned Laplace's discoveries relating to the velocity of sound and the secular accelera- tion of the moon, both of which were led close up to by Lagrange's analytical demonstrations. In the Berlin Memoirs for 1778 and 1783 Lagrange gave the first direct and theoretically perfect method of determining cometary orbits. It has not indeed proved practically available; but his system of calculating cometary perturbations by means of " mechanical quadratures " has formed the starting- point of all subsequent researches on the subject. His determina- tion2 of maximum and minimum values for the slowly varying planetary eccentricities was the earliest attempt to deal with the problem. Without a more accurate knowledge of the masses of the planets than was then possessed a satisfactory solution was im- possible; but the upper limits assigned by him agreed closely with those obtained later by U. J. J. Leverrier.3 As a mathematical writer Lagrange has perhaps never been surpassed. His treatises are not only storehouses of ingenious methods, but models of sym- metrical form. The clearness, elegance and originality of his mode jf presentation give lucidity to what is obscure, novelty to what is amiliar, and simplicity to what is abstruse. His genius was one of jeneralization and abstraction; and the aspirations of the time :owards unity and perfection received, by his serene labours, an embodiment denied to them in the troubled world of politics. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Lagrange's numerous scattered memoirs have jeen collected and published in seven 4to volumes, under the title 2 (Euvres, v. 211 seq. 8 Grant, History of Physical Astronomy, p. 117. LAGRANGE-CHANCEL— LA GUAIRA CEuvres de Lagrange, publiees sous les soins de M. J. A. Serret (Paris, 1867-1877). The first, second and third sections of this publication comprise respectively the papers communicated by him to the Academies of Sciences of Turin, Berlin and Paris; the fourth in- cludes his miscellaneous contributions to other scientific collections, together with his additions to Euler's Algebra, and his Lemons elementaires at the Ecole Normale in 1795. Delambre's notice of his life, extracted from the Mem. de I'Instilut, 1812, is prefixed to the first volume. Besides the separate works already named are Resolu- tion des equations numeriques (1798, and ed., 1808, 3rd ed., 1826), and Lemons sur k calcul des'fonctions (1805, 2nd ed., 1806), designed as a commentary and supplement to the first part of the Theorie des fonctions. The first volume of the enlarged edition of the Mecanique appeared in 181 1, the second, of which the revision was completed by MM Prony and Binet, in 1815. A third edition, in 2 vols., 410, was issued in 1853-1855, and a second of the Theorie des fonctions in 1813. See also J. J. Virey and Potel, Precis historique (1813); Th. Thomson's Annals of Philosophy (1813-1820), vols. ii. and iv. ; H. Suter, Geschichte der math. Wiss. (1873); E. Diihring, Kritische Gesch. der allgemeinen Principien der Mechanik (1877, 2nd ed.); A. Gautier, Essai historique sur le probleme des trois corps (1817); R. Grant, History of Physical Astronomy, &c.; Pietro Cossali, Eloge (Padua, 1813); L. Martini, Cenni biogrdfici (1840); Moniteur du 26 Fevrier (1814); W. Whewell, Hist, of the Inductive Sciences, ii. passim; J. Clerk Maxwell, Electricity and Magnetism, ii. 184; A. Berry, Short Hist, of Astr., p. 313; J. S. Bailly, Hist.de I'astr. moderne, iii. 156, 185, 232; J. C. Poggendorff, Biog. Lit. Hand- worterbuch. (A. M. C.) LAGRANGE-CHANCEL [CHANCEL], FRANCOIS JOSEPH (1677-1758), French dramatist and satirist, was born at Perigueux on the ist of January 1677. He was an extremely precocious boy, and at Bordeaux, where he was educated, he produced a play when he was nine years old. Five years later his mother took him to Paris, where he found a patron in the princesse de Conti, to whom he dedicated his tragedy of Jugurtha or, as it was called later, Adherbal (1694). Racine had given him advice and was present at the first performance, although he had long lived in complete retirement. Other plays followed: Oreste et Pylade (1697), Meleagre (1699), Amasis (1701), and Ino et Meli- cefte (1715). Lagrange hardly realized the high hopes raised by his precocity, although his only serious rival on the tragic stage was Campistron, but he obtained high favour at court, becoming mattre d'hotel to the duchess of Orleans. This prosperity ended with the publication in 1720 of his Philippiques, odes accusing the regent, Philip, duke of Orleans, of the most odious crimes. He might have escaped the consequences of this libel but for the bitter enmity of a former patron, the due de La Force. Lagrange found sanctuary at Avignon, but was enticed beyond the boundary of the papal jurisdiction, when he was arrested and sent as a prisoner to the isles of Sainte Marguerite. He contrived, however, to escape to Sardinia and thence to Spain and Holland, where he produced his fourth and fifth Philippiques. On the death of the Regent he was able to return to France. He was part author of a Histoire de Perigord left unfinished, and made a further contribution to history, or perhaps, more exactly, to romance, in a letter to filie Freron on the identity of the Man with the Iron Mask. Lagrange's family life was embittered by a long lawsuit against his son. He died at Perigueux at the end of December 1758. He had collected his own works (5 vols., 1758) some months before his death. His most famous work, the Philippiques, was edited by M. de Lescure in 1858, and a sixth philippic by M. Diancourt in 1886. LA GRANJA, or SAN ILDEFONSO, a summer palace of the kings of Spain; on the south-eastern border of the province of Segovia, and on the western slopes of the Sierra de Guadarrama, 7 m. by road S.E. of the city of Segovia. The royal estate is 3905 ft. above sea-level. The scenery of this region, especially in the gorge of the river Lozoya, with its granite rocks, its dense forest of pines, firs and birches, and its red-tiled farms, more nearly resembles the highlands of northern Europe than any other part of Spain. La Granja has an almost alpine climate, with a clear, cool atmosphere and abundant sunshine. Above the palace rise the wooded summits of the Guadarrama, culminat- ing in the peak of Penalara (7891 ft.); in front of it the wide plains of Segovia extend northwards. The village of San Ildefonso, the oldest part of the estate, was founded in 1450 by Henry IV., who built a hunting lodge and chapel here. In 1477 the chapel was presented by Ferdinand and Isabella to the monks of the Parral, a neighbouring Hieronymite monastery. The original granja (i.e. grange or farm), established by the monks, was purchased in 1719 by Philip V., after the destruction of his summer palace at Valsain, the ancient Vallis Sapinarum, 2 m. S. Philip determined to convert the estate into a second Versailles. The palace was built between 1721 and 1723. Its facade is fronted by a colonnade in which the pillars reach to the roof. The state apartments contain some valuable iSth-century furniture, but the famous collection of sculptures was removed to Madrid in 1836, and is preserved there in the Museo del Prado. At La Granja it is represented by facsimiles in plaster. The collegiate church adjoining the palace dates from 1724, and con- tains the tombs of Philip V. and his consort Isabella Farnese. An artificial lake called El Mar, 4095 ft. above sea-level, irrigates the gardens, which are imitated from those of Versailles, and supplies water for the fountains. These, despite the anti- quated and sometimes tasteless style of their ornamentation, are probably the finest in the world; it is noteworthy that, owing to the high level of the lake, no pumps or other mechanism are needed to supply pressure. There are twenty-six fountains besides lakes and waterfalls. Among the most remarkable are the group of " Perseus, Andromeda and the Sea-Monster," which sends up a jet of water no ft. high, the " Fame," which reaches 125 ft., and the very elaborate " Baths of Diana." It is of the last that Philip V. is said to have remarked, " It has cost me three millions and amused me three minutes." Most of the fountains were made by order of Queen Isabella in 1727, during the king's absence. The glass factory of San Ildefonso was founded by Charles III. It was in La Granja that Philip V. resigned the crown to his son in January 1724, to resume it after his son's death seven months later; that the treaties of 1777, 1778, 1796 and 1800 were signed (see SPAIN: History) ; that Ferdinand VII. summoned Don Carlos to the throne in 1832, but was induced to alter the succession in favour of his own infant daughter Isabella, thus involving Spain in civil war; and that in 1836 a military revolt compelled the Queen- regent Christina to restore the constitution of 1812. LAGRENtE, LOUIS JEAN FRANC.OIS (1724-1805), French painter, was a pupil of Carle Vanloo. Born at Paris on the 3Oth of December 1724, in 1755 he became a member of the Royal Academy, presenting as his diploma picture the " Rape of Deianira " (Louvre). He visited St Petersburg at the call of the empress Elizabeth, and on his return was named in 1781 director of the French Academy at Rome; he there painted the " Indian Widow," one of his best-known works. In 1804 Napoleon conferred on him the cross of the legion of honour, and on the 1 9th of June 1805 he died in the Louvre, of which he was honorary keeper. LA GUAIRA, or LA GUAYRA (sometimes LAGUAIRA, &c.), a town and port of Venezuela, in the Federal district, 23 m. by rail and 6j m. in a direct line N. of Caracas. Pop. (1904, estimate) 14,000. It is situated between a precipitous mountain side and a broad, semicircular indentation of the coast line which forms the roadstead of the port. The anchorage was long con- sidered one of the most dangerous on the Caribbean coast, and landing was attended with much danger. The harbour has been improved by the construction of a concrete breakwater running out from the eastern shore line 2044 ft., built up from an extreme depth of 46 ft. or from an average depth of 295 ft., and rising 195 ft. above sea-level. This encloses an area of 765 acres, having an average depth of nearly 28 ft. The harbour is further improved by 1870 ft. of concrete quays and 1397 ft. of retaining sea-wall, with several piers (three covered) projecting into deep water. These works were executed by a British company, known as the La Guaira Harbour Corporation, Ltd., and were completed in 1891 at a cost of about one million sterling. The concession is for 99 years and the additional charges which the company is authorized to impose are necessarily heavy. These improvements and the restrictions placed upon the direct trade between West Indian ports and the Orinoco have greatly increased the foreign trade of La Guaira, which in 1903 was 52% of that of the four puertos habilitados of the republic. The shipping LA GUERONNIERE— LA HARPE 79 entries of that year numbered 217, of which 203 entered with general cargo and 14 with coal exclusively. The exports included 152,625 bags coffee, 114,947 bags cacao and 152,891 hides. For 1905-1906 the imports at La Guaira were valued officially at £767,365 and the exports at £663,708. The city stands on sloping ground stretching along the circular coast line with a varying width of 130 to 330 ft. and having the appearance of an amphitheatre. The port improvements added 18 acres of reclaimed land to La Guaira 's area, and the removal of old shore batteries likewise increased its available breadth. In this narrow space is built the town, composed in great part of small, roughly- made cabins, and narrow, badly-paved streets, but with good business houses on its principal street. From the mountain side, reddish-brown in colour and bare of vegetation, the solar heat is reflected with tremendous force, the mean annual temperature being 84° F. The seaside towns of 'Maiquetia, 2 m. W. and Macuto, 3 m. E., which have better climatic and sanitary conditions and are connected by a narrow-gauge railway, are the residences of many of the wealthier merchants of La Guaira. La Guaira was founded in 1588, was sacked by filibusters under Amias Preston in 1595, and by the French under Gram- mont in 1680, was destroyed by the great earthquake of the 26th of March 1812, and suffered severely in the war for independence. In 1903, pending the settlement of claims of Great Britain, Germany and Italy against Venezuela, La Guaira was blockaded by a British-German-Italian fleet. LA GUERONNIERE, LOUIS ETIENNE ARTHUR DUBREUIL HELION, VICOMTE DE (1816-1875), French politician, was the scion of a noble Poitevin family. Although by birth and educa- tion attached to Legitimist principles, he became closely associated with Lamartine, to whose organ, Le Bien Public, he was a principal contributor. After the stoppage of this paper he wrote for La Presse, and in 1850 edited Le Pays. A character sketch of Louis Napoleon in this journal caused differences with Lamartine, and La Gueronniere became more and more closely identified with the policy of the prince president. Under the Empire he was a member of the council of state (1853), senator (1861), ambassador at Brussels (1868), and at Constantinople (1870), and grand officer of the legion of honour (1866). He died in Paris on the 23rd of December 1875. Besides his Eludes et portraits politiques contemporains (1856) his most important works are those on the foreign policy of the Empire: La France, Rome et Italic (1851), L' Abandon de Rome (1862), De la politique inter ieure et exterieure de la France (1862). His elder brother, ALFRED DUBREUIL HELION, Comte de La Gueronniere (1810-1884), who remained faithful to the Legitimist party, was also a well-known writer and journalist. He was con- sistent in his opposition to the July Monarchy and the Empire, but in a series of books on the crisis of 1870-1871 showed a more favourable attitude to the Republic. LAGUERRE, JEAN HENRI GEORGES (1858- ), French lawyer and politician, was born in Paris on the 24th of June 1858. Called to the bar in 1879, he distinguished himself by brilliant pleadings in favour of socialist and anarchist leaders, defending Prince Kropotkine at Lyons in 1883, Louise Michel in the same year; and in 1886, with A. Millerand as colleague he defended Ernest Roche and Due Quercy, the instigators of the Decazeville strike. His strictures on the procureur de la Republique on this occasion being declared libellous he was sus- pended for six months and in 1890 he again incurred suspension for an attack on the attorney-general, Quesnay de Beaurepaire. He also pleaded in the greatest criminal cases of his time, though from 1893 onwards exclusively in the provinces, his exclusion from the Parisian bar having been secured on the pretext of his connexion with La Presse. He entered the Chamber of Deputies for Apt in 1883 as a representative of the extreme revisionist programme, and was one of the leaders of the Boulangist agitation. He had formerly written for Georges Clemenceau's organ La Justice, but when Clemenceau refused to impose any shibboleth on the radical party he became director of La Presse. He rallied to the republican party in May 1891, .some months before General Boulanger's suicide. He was not re-elected to the Chamber in 1893. Laguerre was an excellent lecturer on the revolutionary period of French history, concerning which he had collected many valuable and rare documents. He interested himself in the fate of the " Little Dauphin " (Louis XVII.) , whose supposed remains, buried at Ste Marguerite, he proved to be those of a boy of fourteen. LAGUNA, or LA LACUNA, an episcopal city and formerly the capital of the island of Teneriffe, in the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands. Pop. (1900) 13,074. Laguna is 4 m. N. by W. of Santa Cruz, in a plain 1800 ft. above sea-level, sur- rounded by mountains. Snow is unknown here, and the mean annual temperature exceeds 63° F.; but the rainfall is very heavy, and in winter the plain is sometimes flooded. The humidity of the atmosphere, combined with the warm climate and rich volcanic soil, renders the district exceptionally fertile; wheat, wine and tobacco, oranges and other fruits, are produced in abundance. Laguna is the favourite summer residence of the wealthier inhabitants of Santa Cruz. Besides the cathedral, the city contains several picturesque convents, now secularized, a fine modern town hall, hospitals, a large public library and some ancient palaces of the Spanish nobility. Even the modern buildings have often an appearance of antiquity, owing to the decay caused by damp, and the luxuriant growth of climbing plants. LA HARPE, JEAN FRANCOIS DE (1730-1803), French critic, was born in Paris of poor parents on the 2oth of November 1 739. His father, who signed himself Delharpe, was a descendant of a noble family originally of Vaud. Left an orphan at the age of nine, La Harpe was taken care of for six months by the sisters of charity, and his education was provided for by a schclaiship at the College d'Harcourt. When nineteen he was imprisoned for some months on the charge of having written a satire against his protectors at the college. La Harpe always denied his guilt, but this culminating misfortune of an early life spent entirely in the position of a dependent had possibly something to do with the bitterness he evinced in later life. In 1763 his tragedy of Warwick was played before the court. This, his first play, was perhaps the best he ever wrote. The many authors whom he afterwards offended were always able to observe that the critic's own plays did not reach the standard of excellence he set up. Timoleon (1764), Pharamond (1765) and Guslave Wasa (1766) were failures. Melanie was a better play, but was never represented. The success of Warwick led to a correspondence with Voltaire, who conceived a high opinion of La Harpe, even allowing him to correct his verses. In 1764 La Harpe married the daughter of a coffee house keeper. This marriage, which proved very unhappy and was dissolved, did not improve his posi ion. They were very poor, and for some time were guests of Voltaire at Ferney. When, after Voltaire's death, La Harpe in his praise of the philosopher ventured on some reasonable, but rather ill-timed, criticism of individual works, he was accused of treachery to one who had been his constant friend. In 1768 he returned from Ferney to Paris, where he began to write for the Mercure. He was a born fightei and had small mercy on the authors whcse work he handled. But he was himself violently attacked, and suffered under many epigrams, especially those of Lebrun- Pindare. No more striking proof of the general hostility can be given than his reception (1776) at the Academy, which Sainte- Beuve calls his " execution." Marmontel, who received him, used the occasion to eulogize La Harpe's predecessor, Charles Pierre Colardeau, especially for his pacific, modest and indulgent disposition. The speech was punctuated by the applause of the audience, who chose to regard it as a series of sarcasms on the new member. Eventually La Harpe was compelled to resign from the Mercure, which he had edited from 1770. On the stage he produced Les Barmecides (1778), Philoctete, Jeanne de Naples (1781), Les Brames (1783), Ccriolan (1784), Virginie (1786). In 1786 he began a course of literature at the newly- established Lycee. In these lectures, published as the Cows de literature ancienne et moderne, La Harpe is at his best, for he found a standpoint more or less independent of contemporary polemics. He is said to be inexact in dealing with the ancients, 8o LAHIRE— LA HOGUE, BATTLE OF and he had only a superficial knowledge of the middle ages, but he is excellent in his analysis of 1 7th-century writers. Sainte-Beuve found in him the best critic of the French school of tragedy, which reached its perfection in Racine. La Harpe was a disciple of the " philosophes " ; he supported the extreme party through the excesses of 179-2 and 1793. In 1793 he edited the Mercure de France which adhered blindly to the revolutionary leaders. But in April 1794 he was nevertheless seized as a " suspect." In prison he underwent a spiritual crisis which he described in convincing language, and he emerged an ardent Catholic and a reactionist in politics. When he resumed his chair at the Lycee, he attacked his former friends in politics and literature. He was imprudent enough to begin the publication (1801-1807) of his Correspondence litteraire (1774-1791) with the grand -duke, afterwards the emperor Paul of Russia. In these letters he surpassed the brutalities of the Mercure. He contracted a second marriage, which was dissolved after a few weeks by his wife. He died on the nth of February 1803 in Paris, leaving in his will an incongruous exhortation to his fellow countrymen to maintain peace and concord. Among his posthumous works was a Prophetic de Cazoite which Sainte-Beuve pronounces his best work. It is a sombre description of a dinner-party of notables long before the Revolution, when Jacques Cazotte is made to prophesy the frightful fates awaiting the various individuals of the company. Among his works not already mentioned are: — Commentaire sur Racine (1795-1796), published in 1807 ; Commentaire sur le theatre de Voltaire of earlier date (published posthumously in 1814), and an epic poem La Religion (1814). His Cours de literature has been often reprinted. To the edition of 1825—1826 is prefixed a notice by Pierre Daunou. See also Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. v. ; G. Peignot, Recherches historiques, bibliographiques et litt&raires . . . sur La Harpe (1820). LAHIRE, LAURENT DE (1606-1656), French painter, was born at Paris on the 27th of February 1606. He became a pupil of Lallemand, studied the works of Primaticcio at Fontaine- bleau, but never visited Italy, and belongs wholly to that transi- tion period which preceded the school of Simon Vouet. His picture of Nicolas V. opening the crypt in which he discovers the corpse of St Francis of Assisi standing (Louvre) was executed in 1630 for the Capuchins of the Marais; it shows a gravity and sobriety of character which marked Lahire's best work, and seems not to have been without influence on Le Sueur. The Louvre contains eight other works, and paintings by Lahire are in the museums of Strasburg, Rouen and Le Mans. His drawings, of which the British Museum possesses a fine example, " Pre- sentation of the Virgin in the Temple," are treated as seriously as his paintings, and sometimes show simplicity and dignity of effect. The example of the Capuchins, for whom he executed several other works in Paris, Rouen and Fecamp, was followed by the goldsmiths' company, for whom he produced in 1635 " St Peter healing the Sick " (Louvre) and the " Conversion of St Paul " in 1637. In 1646, with eleven other artists, he founded the French Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. Richelieu called Lahire to the Palais Royal; Chancellor Seguier, Tallemant de Reaux and many others entrusted him with important works of decoration; for the Gobelins he designed a series of large compositions. Lahire painted also a great number of portraits, and in 1654 united in one work for the town-hall of Paris those of the principal dignitaries of the municipality. He died on the 28th of December 1656. LAHN, a river of Germany, a right-bank tributary of the Rhine. Its source is on the Jagdberg, a summit of the Rothaar Mountains, in the cellar of a house (Lahnhof), at an elevation of 1975 ft. It flows at first eastward and then southward to Giessen, then turns south-westward and with a winding course reaches the Rhine between the towns of Oberlahnstein and Niederlahnstein. Its valley, the lower part of which divides the Taunus hills from the Westerwald, is of ten very narrow and picturesque; among the towns and sites of interest on its banks are Marburg and Giessen with their universities, Wetzlarwith its cathedral, Runkel with its castle, Limburg with its cathedral, the castles of Schaumburg, Balduinstein, Laurenburg, Langenau, Burgstein and Nassau, and the well-known health resort of Ems. The Lahn is about 135 m. long; it is navigable from its mouth to Giessen, and is partly canalized. A railway follows the valley practically throughout. In 1796 there were here several en- counters between the French under General Jourdan and the troops of the archduke Johan, which resulted in the retreat of the French across the Rhine. LAHNDA (properly Lahnda or Lahinda, western, or Lahnde-di boll, the language of the West), an Indo-Aryan language spoken in the western Punjab. In 1901 the number of speakers was 3,337,91 7. Its eastern boundary is very indefinite as the language gradually merges into the Panjabi immediately to the east, but it is conventionally taken as the river Chenab from the Kashmir frontier to the town of Ramnagar, and thence as a straight line to the south-west corner of the district of Montgomery. Lahnda is also spoken in the north of the state of Bahawalpur and of the province of Sind, in which latter locality it is known as Siraiki. Its western boundary is, roughly speaking, the river Indus, across which the language of the Afghan population is Pashto (Pushtu), while the Hindu settlers still speak Lahnda. In the Derajat, however, Lahnda is the principal language of all classes in the plains west of the river. Lahnda is also known as Western Panjabi and as Jatki, or the language of the Jats, who form the bulk of the population whose mother-tongue it is. In the Derajat it is called Hindko or the language of Hindus. In 1819 the Serampur missionaries published a Lahnda version of the New Testament. They called the language Uchchi, from the important town of Uch near the confluence of the Jhelam and the Chenab. This name is commonly met with in old writings. It has numerous dialects, which fall into two main groups, a northern and a southern, the speakers of which are separated by the Salt Range. The principal varieties of the northern group are Hindki (the same in meaning as Hindko) and Pothwarl. In the southern group the most important are KhetranI, Multani, and the dialect of Shahpur. The language possesses no literature. Lahnda belongs to the north-western group of the outer band of Indo-Aryan languages (q.v.), the other members being Kashmiri (q.v.) and Sindhi, with both of which it is closely connected. See SINDHI ; also HINDOSTANI. (G. A. GR.) LA HOGUE, BATTLE OF, the name now given to a series of encounters which took place from the igth to the 23rd (O.S.) of May 1692, between an allied British and Dutch fleet and a French force, on the northern and eastern sides of the Cotentin in Normandy. A body of French troops, and a number of Jacobite exiles, had been collected in the Cotentin. The government of Louis XIV. prepared a naval armament to cover their passage across the Channel. This force was to have been composed of the French ships at Brest commanded by the count of Tourville, and of a squadron which was to have joined him from Toulon. But the Toulon ships were scattered by a gale, and the combination was not effected. The count of Tourville, who had put to sea to meet them, had with him only 45 or 47 ships of the line. Yet when the reinforcement failed to join him, he steered up Channel to meet the allies, who were known to be in strength. On the isth of May the British fleet of 63 sail of the line, under command of Edward Russell, after- wards earl of Orford, was joined at St Helens by the Dutch squadron of 36 sail under Admiral van Allemonde. The apparent rashness of the French admiral in seeking an encounter with very superior numbers is explained by the existence of a general belief that many British captains were discontented, and would pass over from the service of the government established by the Revolution of 1688 to their exiled king, James II. It is said that Tourville had orders from Louis XIV. to attack in any case, but the story is of doubtful authority. The British government, aware of the Jacobite intrigues in its fleet, and of the prevalence of discontent, took the bold course of appealing to the loyalty and patriotism of its officers. At a meeting of the flag-officers on board the " Britannia," Russell's flag-ship, on the isth of May, they protested their loyalty, and the whole allied fleet put to sea on the i8th. On the igth of May, when Cape Barfleur, the LAHORE 81 north-eastern point of the Cotentin, was 21 m. S.W. of them, they sighted Tourville, who was then 20 m. to the north of Cape La Hague, the north-western extremity of the peninsula, which must not be confounded with La Houque, or La Hogue, the place at which the fighting ended. The allies were formed in a line from S.S.W. to N.N.E. heading towards the English coast, the Dutch forming the White or van division, while the Red or centre division under Russell, and the Blue or rear Bunder Sir John Ashby, were wholly composed of British ships. The wind was from the S.W. and the weather hazy. Tourville bore down and attacked about mid-day, directing his main assault on the centre of the allies, but telling off some ships to watch the van and rear of his enemy. As this first encounter took place off Cape Barfleur, the battle was formerly often called by the name. On the centre, where Tourville was directly opposed to Russell, the fighting was severe. The British flag-ship the " Britannia " (100), and the French, the " Soleil Royal " (100), were both completely crippled. After several hours of conflict, the French admiral, seeing himself outnumbered, and that the allies could outflank him and pass through the necessarily wide intervals in his extended line, drew off without the loss of a ship. The wind now fell and the haze became a fog. Till the 23rd, the two fleets remained off the north coast of the Cotentin, drifting west with the ebb tide or east with the flood, save when they anchored. During the night of the igth/2oth some British ships became entangled, in the fog, with the French, and drifted through them on the tide, with loss. On the 23rd both fleets were near La Hague. About half the French, under D'Amfreville, rounded the cape, and fled to St Malo through the dangerous passage known as the Race of Alderney (le Ras Blanchard). The others were unable to get round the cape before the flood tide set in, and were carried to the eastward. Tourville now trans- ferred his own flag, and left his captains free to save themselves as they best could. He left the " Soleil Royal," and sent her with two others to Cherbourg, where they were destroyed by Sir Ralph Delaval. The others now ran round Cape Barfleur, and sought refuge on the east side of the Cotentin at the anchorage of La Houque, called by the English La Hogue, where the troops destined for the invasion were encamped. Here 13 of them were burnt by Sir George Rooke, in the presence of the French generals and of the exiled king James II. From the name of the place where the last blow was struck, the battle has come to be known by the name of La Hogue. Sufficient accounts of the battle may be found in Lediard's Naval History (London, 1735), and for the French side in Tronde's Batailles navales de la France (Paris, 1867). The escape of D'Amfreville's squadron is the subject of Browning's poem " Herv6 Kiel." (D. H.) LAHORE, an ancient city of British India, the capital of the Punjab, which gives it? name to a district and division. It lies in 31° 35' N. and 74° 20' E. near the left bank of the River Ravi, 1706 ft. above the sea, and 1252 m. by rail from Calcutta. It is thus in about the same latitude as Cairo, but owing to its inland position is considerably hotter than that city, being one of the hottest places in India in the summer time. In the cold season the climate is pleasantly cool and bright. The native city'is walled, about i£ m. in length W. to E. and about f m. in breadth N. to S. Its site has been occupied from early times, and much of it stands high above the level of the surrounding country, raised on the remains of a succession of former habita- tions. Some old buildings, which have been preserved, stand now below the present surface of the ground. This is well seen in the mosque now called Masjid Niwin (or sunken) built in 1560, the mosque of Mullah Rahmat, 7 ft. below, and the Shivali, a very old Hindu temple, about 12 ft. below the surrounding ground. Hindu tradition traces the origin of Lahore to Loh or Lava, son of Rama, the hero of the Ramayana. The absence of mention of Lahore by Alexander's historians, and the fact that coins of the Graeco-Bactrian kings are not found among the ruins, lead to the belief that it was not a place of any import- ance during the earliest period of Indian history. On the other hand, Hsiian Tsang, the Chinese Buddhist, notices the city in his Itinerary (A.D. 630); and it seems probable, therefore, that Lahore first rose into prominence between the ist and 7th centuries A.D. Governed originally by a family of Chauhan Rajputs, a branch of the house of Ajmere, Lahore fell successively under the dominion of the Ghazni and Ghori sultans, who made it the capital of their Indian conquests, and adorned it with numerous buildings, almost all now in ruins. But it was under the Mogul empire that Lahore reached its greatest size and magnificence. The reigns of Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb form the golden period in the annals and architecture of the city. Akbar enlarged and repaired the fort, and surrounded the town with a wall, portions of which remain, built into the modern work of Ranjit Singh. Lahore formed the capital of the Sikh empire of that monarch. At the end of the second Sikh War, with the rest of the Punjab, it came under the British dominion. The architecture of Lahore cannot compare with that of Delhi. Jahangir in 1622-1627 erected the Khwabgah or " sleep- ing-place," a fine palace much defaced by the Sikhs but to some extent restored in modern times; the Moti Masjid or " pearl mosque " in the fort, used by Ranjit Singh and afterwards by the British as a treasure-house; and also the tomb of Anarkati, used formerly as the station church and now as a library. Shah Jahan erected a palace and other buildings near the Khwabgah, including the beautiful pavilion called the Naulakha from its cost of nine lakhs, which was inlaid with precious -stones. The mosque of Wazir Khan (1634) provides the finest example of kashi or encaustic tile work. Aurangzeb's Jama Masjid, or " great mosque," is a huge bare building, stiff in design, and lacking the detailed ornament typical of buildings at Delhi. The buildings of Ranjit Singh, especially his mausoleum, are common and meretricious in style. He was, moreover, responsible for much of the despoiling of the earlier buildings. The streets of the native city are narrow and tortuous, and are best seen from the back of an elephant. Two of the chief features of Lahore lie outside its walls at Shahdara and Shalamar Gardens respectively. Shahdara, which contains the tomb of the emperor Jahangir, lies across the Ravi some 6 m. N. of the city. It consists of a splendid marble cenotaph surrounded by a grove of trees and gardens. The Shalamar Gardens, which were laid out in A.D. 1637 by Shah Jahan, lie 6 m. E. of the city. They are somewhat neglected except on festive occasions, when the fountains are playing and the trees are lit up by lamps at night. The modern city of Lahore, which contained a population of 202,964 in 1901, may be divided into four parts: the native city, already described; the civil station or European quarter, known as Donald Town; the Anarkali bazaar, a suburb S. of the city wall; and the cantonment, formerly called Mian Mir. The main street of the civil station is a portion of the grand trunk road from Calcutta to Peshawar, locally known as the Mall. The chief modern buildings along this road, west to east, are the Lahore museum, containing a fine collection of Graeco- Buddhist sculptures, found by General Cunningham in the Yusufzai country, and arranged by Mr Lockwood Kipling, a former curator of the museum; the cathedral, begun by Bishop French, in Early English style, and consecrated in 1887; the Lawrence Gardens and Montgomery Halls, surrounded by a garden that forms the chief meeting-place of Europeans in the afternoon; and opposite this government house, the official residence of the lieutenant-governor of the Punjab; next to this is the Punjab club for military men and civilians. Three miles beyond is the Lahore cantonment, where the garrison is stationed, except a company of British infantry, which occupies the fort. It is the headquarters of the 3rd division of the northern army. Lahore is an important junction on the North- Western railway system, but has little local trade or manufacture. The chief industries are silk goods, gold and silver lace, metal work and carpets which are made in the Lahore gaol. There are also cotton mills, flour mills, an ice-factory, and several factories for mineral waters, oils, soap, leather goods, &c. Lahore is an important educational centre. Here are the Punjab University with five colleges, medical and law colleges, a central training 82 LA HOZ Y MOTA— LAIBACH college, the Aitchison Chiefs' College for the sons of native noblemen, and a number of other high schools and technical and special schools. The DISTRICT OF LAHORE has an area of 3704 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was 1,162,109, consisting chiefly of Punjabi Mahommedans with a large admixture of Hindus and Sikhs. In the north-west the district includes a large part of the barren Rechna Doab, while south of the Ravi is a desolate alluvial tract, liable to floods. The Manjha plateau, however, between the Ravi and the Beas, has been rendered fertile by the Bari Doab canal. The principal crops are wheat, pulse, millets, maize, oil-seeds and cotton. There are numerous factories for ginning and pressing cotton. Irrigation is provided by the main line of the Bari Doab canal and its branches, and by inundation- cuts from the Sutlej. The district is crossed in several directions by lines of the North- Western railway. Lahore, Kasur, Chunian and Raiwind are the chief trade centres. The DIVISION or LAHORE extends along the right bank of the Sutlej from the Himalayas to Multan. It comprises the six districts of Sialkot, Gujranwala, Montgomery, Lahore, Amritsar and Gurdaspur. Totalarea, 17,154 sq.m.;pop. (1901) 5,598,463. The commissioner for the division also exercises political control over the hill state of Chamba. The common language of the rural population and of artisans is Punjabi; while Urdu or Hindustani is spoken by the educated classes. So far from the seaboard, the range between extremes of winter and summer temperature in the sub-tropics is great. The mean temperature in the shade in June is about 92° F., in January about 50°. In midsummer the thermometer sometimes rises to 115° in the shade, and remains on some occasions as high as 105° throughout the night. In winter the morning temperature is sometimes as low as 20°. The rainfall is uncertain, ranging from 8 in. to 25, with an average of 15 in. The country as a whole is parched and arid, and greatly dependent on irrigation. LA HOZ Y MOTA, JUAN CLAUDIO DE (i63O?-i7io?), Spanish dramatist, was born in Madrid. He became a knight of Santiago in 1653, and soon afterwards succeeded his father as regidor of Burgos. In 1665 he was nominated to an important post at the Treasury, and in his later years acted as official censor of the Madrid theatres. On the i3th of August 1709 he signed his play entitled Josef, Salvador de Egiplo, and is pre- sumed to have died in the following year. Hoz is not remark- able for originality of conception, but his recasts of plays by earlier writers are distinguished by an adroitness which accounts for the esteem in which he was held by his contemporaries. El Montane.s Juan Pascal and El castigo de la miseria, reprinted in the Biblioteca de Autores Espanoles, give a just idea of his adaptable talent. LAHR, a town in the grand-duchy of Baden, on the Schutter, about 9 m. S. of Offenburg, and on the railway Dinglingen-Lahr. Pop. (1900) 13,577. One of the busiest towns in Baden, it carries on manufactures of tobacco and cigars, woollen goods, chicory, leather, pasteboard, hats and numerous other articles, has considerable trade in wine, while among its other industries are printing and lithography. Lahr first appears as a town in 1278, and after several vicissitudes it passed wholly to Baden in 1803. See Stein, Geschichte und Beschreibung der Stadt Lahr (Lahr, 1827) ; and Siitterlin, Lahr und seine Umgebung (Lahr, 1904). LAIBACH (Slovenian, Ljubljana), capital of the Austrian duchy of Carniola, 237 m. S.S.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 36,547, mostly Slovene. It is situated on the Laibach, near its influx into the Save, and consists of the town proper and eight suburbs. Laibach is an episcopal see, and possesses a cathedral in the Italian style, several beautiful churches, a town hall in Renaissance style and a castle, built in the i sth century, on the Schlossberg, an eminence which commands the town. Laibach is the principal centre of the national Slovenian movement, and it contains a Slovene theatre and several societies for the promotion of science and literature in the native tongue. The Slovenian language is in general official use, and the municipal administration is purely Slovenian. The industries include manufactures of pottery, bricks, oil, linen and woollen cloth, fire-hose and paper. Laibach is supposed to occupy the site of the ancient Emona or Aemona, founded by the emperor Augustus in 34 B.C. It was besieged by Alaric in 400, and in 451 it was desolated by the Huns. In 900 Laibach suffered much from the Magyars, who were, however, defeated there in 914. In the I2th century the town passed into the hands of the dukes of Carinthia; in 1270 it was taken by Ottocar of Bohemia; and in 1277 it came under the Habsburgs. In the early part of the 1 5th century the town was several times besieged by the Turks. The bishopric was founded in 1461. On the I7th of March 1797 and again on the 3rd of June 1809 Laibach was taken by the French, and from 1809 to 1813 it became the seat of their general government of the Illyrian provinces. From 1816 to 1849 Laibach was the capital of the kingdom of Illyria. The town is also historic- ally known from the congress of Laibach, which assembled here in 1821 (see below). Laibach suffered severely on the 1 4th of April 1895 from an earthquake. Congress or Conference of Laibach. — Before the break-up of the conference of Troppau (q.v.), it had been decided to adjourn it till the following January, and to invite the attendance of the king of Naples, Laibach being chosen as the place of meet- ing. Castlereagh, in the name of Great Britain, had cordially approved this invitation, as " implying negotiation " and there- fore as a retreat from the position taken up in the Troppau Protocol. Before leaving Troppau, however, the three autocratic powers, Russia, Austria and Prussia, had issued, on the Sth of December 1820, a circular letter, in which they reiterated the principles of the Protocol, i.e. the right and duty of the powers responsible for the peace of Europe to intervene to suppress any revolutionary movement by which they might conceive that peace to be endangered (Hertslet, No. 105). Against this view Castlereagh once more protested in a circular despatch of the i gth of January 1821, in which he clearly differentiated between the objectionable general principles advanced by the three powers, and the particular case of the unrest in Italy, the immediate concern not of Europe at large, but of Austria and of any other Italian powers which might consider themselves endangered (Hertslet, No. 107). The conference opened on the 26th of January 1821, and its constitution emphasized the divergences revealed in the above circulars. The emperors of Russia and Austria were present in person, and with them were Counts Nesselrode and Capo dTstria, Metternich and Baron Vincent; Prussia and France were represented by plenipotentiaries. But Great Britain, on the ground that she had no immediate interest in the Italian question, was represented only by Lord Stewart, the ambassador at Vienna, who was not armed with full powers, his mission being to watch the proceedings and to see that nothing was done beyond or in violation of the treaties. Of the Italian princes, Ferdinand of Naples and the duke of Modena came in person; the rest were represented by plenipotentiaries. It was soon clear that a more or less open breach between Great Britain and the other powers was inevitable, Metternich was anxious to secure an apparent unanimity of the powers to back the Austrian intervention in Naples, and every device was used to entrap the English representative into subscribing a formula which would have seemed to commit Great Britain to the principles of the other allies. When these devices failed, attempts were made unsuccessfully to exclude Lord Stewart from the conferences on the ground of defective powers. Finally he was forced to an open protest, which he caused to be inscribed on the journals, but the action of Capo d'Istria in reading to the assembled Italian ministers, who were by no means reconciled to the large claims implied in the Austrian intervention, a declara- tion in which as the result of the " intimate union established by solemn acts between all the European powers " the Russian emperor offered to the allies " the aid of his arms, should new revolutions threaten new dangers," an attempt to revive that idea of a " universal union " based on the Holy Alliance (q.v.) against which Great Britain had consistently protested. The objections of Great Britain were, however, not so much to an Austrian intervention in Naples as to the far-reaching principles by which it was sought to justify it. King Ferdinand had been invited to Laibach, according to the circular of the LAIDLAW— LAING, M. 8th of December, in order that he might be free to act as " mediator between his erring peoples and the states whose tranquillity they threatened." The cynical use he made of his " freedom " to repudiate obligations solemnly contracted is described elsewhere (see NAPLES, History). The result of this action was the Neapolitan declaration of war and the occupa- tion of Naples by Austria, with the sanction of the congress. This was preceded, on the loth of March, by the revolt of the garrison of Alessandria and the military revolution in Piedmont, which in its turn was suppressed, as a result of negotiations at Laibach, by Austrian troops. It was at Laibach, too, that, on the 1 9th of March, the emperor Alexander received the news of Ypsilanti's invasion of the Danubian principalities, which heralded the outbreak of the War of Greek Independence, and from Laibach Capo d'Istria addressed to the Greek leader the tsar's repudiation of his action. The conference closed on the i2th of May, on which date Russia, Austria and Prussia issued a declaration (Hertslet, No. 108) " to proclaim to the world the principles which guided them " in coming " to the assistance of subdued peoples," a declaration which once more affirmed the principles of the Troppau Protocol. In this lay the European significance of the Laibach conference, of which the activities had been mainly confined to Italy. The issue of the declaration without the signatures of the representatives of Great Britain and France proclaimed the disunion of the alliance, within which — to use Lord Stewart's words — there existed " a triple understanding which bound the parties to carry forward their own views in spite of any difference of opinion between them and the two great constitutional governments." No separate history of the congress exists, but innumerable refer- ences are to be found in general histories and in memoirs, correspond- ence, &c., of the time. See Sir E. Hertslet, Map of Europe (London, 1875); Castlereagh, Correspondence', Metternich, Memoirs; N. Bianchi, Storia documentata della diplomazia Europea in Italia (8 vols., Turin, 1865-1872); Gentz's correspondence (see GENTZ, F. VON). Valuable unpublished correspondence is preserved at the Record Office in the volumes marked F. O., Austria, Lord Stewart, January to February 1821, and March to September 1821. (W. A. P.) LAIDLAW, WILLIAM (1780-1845), friend and amanuensis of Sir Walter Scott, was born at Blackhouse, Selkirkshire, on the igth of November 1780, the son of a sheep farmer. After an elementary education in Peebles he returned to work upon his father's farm. James Hogg, the shepherd poet, who was employed at Blackhouse for some years, became Laidlaw's friend and appreciative critic. Together they assisted Scott by supplying material for his Border Minstrelsy, and Laidlaw, after two failures as a farmer in Midlothian and Peebleshire, became Scott's steward at Abbotsford. He also acted as Scott's amanuensis at different times, taking down a large part of The Bride of Lammermoor, The Legend of Montrose and Ivanhoe from the author's dictation. He died at Contin near Dingwall, Ross-shire, on the i8th of May 1845. Of his poetry, little is known except Lucy's Flittin' in Hogg's Forest Minstrel. LAING, ALEXANDER GORDON (1793-1826), Scottish explorer, the first European to reach Timbuktu, was born at Edinburgh on the 27th of December 1793. He was educated by his father, William Laing, a private teacher of classics, and at Edinburgh University. In 1811 he went to Barbados as clerk to his maternal uncle Colonel (afterwards General) Gabriel Gordon. Through General Sir George Beckwith, governor of Barbados, he obtained an ensigncy in the York Light Infantry. He was employed in the West Indies, and in 1822 was promoted to a company in the Royal African Corps. In that year, while with his regiment at Sierra Leone, he was sent by the governor, Sir Charles MacCarthy, to the Mandingo country, with the double object of opening up commerce and endeavouring to abolish the slave trade in that region. Later in the same year Laing visited Falaba, the capital of the Sulima country, and ascertained the source of the Rokell. He endeavoured to reach the source of the Niger, but was stopped by the natives. He was, however, enabled to fix it with approximate accuracy. He took an active part in the Ashanti War of 1823-24, and was sent home frith the despatches containing the news of the death in action of Sir Charles MacCarthy. Henry, 3rd Earl Bathurst, then secretary for the colonies, instructed Captain Laing to undertake a journey, via Tripoli and Timbuktu, to further elucidate the hydrography of the Niger basin. Laing left England in February 1825, and at Tripoli on the i4th of July following he married Emma Warring- ton, daughter of the British consul. Two days later, leaving his bride behind, he started to cross the Sahara, being accompanied by a sheikh who was subsequently accused of planning his murder. Ghadames was reached, by an indirect route, in October 1825, and in December Laing was in the Tuat territory, where he was well received by the- Tuareg. On the zoth of January 1826 he left Tuat, and made for Timbuktu across the desert of Tanezroft. Letters from him written in May and July following told of sufferings from fever and the plundering of his caravan by Tuareg, Laing being wounded in twenty-four places in the fighting. Another letter dated from Timbuktu on the 2ist of September announced his arrival in that city on the preceding i8th of August, and the insecurity of his position owing to the hostility of the Fula chieftain Bello, then ruling the city. He added that he intended leaving Timbuktu in three days' time. No further news was received from the traveller. From native information it was ascertained that he left Timbuktu on the day he had planned and was murdered on the night. of the 26th of September 1826. His papers were never recovered, though it is believed that they were secretly brought to Tripoli in 1828. In 1903 the French government placed a tablet bearing the name of the explorer and the date of his visit on the house occupied by him during his thirty-eight days' stay in Timbuktu. While in England in 1824 Laing prepared a narrative of his earlier journeys, which was published in 1825 and entitled Travels in the Timannee, Kooranko and Soolima Countries, in Western Africa. LAING, DAVID (1793-1878), Scottish antiquary, the son of William Laing, a bookseller in Edinburgh, was born in that city on the 20th of April 1793. Educated at the Canongate Grammar School, when fourteen he was apprenticed to his father. Shortly after the death of the latter in 1837, Laing was elected to the librarianship of the Signet Library, which post he retained till his death. Apart from an extraordinary general bibliographical knowledge, Laing was best known as a lifelong student of the literary and artistic history of Scotland. He published no original volumes, but contented himself with editing the works of others. Of these, the chief are — Dunbar's Works (2 vols., 1834), with a supplement added in 1865; Robert Baillie's Letters and Journals (3 vols., 1841-1842); John Knox's Works (6 vols., 1846-1864); Poems and Fables of Robert Henryson (1865); Andrew of Wyntoun's Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland (3 vols., 1872-1879); Sir David Lyndsay's Poetical Works (3 vols., 1879). Laing was for more than fifty years a member of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, and he contributed upwards of a hundred separate papers to their Proceedings. He was also for more than forty years secretary to the Bannatyne Club, many of the publications of which were edited by him. He was struck with paralysis in 1878 while in the Signet Library, and it is related that, on recovering consciousness, he looked about and asked if a proof of Wyntoun had been sent from the printers. He died a few days afterwards, on the i8th of October, in his eighty-sixth year. His library was sold by auction, and realized £16,137. To the university of Edinburgh he bequeathed his collection of MSS. See the Biographical Memoir prefixed to Select Remains of Ancient, Popular and Romance Poetry of Scotland, edited by John Small (Edinburgh, 1885); also T. G. Stevenson, Notices of David Laing with List of his Publications, &fc. (privately printed 1878). LAING, MALCOLM (1762-1818), Scottish historian, son of Robert Laing, and elder brother of Samuel Laing the elder, was born on his paternal estate on the Mainland of Orkney. Having studied at the grammar school of Kirkwall and at Edinburgh University, he was called to the Scotch bar in 1785, but devoted his time mainly to historical studies. In 1793 he completed the sixth and last volume of Robert Henry's History of Great Britain, the portion which he wrote being in its strongly 84 LAING, S.— LAISANT liberal tone at variance with the preceding part of the work; and in 1802 he published his History of Scotland from the Union of the Crowns to the Union of the Kingdoms, a work showing consider- able research. Attached to the History was a dissertation on the Cowrie conspiracy, and another on the supposed authenticity of Ossian's poems. In another dissertation, prefixed to a second and corrected edition of the History published in 1804, Laing endeavoured to prove that Mary, queen of Scots, wrote the Casket Letters, and was partly responsible for the murder of Lord Darnley. In the same year he edited the Life and Historic of King James VI., and in 1805 brought out in two volumes an edition of Ossian's poems. . Laing, who was a friend of Charles James Fox, was member of parliament for Orkney and Shetland from 1807 to 1812. He died on the 6th of November 1818. LAING, SAMUEL (1810-1897), British author and railway administrator, was born at Edinburgh on the i2th of December 1 8 10. He was the nephew of Malcolm Laing, the historian of Scotland; and his father, Samuel Laing (1780-1868), was also a well-known author, whose books on Norway and Sweden attracted much attention. Samuel Laing the younger entered St John's College, Cambridge, in 1827, and after graduating as second wrangler and Smith's prizeman, was elected a fellow, and remained at Cambridge temporarily as a coach. He was called to the bar in 1837, and became private secretary to Mr Labouchere (afterwards Lord Taunton), the president of the Board of Trade. In 1842 he was made secretary to the railway department, and retained this post till 1847. He had by then become an authority on railway working, and had been a member of the Dalhousie Railway Commission; it was at his suggestion that the " parliamentary " rate of a penny a mile was instituted. In 1848 he was appointed chairman and managing director of the London, Brighton & South Coast Railway, and his business faculty showed itself in the largely increased prosperity of the line. He also became chairman (1852) of the Crystal Palace Company, but retired from both posts in 1855. In 1852 he entered parliament as a Liberal for Wick, and after losing his seat in 1857, was re-elected in 1859, in which year he was ap- pointed financial secretary to the Treasury; in 1860 he was made finance minister in India. On returning from India, he was re-elected to parliament for Wick in 1865. He was defeated in 1868, but in 1873 he was returned for Orkney and Shetland, and retained his seat till 1885. Meanwhile he had been re- appointed chairman of the Brighton line in 1867, and continued in that post till 1894, being generally recognized as an admirable administrator. He was also chairman of the Railway Debenture Trust and the Railway Share Trust. In later life he became well known as an author, his Modern Science and Modern Thought (1885), Problems of the Future (1889) and Human Origins (1892) being widely read., not only by reason of the writer's influential position, experience of affairs and clear style, but also through their popular and at the same time well-informed treatment of the scientific problems of the day. Laing died at Sydenham on the 6th of August 1897. LAING'S [or LANG'S] NEK, a pass through the Drakensberg, South Africa, immediately north of Majuba (?.».), at an elevation of 5400 to 6000 ft. It is the lowest part of a ridge which slopes from Majuba to the Buffalo river,' and before the opening of the railway in 1891 the road over the nek was the main artery of communication between Durban and Pretoria. The railway pierces the nek by a tunnel 2213 ft. long. When the Boers rose in revolt in December 1880 they occupied Laing's Nek to oppose the entry of British reinforcements into the Transvaal. On the 28th of January 1881 a small British force endeavoured to drive the Boers from the pass, but was forced to retire. LAIRD, MACGREGOR (1808-1861), Scottish merchant, pioneer of British trade on the Niger, was born at Greenock in 1808, the younger son of William Laird, founder of the Birken- head firm of shipbuilders of that name. In 1831 Laird and certain Liverpool merchants formed a company for the commercial development of the Niger regions, the lower course of the Niger having been made known that year by Richard and John Lander. In 1832 the company despatched two small ships to the Niger, one, the " Alburkah," a paddle-wheel steamer of 55 tons designed by Laird, being the first iron vessel to make an ocean voyage. Macgregor Laird went with the expedition, which was led by Richard Lander and numbered forty-eight Europeans, of whom all but nine died from fever or, in the case of Lander, from wounds. Laird went up the Niger to the confluence of the Benue (then called the Shary or Tchadda), which he was the first white man to ascend. He did not go far up the river but formed an accurate idea as to its source and course. The expedi- tion returned to Liverpool in 1834, Laird and Surgeon R. A. K. Oldfield being the only surviving officers besides Captain (then Lieut.) William Allen, R.N., who accompanied the expedition by order of the Admiralty to survey the river. Laird and Oldfield published in 1837 in two volumes the Narrative of an Expedition into the Interior of Africa by the River Niger . . .in 1832, 1833, 1834. Commercially the expedition had been unsuccessful, but Laird had gained experience invaluable to his successors. He never returned to Africa but henceforth devoted himself largely to the development of trade with West Africa and especially to the opening up of the countries now forming the British protectorates of Nigeria. One of-his principal reasons for so doing was his belief that this method was the best means of stopping the slave trade and raising the social condition of the Africans. In 1854 he sent out at his own charges, but with the support of the British government, a small steamer, the " Pleiad," which under W. B. Baikie made so successful a voyage that Laird induced the government to sign contracts for annual trading trips by steamers specially built for navigation of the Niger and Benue. Various stations were founded on the Niger, and though government support was withdrawn after the death of Laird and Baikie, British traders continued to frequent the river, which Laird had opened up with little or no personal advantage. Laird's interests were not, however, wholly African. In 1837 he was one of the promoters of a company formed to run steamships between England and New York, and in 1838 the " Sirius," sent out by this company, was the first ship to cross the Atlantic from Europe entirely under steam. Laird died in London on the gth of January 1861. His elder brother, JOHN LAIRD (1805-1874), was one of the first to use iron in the construction of ships; in 1829 he made an iron lighter of 60 tons which was used on canals and lakes in Ireland; in 1834 he built the paddle steamer " John Randolph" for Savannah, U.S.A., stated to be the first iron ship seen in America. For the East India Company he built in 1839 the first iron vessel carrying guns and he was also the designer of the famous " Birkenhead." A Conservative in politics, he repre- sented Birkenhead in the House of Commons from 1861 to his death. LAIS, the name of two Greek courtesans, generally distin- guished as follows, (i) The elder, a native of Corinth, born c. 480 B.C., was famous for her greed and hardheartedness, which gained her the nickname of Axine (the axe). Among her lovers were the philosophers Aristippus and Diogenes, and Eubatas (or Aristoteles) of Cyrene, a famous runner. In her old age she became a drunkard. Her grave was shown in the Craneion near Corinth, surmounted by a lioness tearing a ram. (2) The younger, daughter of Timandra the mistress of Alcibiades, born at Hyccara in Sicily c. 420 B.C., taken to Corinth during the Sicilian expedition. The painter Apelles, who saw her drawing water from the fountain of Peirene, was struck by her beauty, and took her as a model. Having followed a handsome Thessalian to his native land, she was slain in the temple of Aphrodite by women who were jealous of her beauty. Many anecdotes are told of a Lai's by Athenaeus, Aelian, Pausanias, and she forms the subject of many epigrams in the Greek Anthology; but, owing to the similarity of names, there is considerable uncertainty to whom they refer. The name itself, like Phryne, was used as a general term for a courtesan. See F. Jacobs, Vermischte Schriften, iv. (1830). LAISANT, CHARLES ANNE (1841- ), French politician, was born at Nantes on the ist of November 1841, and waa educated at the§ ficole Polytechnique as a military engineer. LAI- YANG— LAKE, IST VISCOUNT He defended the fort of Issy at the siege of Paris, and served in Corsica and in Algeria in 1873. In 1876 he resigned his commission to enter the Chamber as deputy for Nantes in the republican interest, and in 1879 he became director of the Petit Parisien. For alleged libel on General Courtot de Cissey in this paper he was heavily fined. In the Chamber he spoke chiefly on army questions; and was chairman of a commission appointed to consider army legislation, resigning in 1887 on the refusal of the Chamber to sanction the abolition of exemptions of any kind. He then became an adherent of the revisionist policy of General Boulanger and a member of the League of Patriots. He was elected Boulangist deputy for the i8th Parisian arron- dissement in 1889. He did not seek re-election in 1893, but devoted himself thenceforward to mathematics, helping to make known in France the theories of Giusto Bellavitis. He was attached to the staff of the Ecole Poly technique, and in 1903- 1904 was president of the French Association for the Advance- ment of Science. In addition to his political pamphlets Pourquoi et comment je suis Boulangiste (1887) and L'Anarchie bourgeoise (1887), he published mathematical works, among them Introduction a I'etude des quart- ernions (1881) and Theorie et applications des equipollences (1887). LAI-YANG, a city in the Chinese province of Shan-tung, in 37° N., 120° 55' E., about the middle of the eastern peninsula, on the highway running south from Chi-fu to Kin-Kia or Ting- tsu harbour. It is surrounded by well-kept walls of great antiquity, and its main streets are spanned by large pailous or monumental arches, some dating from the time of the emperor Tai-ting-ti of the Yuan dynasty (1324). There are extensive suburbs both to the north and south, and the total population is estimated at 50,0x20. The so-called Ailanthus silk produced by Saturnia cynthia is woven at Lai-yang into a strong fabric; and the manufacture of the peculiar kind of wax obtained from the la-shu or wax-tree insect is largely carried on in the vicinity. LAKANAL, JOSEPH (1762-1845), French politician, was born at Serres (Ariege) on the I4thof July 1762. His name, origin- ally Lacanal, was altered to distinguish him from his Royalist brothers. He joined one of the teachihg congregations, and for fourteen years taught in their schools. When elected by his native department to the Convention in 1792 he was acting as vicar to his uncle Bernard Font (1723-1800), the constitutional bishop of Pamiers. In the Convention he held apart from the various party sections, although he voted for the death of Louis XVI. He rendered great service to the Revolution by his practical knowledge of education. He became a member of the Committee of Public Instruction early in 1793, and after carrying many useful decrees on the preservation of national monuments, on the military schools, on the reorganization of the Museum of Natural History and other matters, he brought forward on the 26th of June his Projet d'education nationale (printed at the Imprimerie Nationale), which proposed to lay the burden or primary education on the public funds, but to leave secondary education to private enterprise. Provision was also made for public festivals, and a central commission was to be entrusted with educational questions. The scheme, in the main the work of Sieyes, was refused by the Convention, who submitted the whole question to a special commission of six, which under the influence of Robespierre adopted a report by Michel le Peletier de Saint Fargeau shortly before his tragic death. Lakanal, who was a member of the commission, now began to work for the organization of higher education, and abandoning the principle of his Projet advocated the establish- ment of state-aided schools for primary, secondary and university education. In October 1793 he was sent by the Convention to the south-western departments and did not return to Paris until after the revolution of Thermidor. He now became president of the Education Committee and promptly abolished the system which had had Robespierre's support. He drew up schemes for departmental normal schools, for primary schools (reviving in substance the Projet} and central schools. He presently acquiesced in the supersession of his own system, but continued his educational reports after his election to the Council of the Five Hundred. In 1799 he was sent by the Directory to organize the defence of the four departments on the left bank of the Rhine threatened by invasion. Under the Consulate he resumed his professional work, and after Waterloo retired to America, where he became president of the university of Louisiana. He returned to France in 1834, and shortly afterwards, in spite of his advanced age, married a second time. He died in Paris on the I4th of February 1845; his widow survived till 1881. Lakanal was an original member of the Institute of France. He published in 1838 an Expose sommaire des travaux de Joseph Lakanal. His eloge at the Academy of Moral and Political Science, of which he was a member, was pronounced by the comte de Re'musat (February 16, 1845), and a Notice historique by F. A. M. Mignet was read on the 2nd of May 1857. See also notices by Emile Darnaud (Paris, 1874), " Marcus " (Paris, 1879), P. Legendre in Hpmmes de la revolution (Paris, 1882), E. Guillon, Lakanal et I'instruction publique (Paris, 1881). For details of the reports submitted by him to the government see M. Tourneux, " Histoire de I'instruction pubjique, actes et deliberations de la convention, &c." in Bibliog. de I'hist. de Paris (vol. iii., 1900) ; also A. Robert and G. Cougny, Dictionnaire des parlementaires (vol. ii., 1890). LAKE, GERARD LAKE, IST VISCOUNT (1744-1808), British general, was born on the 2 7th of July 1744. He entered the foot guards in 1758, becoming lieutenant (captain in the army) 1762, captain (lieut.-colonel) in 1776, major 1784, and lieut.- colonel in 1 792, by which time he was a general officer in the army. He served with his regiment in Germany in 1760-1762 and with a composite battalion in the Yorktown campaign of 1781. After this he was equerry to the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. In 1790 he became a major-general, and in 1793 was appointed to command the Guards Brigade in the duke of York's army in Flanders. He was in command at the brilliant affair of Lincelles, on the i8th of August 1793, and served on the continent (except for a short time when seriously ill) until April 1 794. He had now sold his lieut.-colonelcy in the guards,- and had become colonel of the 53rd foot and governor of Limerick. In 1797 he was promoted lieut.-general. In the following year the Irish rebellion broke out. Lake, who was then serving in Ireland, succeeded Sir Ralph Abercromby in command of the troops in April 1798, issued a proclamation ordering the surrender of all arms by the civil population of Ulster, and on the 2ist of June routed the rebels at Vinegar Hill (near Enniscorthy, Co. Wexford). He exercised great, but perhaps not unjustified, severity towards all rebels found in arms. Lord Cornwallis now assumed the chief command in Ireland, and in August sent Lake to oppose the French expedition which landed at Killala Bay. On the 2gth of the same month Lake arrived at Castlebar, but only in time to witness the disgraceful rout of the troops under General Hely-Hutchinson (afterwards 2nd earl of Donough- more) ; but he retrieved this disaster by compelling the surrender of the French at Ballinamuck, near Cloone, on the 8th of September. In 1799 Lake returned to England, and soon after- wards obtained the command in chief in India. He took over his duties at Calcutta in July 1801, and applied himself to the improvement of the Indian army, especially in the direction of making all arms, infantry, cavalry and artillery, more mobile and more manageable. In 1802 he was made a full general. On the outbreak of war with the Mahratta confederacy in 1803 General Lake took the field against Sindhia, and within two months defeated the Mahrattas at Coel, stormed Aligahr, took Delhi and Agra, and won the great victory of Laswari (November ist, 1803), where the power of Sindhia was completely broken, with the loss of thirty-one disciplined battah'ons, trained and officered by Frenchmen, and 426 pieces of ordnance. This defeat, followed a few days later by Major-General Arthur Wellesley's victory at Argaum, compelled Sindhia to come to terms, and a treaty with him was signed in December 1803. Operations were, however, continued against his confederate, Holkar, who, on the i7th of November 1804, was defeated by Lake at Farrukhabad. But the fortress of Bhurtpore held out against four assaults early in 1805, and Cornwallis, who succeeded Wellesley as governor-general in July of that year — -superseding Lake at the same time as commander-in-chief — determined 86 LAKE to put an end to the war. But after the death of Cornwallis in October of the same year, Lake pursued Holkar into the Punjab and compelled him to surrender at Amritsar in December 1805. Wellesley in a despatch attributed much of the success of the war to Lake's " matchless energy, ability and valour." For his services Lake received the thanks of parliament, and was rewarded by a peerage in September 1804. At the conclusion of the war he returned to England, and in 1807 he was created a viscount. He represented Aylesbury in the House of Commons from 1790 to 1802, and he also was brought into the Irish parlia- ment by the government as member for Armagh in 1799 to vote for the Union. He died in London on the 2oth of February 1808. See H. Pearse, Memoir of the Life and Services of Viscount Lake (London, 1908); G. B. Malleson, Decisive Battles of India (1883); J. Grant Duff, History of the Mahrattas (1873); short memoir in From Cromwell to Wellington, ed. Spenser Wilkinson. LAKE. Professor Forel of Switzerland, the founder of the science of limnology (Gr. Xi/ucr;, a lake), defines a lake (Lat. lacus) as a mass of still water situated in a depression of the ground, without direct communication with the sea. The term is sometimes applied to widened parts of rivers, and sometimes to bodies of water which lie along sea-coasts, even at sea-level and in direct communication with the sea. The terms pond, tarn, loch and mere are applied to smaller lakes according to size and position. Some lakes are so large that an observer cannot see low objects situated on the opposite shore, owing to the lake-surface assuming the general curvature of the earth's surface. Lakes are nearly universally distributed, but are more abundant in high than in low latitudes. They are abundant in mountainous regions, especially in those which have been recently glaciated. They are frequent along rivers which have low gradients and wide flats, where they are clearly connected with the changing channel of the river. Low lands in proximity to the sea, especially in wet climates, have numerous lakes, as, for instance, Florida. Lakes may be either fresh or salt, according to the nature of the climate, some being much more salt than the sea itself. They occur in all altitudes; Lake Titicaca in South America is 12,500 ft. above sea-level, and Yellowstone Lake in the United States is 7741 ft. above the sea; on the other hand, the surface of the Caspian Sea is 86 ft., the Sea of Tiberias 682 ft. and the Dead Sea 1292 ft. below the level of the ocean. The primary source of lake water is atmospheric precipitation, which may reach the lakes through rain, melting ice and snow, springs, rivers and immediate run-off from the land-surfaces. The surface of the earth, with which we are directly in touch, is composed of lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere, and these interpenetrate. Lakes, rivers, the water-vapour of the atmosphere and the water of hydration of the lithosphere, must all be regarded as outlying portions of the hydrosphere, which is chiefly made up of the great oceans. Lakes may be compared to oceanic islands. Just as an oceanic island presents many peculiarities in its rocks, soil, fauna and flora, due to its isolation from the larger terrestrial masses, so does a lake present peculi- arities and an individuality in its physical, chemical and biological features, owing to its position and separation from the waters of the great oceans. Origin of Lakes. — From the geological point of view, lakes may be arranged into three groups: (A) Rock- Basins, (B) Barrier- Basins and (C) Organic Basins. A. ROCK-BASINS have been formed in several ways: — 1. By slow movements of the earth's crust, during the formation of mountains; the Lake of Geneva in Switzerland and the Lake of Annecy in France are due to the subsidence or warping of part of the Alps; on the other hand, Lakes Stefanie, Rudolf Albert Nyanza, Tanganyika and Nyasa in Africa, and the Dead Sea in Asia Minor, are all believed to lie in a great rift or sunken valley. 2. By Volcanic Agencies. — Crater-lakes formed on the sites of dormant volcanoes may be from a few yards to several miles in width, have generally a circular form, and are often without visible outlet. Excellent examples of such lakes are to be seen in the pro- vince of Rome (Italy) and in the central plateau of France, where M. Dejebecque found the Lake of Issarles 329 ft. in depth. The most splendid crater-lake is found on the summit of the Cascade range of Southern Oregon (U.S.A.). This lake is 2000 ft. in depth. 3. By Subsidence due to Subterranean Channels and Caves in Lime- stone Rocks. — When the roofs of great limestone caves or underground lakes fall in, they produce at the surface what are called limestone sinks. Lakes similar to these are also found in regions abounding in rock-salt deposits; the Jura range offers many such lakes. 4. By Glacier Erosion. — A. C. Ramsay has shown that innumerable lakes of the northern hemisphere do not lie in fissures produced by underground disturbances, nor in areas of subsidence, nor in syn- clinal folds of strata, but are the results of glacial erosion. Many flat alluvial plains above gorges in Switzerland, as well as in the Highlands of Scotland, were, without doubt, what Sir Archibald Geikie calls glen-lakes, or true rock-basins, which have been filled up by sand and mud brought into them by their tributary streams. B. BARRIER-BASINS. — These may be due to the following causes :— 1. A landslip often occurs in mountainous regions, where strata, dipping towards the valley, rest on soft layers ; the hard rocks slip into the valley after heavy rains, damming back the drainage, which then forms a barrier-basin. Many small lakes high up in the Alps and Pyrenees are formed by a river being dammed back in this way. 2. By a Glacier. — In Alaska, in Scandinavia and in the Alps a glacier often bars the mouth of a tributary valley, the stream flowing therein is dammed back, and a lake is thus formed. The best-known lake of this kind is the Marjelen Lake in the Alps, near the great Aletsch Glacier. Lake Castain in Alaska is barred by the Malaspina Glacier; it is 2 or 3 m. long and I m. in width when at its highest level ; it discharges through a tunnel 9 m. in length beneath the ice- sheet. The famous parallel roads of Glen Roy in Scotland are suc- cessive terraces formed along the shores of a glacial lake during the waning glacial epoch. Lake Agassiz, which during the glacial period occupied the valley of the Red River, and of which the present Lake Winnipeg is a remnant, was formed by an ice-dam along the margin of two great ice-sheets. It is estimated to have been 700 m. in length, and to have covered an area of 110,000 sq. m., thus exceeding the total area of the five great North American lakes: Superior (31,200), Michigan (22,450), Huron with Georgian Bay (23,800), Erie (9960) and Ontario (7240). 3. By the Lateral Moraine of an Actual Glacier. — These lakes some- times occur in the Alps of Central Europe and in the Pyrenees Mountains. 4. By the Frontal Moraine of an Ancient Glacier. — The barrier in this case consists of the last moraine left by the retreating glacier. Such lakes are abundant in the northern hemisphere, especially in Scotland and the Alps. 5. By Irregular Deposition of Glacial Drift.— After the retreat of continental glaciers great masses of glacial drift are left on the land- surfaces, but, on account of the manner in which these masses were deposited, they abound in depressions that become filled with water. Often these lakes are without visible outlets, the water frequently percolating through the glacial drift. These lakes are so numerous in the north-eastern part of North America that one can trace the southern boundary of the great ice-sheet by following the southern limit of the lake-strewn region, where lakes may be counted by tens of thousands, varying from the size of a tarn to that of the great Laurentian lakes above mentioned. 6. By Sand drifted into Dunes. — It is a well-known fact that sand may travel across a country for several miles in the direction of the prevailing winds. When these sand-dunes obstruct a valley a lake may be formed. A good example of such a lake is found in Moses Lake in the state of Washington ; but the sand-dunes may also fill up or submerge river-valleys and lakes, for instance, in the Sahara, where the Shotts are like vast lakes in the early morning, and in the afternoon, when much evaporation has taken place, like vast plains of white salt. 7. By Alluvial Matter deposited by Lateral Streams. — If the current of a main river be not powerful enough to sweep away detrital matter brought down by a lateral stream, a dam is formed causing a lake. These lakes are frequently met with in the narrow valleys of the Highlands of Scotland. 8. By Flows of Lava. — Lakes of this kind are met with in volcanic regions. C. ORGANIC BASINS. — In the vast tundras that skirt the Arctic Ocean in both the old and the new world, a great number of frozen ponds and lakes are met with, surrounded by banks of vegetation. Snow-banks are generally accumulated every season at the same spots. During summer the growth of the tundra vegetation is very rapid, and the snow-drifts that last longest are surrounded by luxuriant vegetation. When such accumulations of snow finally melt, the vegetation on the place they occupied is much less than along their borders. Year after year such places become more and more depressed, comparatively to the general surface, where vegetable growth is more abundant, and thus give origin to lakes. It is well known that in coral-reef regions small bays are cut off from the ocean by the growth of corals, and thus ultimately fresh- water basins are formed. Life History of Lakes. — From the time of its formation a lake is destined to disappear. The historical period has not been long enough to enable man to have^atched the birth, life and death of any single lake of considerable size, still by studying the LAKE various stages of development a fairly good idea of the course they run can be obtained. In humid regions two processes tend to the extinction of a lake, viz. the deposition of detrital matter in the lake, and the lowering of the lake by the cutting action of the outlet stream on the barrier. These outgoing streams, however, being very pure and clear, all detrital matter having been deposited in the lake, have less eroding power than inflowing streams. One of the best examples of the action of the filling-up process is presented by Lochs Doine, Voil and Lubnaig in the Callander district of Scotland. In post-glacial times these three lochs formed, without doubt, one continuous sheet of water, which subsequently became divided into three different basins by the deposition of sediment. Loch Doine has been separated from Loch Voil by alluvial cones laid down by two opposite streams. At the head of Loch Doine there is an' alluvial flat that stretches for 15 m., formed by the Lochlarig river and its tributaries. The long stretch of alluvium that separates Loch Voil from Loch Lubnaig has been laid down by Calair Burn in Glen Buckie, by the Kirkton Burn at Balquhidder, and by various streams on both sides of Strathyre. Loch Lubnaig once extended to a point £ m. beyond its present outlet, the level of the loch being lowered about 20 ft. by the denuding action of the river Leny on its rocky barrier. In arid regions, where the rainfall is often less than 10 ins. in the year, the action of winds in the transport of sand and dust is more in evidence than that of rivers, and the effects of evapora- change of climate in the direction of aridity reduced the level of the lake below the level of the outlet, the waters became gradually salt, and the former great fresh-water lake has been reduced gradually to the relatively small Great Salt Lake of the present day. The sites of extinct salt lakes yield salt in commercial quantities. The Water of Lakes. — (a) Composition. — It is interesting to com- pare the quantity of solid matter in, and the chemical composition of, the water of fresh and salt lakes: — Tolal SolidsbyEvaporalion expressed in Grams per Litre. Great Salt Lake (Russell) . . . . 238-12 Lake of Geneva (Delebecque) . . . 0-1775 The following analysis of a sample of the water of the Great Salt Lake (Utah, U.S.A.) is given by I. C. Russell:— Grams per Litre. Probable Combination. Na - 75-825 NaCl . . 192-860 K 3-925 K2SO4 . - 8-756 Li 0-021 Li2SO4 0-166 Mg . . 4-844 MgCl2 . . • I5-044 Ca 2-424 MgSO4 . 5-216 Cl . . . I28-278 CaSO« 8-240 sqs . . I2-522 Fe2O3+Al2O 3 . 0-004 O in sulphates 2-494 SiO2 . 0-018 Fe2O3+Al2O3 0-004 Surplus SO3 0-051 SiO2 . 0-018 Bo2O3 . trace Br3 . . faint trace The following analyses of the waters of other salt lakes are given by Mr J. Y. Buchanan (Art. " Lake," Ency. Brit., 9th Ed.), an analy- sis of sea- water from the Suez Canal being added for comparison: — Caspian Sea. Suez Canal, Open. Karabugas. Ismailia. Specific Gravity .... Percentage of Salt .... 1-00907 I'll 1-09 1-01106 1-30 1-26217 28-5 1-17500 22-28 22-13 i -01800 1-73 1-03898 5-i Name of Salt. Grams of Salt per 1000 Grams of Water. Bicarbonate of Lime . 0-6804 0-2185 0-1123 0-0072 „ Iron .... 0-0053 0-0014 0-0069 „ Magnesia 0-6598 0-4031 Carbonate of Soda 5-3976 Phosphate of Lime 0-0028 0-0021 0-0029 Sulphate of Lime 1-3499 0-9004 0-7570 0-8600 . . 1-8593 Magnesia 0-9324 2-9799 3-0855 61-9350 i3-546o 0-2595 3-2231 Soda 1-7241 2-5673 Potash . . . . 0-5363 Chlor de of Sodium . 6-9008 6-2356 8-II63 83-2840 192-4100 76-5000 8-0500 40-4336 Potassium 0-2209 0-1145 0-1339 9-9560 23-3000 0-6231 Rubidium 0-0055 0-0034 0-2510 0-0265 Magnesium . 0-0003 0-6II5 129-3770 15-4610 95-6000 4-7632 Calcium . 0-5990 22-4500 Bromide of Magnesium . 0-0045 0-008 I 0-1930 2-3100 0-0779 Silica 0-0098 O-OO24 0-2400 0-0761 0-0027 Total Solid Matter 11-1463 10-8987 12-9773 284-9960 222-7730 221-2600 17-2899 51-0264 tion greater than of precipitation. Salt and bitter lakes prevail in these regions. Many salt lakes, such as the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake, are descended from fresh-water ancestors, while others, like the Caspian and Aral Seas, are isolated portions of the ocean. Lakes of the first group have usually become salt through a decrease in the rainfall of the region in which they occur. The water begins to get salt when the evaporation from the lake exceeds the inflow. The inflowing waters bring in a small amount of saline and alkaline matter, which becomes more and more concentrated as the evaporation increases. In lakes of the second group the waters were salt at the outset. If inflow exceeds evaporation they become fresher, and may ultimately become quite fresh. If the evaporation exceeds the inflow they diminish in size, and their waters become more and more salt and bitter. The first lake which occupied the basin of the Great Salt Lake of Utah appears to have been fresh, then with a change of climate to have become a salt lake. Another change of climate taking place, the level of the lake rose until it overflowed, the outlet being by the Snake river; the lake then became fresh. This expanded lake has been called Lake Bonne- ville, which covered an area of about 17,000 sq. m. Another This table embraces examples of several types of salt lakes. In the Koko-nor, Aral and open Caspian Seas we have examples of the moderately salt, non-saturated waters. In the Karabugas, a branch gulf of the Caspian, Urmia and the Dead Seas we have examples of saturated waters containing principally chlorides. Lake Van is an example of the alkaline seas which also occur in Egypt, Hungary and other countries. Their peculiarity consists in the quantity of carbonate of soda dissolved in their waters, which is collected by the inhabitants for domestic and commercial purposes. The following analyses by Dr Bourcart give an idea of the chemical composition of the water of fresh- water lakes in grams per litre: — Tanay. Bleu. Marjelen. St Gothard. SiO2 .... 0-003 0-0042 0-0014 0-0008 Fe2O3-r-Al2O3 . O-OOI2 0-0006 0-0008 trace NaCl .... 0-0017 Na2SO4 . . . O-OOII 0-0038 0-0031 0-00085 Na2CO3 . . . 0-00128 K2SO4 . . . 0-0021 0-0028 0-0044 K2CO, . . . 0-0003 0-00130 MgSO« . . . 0-006 0-0305 MgCO, . . . 0-0046 0-0158 o-oco8 0-00015 CaSO4 . . . . t CaCO, . . . 0-107 0-1189 0-006 1 0-00178 M«O .... O-OOI 88 LAKE (6) Movements and Temperature of Lake-Waters. — (i) In addition to the rise and fall of the surface-level of lakes due to rainfall and evaporation, there is a transference of water due to the action of wind which results in raising the level at the end to which the wind is blowing. In addition to the well-known progressive waves there are also stationary waves or " seiches " which are less apparent. A seiche is a standing oscillation of a lake, usually in the direction of the longest diameter, but occasionally transverse. In a motion of this kind every particle of the water of the lake oscillates syn- chronously with every other, the periods and phases being the same for all, and the orbits similar but of different dimensions and not similarly situated. Seiches were first discovered in 1730 by Fatio de Duillier, a well-known Swiss engineer, and were first systematically studied by Professor Forel in the Lake of Geneva. Large numbers of observations have been made by various observers in lakes in many parts of the world. Henry observed a fifteen-hour seiche in Lake Erie, which is 396 kilometres in length, and Endros recorded a seiche of fourteen seconds in a small pond only in metres in length. Although these waves cause periodical rising and falling of the water-level, they are generally inconspicuous, and can only be recorded by a registering apparatus, a limnograph. Standard work has been done in the study of seiches by the Lake Survey of Scot- land under the immediate direction of Professor Chrystal, who has given much attention to the hydrodynamical theories of the pheno- menon. Seiches are probably due to several factors acting together or separately, such as sudden variations of atmospheric pressure, changes in the strength or direction of the wind. Explanations such as lunar attraction and earthquakes have been shown to be un- tenable as a general cause of seiches. 2. The water temperature of lakes may change with the season from place to place and from layer to layer; these changes are brought about by insolation, by terrestrial radiation, by contract with the atmosphere, by rain, by the inflow of rivers and other factors, but the most important of all these are insolation and terrestrial radiation. Fresh water has its greatest density at a temperature of 39'2° F., so that water both above and below this temperature floats to the surface, and this physical fact largely determines the water stratification in a lake. In salt lakes the maximum density point is much lower, and does not come into play. In the tropical type of fresh-water lake the temperature is always higher than 39° F., and the temperature decreases as the depth increases. In the polar type the temperature is always lower than 39° F., and the temperature increases from the surface downwards. In the temperate type the distribution of temperature in winter resembles the polar type, and in summer the tropical type. In Loch Ness and other deep Scottish lochs the temperature in March and April is 41° to 42° F., and is then nearly uniform from top to bottom. As the sun comes north, and the mean air temperature begins to be higher than the surface temperature, the surface waters gain heat, and this heating goes on till the month of August. About this time the mean air temperature falls below the surface temperature, and the loch begins to part with its heat by radiation and conduction. The temperature of the deeper layers beyond 300 ft. is only slightly affected throughout the whole year. In the autumn the waters of the loch are divided into two compartments, the upper having a temperature from 49° to 55° F., the deeper a temperature from 41 to 45°. Between these lies the discontinuity-layer (Sprungschicht of the Germans), where there is a rapid fall of temperature within a very short distance. In August this discontinuity-layer is well marked, and lies at a depth of about 150 ft.; as the season advances this layer gradually sinks deeper, and the layer of uniform temperature above it increases in depth, and slowly loses heat, until finally the whole loch assumes a nearly uniform temperature. Many years ago Sir John Murray showed by means of temperature observations the manner in which large bodies of water were transferred from the windward to the lee- ward end of a loch, and subsequent observations seem to show that, before the discontinuity-layer makes its appearance, the currents produced by winds are distributed through the whole mass of the loch. When, however, this layer appears, the loch is divided into two current-systems, as shown in the following diagram : — Direction of Wlm! Current systems in a loch induced by wind at the surface. (After Wedderburn.) AB, Discontinuity layer. E, Secondary surface current. C, Surface current. F, Secondary return current. D, Primary return current. Another effect of the separation of the loch into two compartments by the surface of discontinuity is to render possible the temperature- seiche. The surface-current produced by the wind transfers a large quantity of warm water to the lee end of the loch, with the result that the surface of discontinuity is deeper at the lee than at the wind»ard end. When the wind ceases, a temperature-seiche is started, just as an ordinary seiche is started in a basin of water which has been tilted. This temperature-seiche has been studied experimentally and rendered visible by superimposing a layer of paraffin on a layer of water. Wedderburn estimates the quantity of heat that enters Loch Ness and is given out again during the year to be approximately sufficient to raise about 30,000 million gallons of water from freezing-point to boiling-point. Lakes thus modify the climate of the region in which they occur, both by increasing its humidity and by decreasing its range of temperature. They cool and moisten the atmosphere by evaporation during summer, and when they freeze in winter a vast amount of latent heat is liberated, and moderates the fall of temperature. Lakes act as reservoirs for water, and so tend to restrain floods, and to promote regularity of flow. They become sources of mechanical power, and as their waters are purified by allowing the sediment which enters them to settle, they become valuable sources of water-supply for towns and cities. In temperate regions small and shallow lakes are likely to freeze all over in winter, but deep lakes in similar regions do not generally freeze, owing to the fact that the low temperature of the air does not continue long enough to cool down the entire body of water to the maximum density point. Deep lakes are thus the best sources of water-supply for cities, for in summer they supply relatively cool water and in winter relatively warm water. Besides, the number of organisms in deep lakes is less than in small shallow lakes, in which there is a much higher temperature in summer, and consequently much greater organic growth. The deposits, which are formed along the shores and on the floors of lakes, depend on the geological structure and nature of the adjacent shores. Biology. — Compared with the waters of the ocean those of lakes may safely be said to contain relatively few animals and plants. Whole groups of organisms — the Echinoderms, for instance — are unrepresented. In the oceans there is a much greater uniformity in the physical and chemical conditions than obtains in lakes. In lakes the temperature varies widely. To underground lakes light does not penetrate, and in these some of the organisms may be blind, for example, the blind crayfish (Cambarus pellucidus) and the blind 'fish (Amblyopsis spelaeus) of the Kentucky caves. The majority of lakes are fresh, while some are so salt that no organisms have been found in them. The peaty matter in other lakes is so abundant that light does not penetrate to any great depth, and the humic acids in solution prevent the development of some species. Indeed, every lake has an individuality of its own, depending upon climate, size, nature of the bottom, chemical composition and connexion with other lakes. While the ocean contains many families and genera not represented in lakes, almost every genus in lakes is represented in the ocean. The vertebrates, insects and flowering plants inhabiting lakes vary much according to latitude, and are comparatively well known to zoologists and botanists. The micro-fauna and flora have only recently been studied in detail, and we cannot yet be said to know much about tropical lakes in this respect. Mr James Murray, who has studied the Scottish lakes, records in over 400 Scottish lochs 724 species (the fauna including 447 species, all invertebrates, and the flora comprising 277 species) belonging to the following groups; the list must not be regarded as in any way complete : — Fauna. Mollusca . : Hydrachnida . Tardigrada Insecta Crustacea Bryozoa . ... Worms Rotifera Gastrotricha . * . Coelenterata . Porifera Protozoa Flora. 7 species Phanerogamia . 65 species 17 Equisetaceae i 3° Selaginellaceae . i 7 Characeae . 6 78 Musci 18 . 7 Hepaticae 2 25 Florideae 2 181 Chlorophyceae . 142 2 Bacillariaceae 26 I I Myxophyceae . Peridiniaceae 10 4 91 447 277 These organisms are found along the shores, in the deep waters, and in the surface waters of the lakes. The littoral region is the most populous part of lakes; the existence of a rooted vegetation is only possible there, and this in turn supports a rich littoral fauna. The greater heat of the water along the margins also favours growth. The great majority of the species in Scottish lochs are met with in this region. Insect larvae of many kinds are found under stones or among weeds. Most of the Cladocera, and the LAKE 89 Copepoda of the genus Cyclops, and the Harpacticidae are only found in this region. Water-mites, nearly all the Rotifers, Gastrotricha, Tardigrada and Molluscs are found here, and Rhizopods are abund- ant. A large number of the littoral species in Loch Ness extends down to a depth of about 300 ft. The abyssal region, in Scottish lochs, lies, as a rule, deeper than 300 ft., and in this deep region a well-marked association of animals appears in the muds on the bottom, but none of them are peculiar to it: they all extend ^nto the littoral zone, from which they were originally derived. In Loch Ness the following sparse population was recorded : — i Mollusc: Pisidium pusillum (Gmel). 3 Crustacea: Cyclops viridis, Jurine. Candona Candida (Mull). Cypria ophthalmica, Jurine. 3 Worms : Stylodrilus gabreteae, Vejd. Oligochaete, not determined. Automolos morgiensis (Du Plessis). I Insect: Chironomus (larva). ' Infusoria: Several, ectoparasites on Pisidium and Cyclops, not determined. In addition, the following were found casually at great depths in Loch Ness: Hydra, Limnaea peregra, Proales daphnicola and Lynceus affinis. The pelagic region of the Scottish lakes is occupied by numerous microscopic organisms, belonging to the Zooplankton and Phyto- plankton. Of the former group 30 species belonging to the Crustacea, Rotifera and Protozoa were recorded in Loch Ness. Belonging to the second group 150 species were recorded, of which 120 were Desmids. Some of these species of plankton organisms are almost universal in the Scottish lochs, while others are quite local. Some of the species occur all the year through, while others have only been recorded in summer or in winter. The great development of Algae in the surface waters, called " flowering of the water " (Wasserbluthe), was observed in August in Loch Lomond; a distinct " flowering," due to Chloro- phyceae, has been observed in shallow lochs as early as July. It is most common in August and September, but has also been observed in winter. The plankton animals which are dominant or common, both over Scotland and the rest of Europe, are : — Diaptomus gracilis. Daphnia hyalina. Diaphanosoma brachyurum. Leptodora kindtii. Conochilus unicornis. Asplanchna priodonta. Polyarthra platyptera. Anuraea cochlearis. Notholca longispina. Ceratium hirundinella. Asterionella. All of these, according to Dr Lund, belong to the general plankton association of the European plain, or are even cosmopolitan. The Scottish plankton on the whole differs from the plankton of the central European plateau, and from the cosmopolitan fresh- water plankton, in the extraordinary richness of the Phytoplankton in species of Desmids, in the conspicuous arctic element among the Crustacea, in the absence or comparative rarity of the species commonest in the general European plankton. Another peculiarity is the local distribution of some of the Crustacea and many of the Desmids. The derivation of the whole lacustrine population of the Scottish lochs does not seem to present any difficulty. The abyssal forms have been traced to the littoral zone without any perceptible modi- fications. The plankton organisms are a mingling of European and arctic species. The cosmopolitan species may enter the lochs by ordinary migration. It is probable that if the whole plankton could be annihilated, it would be replaced by ordinary migration within a few years. The eggs and spores of many species can be dried up without injury, and may be carried through the air as dust from one lake to another; others, which would not bear desiccation, might be carried in mud adhering to the feet of aquatic birds and in various other ways. The arctic species may be survivors from a period when arctic conditions prevailed over a great part of Europe. What are known as " relicts " of a marine fauna have not been found in the Scottish fresh-water lochs. It is somewhat remarkable that none of the organisms living in fresh-water lochs has been observed to exhibit the phenomenon of phosphorescence, although similar organisms in the salt-water lochs a few miles distant exhibit brilliant phosphorescence. At similar depths in the sea-lochs there is usually a great abundance of life when compared with that found in fresh-water lochs. Length, Depth, Area and Volume of Lakes. — In the following table will be found the length, depth, area and volume of some of the principal lakes of the world.1 Sir John Murray estimates Divergence between certain of these figures and those quoted elsewhere in this work may be accounted for by the slightly different results arrived at by various authorities. the volume of water in the 560 Scottish lochs recently surveyed at 7 cub. m., and the approximate volume of water in all the lakes of the world at about 2000 cub. m., so that this last number is but a small fraction of the volume of the ocean, which he previously estimated at 324 million cub. m. It may be recalled that the total rainfall on the land of the globe is estimated at 29,350 cub. m., and the total discharge from the rivers of the globe at 6524 cub. m. BRITISH LAKES Length Depth Area Volume in in in in million Miles. Feet. sq. m. cub. ft. I. England — Max. Mean. Windermere . 10-50 219 78-5 5-69 12,250 Ullswater . 7-35 205 83 3-44 7,870 Wastwater 3-00 258 I34-5 I-I2 4,128 Coniston Water 5-41 184 79 1-89 4,000 Crummock Water . . 2-50 144 87-5 o-97 2,343 Ennerdale Water . . 2-40 148 62 I-I2 1-978 Bassenthwaite Water . . 3-83 7° 18 2-O6 1,023 Derwentwater 2-87 72 18 2-O6 1,010 Haweswater . 2-33 103 39-5 o-54 5«9 Buttermere 1-26 94 54-5 0-36 537 II. Wales— Llyn Cawlyd . Llyn Cwellyn . 1-62 1-20 222 122 109-1 74-1 0-18 o-35 941 713 Llyn Padarn . 2-OO 94 52-4 0-43 632 Llyn Llydaw . I'll 190 77-4 0-19 409 Llyn Peris I-IO 114 63-9 0-19 344 Llyn Dulyn 0-31 189 104-2 0-05 156 III. Scotland— Ness 24-23 754 433-02 21-78 263,162 Lomond 22-64 623 121-29 27-45 92,805 Morar . 11-68 1017 284-00 10-30 81,482 Tay 14-55 508 199-08 10-19 56,550 Awe . . 25-47 307 104-95 14-85 43,451 Maree . 13-46 367 125-30 11-03 38,539 Lochy . 9-78 531 228-95 5-91 37-726 Rannoch . 9-70 440 167-46 7-37 34-387 Shiel . . . 17-40 420 I32-73 7-56 27,986 Arkaig I2-OO 359 152-71 6-24 26,573 Earn . 6-46 287 I37-83 3-9' 14,421 T^'S • • • 5-10 436 207-37 2-41 13-907 Shin 17-22 162 51-04 8-70 12,380 Fannich 6-92 282 108-76 3-60 10,920 Assynt ' 6-36 282 101-10 3-10 8,731 8uoich 6-95 281 104-60 2-86 8-345 lass . 4-03 365 159-07 1-86 8,265 Fionn (Carn- more) 5-76 144 57-79 3-52 5,667 Laggan 7-04 174 67-68 2-97 5,601 Loyal . 4-46 217 65-21 2-55 4,628 IV. Ireland— Neagh . 17 1 02 40 153 161,000 Erne (Lower) . 24 226 43 43 62,000 Erne (Upper) . 13 89 10 15 5,000 Corrib . 27 152 30 68 59,000 Mask . . '. 10 191 52 35 55,ooo Derg . . . 24 119 30 49 47,000 EUROPEAN CONTINENTAL LAKES Length Depth Area Volume in in in in million Miles. Feet. sq. m. cub. ft. Max. Mean. Ladoga . 125 732 300 7000 43,200,000 Onega 145 740 200 3800 2 1 ,000,000 Vener . 93 292 1 08 2149 6,357-000 Geneva 45 1015 506 225 3,175,000 Vetter . . . 68 413 128 733 2,543,000 Mjosen . 57 1483 139 2,882,000 Garda 38 1124 446 143 1,766,000 Constance 42 827 295 208 1,711,000 Ochrida . 19 942 479 105 1,391,000 Maggiore 42 1 220 574 82 1,310,000 Como 30 1345 513 56 794,000 Hornafvan . 7 1391 253 93 777,ooo 9° LAKE CHARLES— LAKE DISTRICT AFRICAN LAKES Length Depth in Area in Volume in million Miles. Feet. sq. m. cub. ft. Max. Mean. Victoria Nyanza Nyasa Tanganyika . 200 35° 420 240 2580 2100 26,200 14,200 12,700 5,800,000 396,000,000 283,000,000 ASIATIC LAKES Length in Miles. Depth in Feet. Area in sq. m. Volume in million cub. ft. Aral .... Baikal . . . Balkash . . . Urmia 265 330 323 80 Max. 222 5413 33 50 Mean. 52 15 24,400 11,580 7,000 1-750 43,600,000 274,000,000 4,880,000 732,000 AMERICAN LAKES Length in Miles. Dej ir Fe th l et. Area in sq. m. Volume in million cub. ft. Superior . Huron Michigan Erie . Ontario . Titicaca . 412 263 335 240 190 I2O Max. 1008 730 870 210 738 924 Mean. 475 250 325 70 300 347 31,200 23,800 22,450 9,960 7,240 3,200 413,000,000 166,000,000 203,000,000 19,500,000 61,000,000 30,900,000 NEW ZEALAND LAKES Length in Miles De i Ft pth n et. Area in sq. m. Volume in million cub. ft. Taupo Wakatipu Manapouri . Rotorua . Waikarimoana Wairaumoana Rotoiti . . 25 49 19 7-5 7-25 5-25 10-7 Max. 534 1242 1458 120 846 375 230 Mean. 367 707 328 39 397 175 69 238-0 112-3 56-0 31-6 14-7 6-1 14-2 2,435,000 2,205,000 512,000 34,000 166,000 30,000 27,000 AUTHORITIES. — F. A. Forel, " Handbuch der Scenkunde: allge- meine Limnologie," Bibliothek geogr. Handbiicher (Stuttgart, 1901), Le Leman, monographic limnologique (3 vols., Lausanne, 1892—1901) ; A. Delebecque, Les Lacs fran$ais, text and plates (Paris, 1898); H. R. Mill, " Bathymetrical Survey of the English Lakes," Geogr. Journ. vol. vi. pp. 46 and 135 (1895); Jehu, " Bathymetrical and Geological Study of the Lakes of Snowdonia," Trans. Roy. Sac. Edin. vol. xl. p. 419 (1902); Sir John Murray and Laurence Pullar, " Bathymetrical Survey of the Freshwater Lochs of Scotland," Geogr. Journ. (1900 to 1908, re-issued in six volumes, Edinburgh, 1910); W. Halbfass, " Die Mprphometrie der europaischen Seen," Zeitschr. Gesell. Erdkunde Berlin (Jahrg. 1903, p. 592; 1904, p. 204); I. C. Russell, Lakes O. Zacharias, zu Plon " (Stuttgart) ; F. E. Bourcart, Les Lacs alpins suisses: etude kes of North America (Boston and London, 1895); s, " Forschungsberichte aus der biologischen Station chimique et physique (Geneva, 1906); (Milan, 1907). G. P. Magrini, Limnologia a- LAKE CHARLES, a city of Louisiana, U.S.A., capital of Calcasieu Parish, 30 m. from the Gulf of Mexico and about 218 m. (by rail) W. of New Orleans. Pop. (1889) 838, (1890) 3442, (1900) 6680 (2407 negroes); (1910) 11,449. It is served by the Louisiana & Texas (Southern Pacific System), the St Louis, Watkins & Gulf, the Louisiana & Pacific and the Kansas City Southern railways. The city is charmingly situated on the shore of Lake Charles, and on the Calcasieu river, which with some dredging can be made navigable for large vessels for 132 m. from the Gulf. It is a winter resort. Among the principal buildings are a Carnegie library, the city hall, the Government building, the court house, St Patrick's sanatorium, the masonic temple and the Elks' club. Lake Charles is in the prairie region of southern Louisiana, to the N. of which, covering a large part of the state, are magnificent forests of long-leaf pine, and lesser lowland | growths of oak, ash, magnolia, cypress and other valuable timber. The Watkins railway extending to the N.E. and the Kansas City Southern extending to the N.W. have opened up the very best of the forest. The country to the S. and W. is largely given over to rice culture. Lake Charles is the chief centre of lumber manufacture in the state, and has rice mills, car shops and an important trade in wool. Ten miles W. are sulphur mines (product in 1907 about 362,000 tons), which with those of Sicily produce a large part of the total product of the world. Jennings, about 34 m. to the E., is the centre of oil fields, once very productive but now of diminishing importance. Welsh, 23 m. E., is the centre of a newer field; and others lie to the N. Lake Charles was settled about 1852, largely by people from Iowa and neighbouring states, was incorporated as a town in 1857 under the name of Charleston and again in 1867 under its present name, and was chartered as a city in 1886. The city suffered severely by fire in April 1910. LAKE CITY, a town and the county-seat of Columbia county, Florida, U.S.A., 59 m. by rail W. by S. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1900) 4013, of whom 2159 were negroes; (1905) 6509; (1910) 5032. Lake City is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line and the Georgia Southern & Florida railways. There are ten small lakes in the neighbourhood, and the town is a winter and health resort. It is the seat of Columbia College (Baptist, 1907); the Florida Agricultural College was opened here in 1883, became the university of Florida in 1903, and in 1905 was abolished by the Buckman Law. Vegetables and fruits grown for the northern markets, sea-island cotton and tobacco are important products of the surrounding country, and Lake City has some trade in cotton, lumber, phosphates and turpentine. The town was first settled about 1826 as Alligator; it was incorporated in 1854; adopted the present name in 1859; and in 1901, with an enlarged area, was re-incorporated. LAKE DISTRICT, in England, a district containing all the principal English lakes, and variously termed the Lake Country, Lakeland and " the Lakes." It falls within the north-western counties of Cumberland, Westmorland and Lancashire (Furness district), about one-half being within the first of these. Although celebrated far outside the confines of Great Britain as a district of remarkable and strongly individual physical beauty, its area is only some 700 sq. m., a circle with radius of 15 m. from the central point covering practically the whole. Within this circle, besides the largest lake, Windermere, is the highest point in England, Scafell Pike; yet Windermere is but io| m. in length, and covers an area of 5-69 sq. m., while Scafell Pike is only 3210 ft. in height. But the lakes show a wonderful variety of character, from open expanse and steep rock-bound shores to picturesque island-groups and soft wooded banks; while the mountains have always a remarkable dignity, less from the profile of their summits than from the bold sweeping lines of their flanks, unbroken by vegetation, and often culminating in sheer cliffs or crags. At their feet, the flat green valley floors of the higher elevations give place in the lower parts to lovely woods. The streams are swift and clear, and numerous small waterfalls are characteristic of the district. To the north, west and south, a flat coastal belt, bordering the Irish Sea, with its inlets Morecambe Bay and Solway Firth, and broadest in the north, marks off the Lake District, while to the east the valleys of the Eden and the Lune divide it from the Pennine mountain system. Geologically, too, it is individual. Its centre is of volcanic rocks, complex in character, while the Coal-measures and New Red Sandstone appear round the edges. The district as a whole is grooved by a main depression, running from north to south along the valleys of St John, Thirlmere, Grasmere and Windermere, surmounting a pass (Dunmail Raise) of only 783 ft.; while a secondary depression, in the same direction, runs along Derwentwater, Borrowdale, Wasdale and Wastwater, but here Sty Head Pass, between Borrowdale and Wasdale, rises to 1600 ft. The centre of the is-m. radius lies on the lesser heights between Langstrath and Dunmail Raise, which may, however, be the crown of an ancient dome of rocks, " the dissected skeleton of which, worn by the warfare of air and rain LAKE DWELLINGS 9T and ice, now alone remains " (Dr H. R. Mill, " Bathymetrical Survey of the English Lakes," Geographical Journal, vi. 48). The principal features of the district may be indicated by follow- ing this circle round from north, by west, south and east. The river Derwent (q.v.), rising in the tarns and " gills " or " ghylls " (small streams running in deeply-grooved clefts) north of Sty Head Pass and the Scafell mass flows north through the wooded Borrowdale and forms Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite. These two lakes are in a class apart from all the rest, being broader for their length, and quite shallow (about 18 ft. average and 70 ft. maximum), as distinct from the long, narrow and deep troughs occupied by the other chief lakes, which average from 40 to 135 ft. deep. Derwent- water (q.v.), studded with many islands, is perhaps the most beautiful of all. Borrowdale is joined on the east by the bare wild dale of Langstrath, and the Greta joins the Derwent immediately below Derwentwater; the town of Keswick lying near the junction. Derwentwater and Bassenthwaite occupy a single depression, a flat alluvial plain separating them. From Seatoller in Borrowdale a road traverses Honister Pass (iioo ft.), whence it descends westward, beneath the majestic Honister Crags, where green slate is quarried, into the valley containing Buttermere (94 ft. max. depth) and Crummock Water (144 ft.), drainetr~by the Cocker. Between this and the Derwent valley the principal height is Grasmoor (2791 ft.) ; southward a steep narrow ridge (High Style, 2643) divides it from Ennerdale, containing Ennerdale Water (148 ft. max. depth), which is fed by the Liza and drained by the Ehen. A splendid range separates this dale from Wasdale and its tributary Mosedale, including Great Gable (2949 ft.), Pillar (2927), with the precipitous Pillar Rock on the Ennerdale flank and Steeple (2746). Wasdale Head, between Gable and the Scafell range, is peculiarly grand, with dark grey screes and black crags frowning above its narrow bottom. On this side of Gable is the fine detached rock, Napes Needle. Wastwater, 3 m. in length, is the deepest lake of all (258 ft.), its floor, like those of Windermere and Ullswater, sinking below sea-level. Its east shore consists of a great range of screes. East of Wasdale lies the range of Scafell (q.v.), its chief points being Scafell (3162 ft.), Scafell Pike (3210), Lingmell (2649) and Great End (2984), while the line is continued over Esk Hause Pass (2490) along a fine line of heights (Bow Fell, 2960; Crinkle Crags, 2816), to embrace the head of Eskdale. The line then descends to Wrynose Pass (1270 ft.), from which the Duddon runs south through a vale of peculiar richness in its lower parts; while the range continues south to culminate in the Old Man of Coniston (2633) with the splendid Dow Crags above Goats Water. The pleasant vale of Yewdale drains south to Coniston Lake (5! m. long, 184 ft. max. depth), east of which a lower, well- wooded tract, containing two beautiful lesser lakes, Tarn Hows and Esthwaite Water, extends to Windermere (q.v.). This lake collects waters by the Brathay from Langdale, the head of which, between Bow Fell and Langdale Pikes (2401 ft.), is very fine; and by the Rothay from Dunmail Raise and the small lakes of Grasmere and Rydal Water, embowered in woods. East of the Rothay valley and Thirlmere lies the mountain mass including Helvellyn (3118 ft.), Fairfield (2863) and other points, with magnificent crags at several places on the eastern side towards Grisedale and Patterdale. These dales drain to Ullswater (205 ft. max., second to Windermere in area), and so north-east to the Eden. To the east and south-east lies the ridge named High Street (2663 ft.), from the Roman road still trace- able from south to north along its summit, and sloping east again to the sequestered Hawes Water (103 ft. max.), a curiously shaped lake nearly divided by the delta of the Measand Beck. There remains the Thirlmere valley. Thirlmere itself was raised in level, and adapted by means of a dam at the north end, as a reservoir for the water: supply of Manchester in 1890-1894. It drains north by St John's Vale into the Greta, north of which again rises a mountain-group of which the chief summits are Saddleback or Blencathra (2847 ft.) and the graceful peak of Skiddaw (3054). The most noteworthy water- falls are — Scale Force (Dano-Norwegian/0rs,/0.ss),besidesCrummock, • Lodore near Derwentwater, Dungeon Gill Force, beside Langdale, Dalegarth Force in Eskdale, Aira near Ullswater, sung by Words- worth, Stock Gill Force and Rydal Falls near Ambleside. The principal centres in the Lake District are Keswick (Derwent- water), Ambleside, Bowness, Windermere and Lakeside (Winder- mere), Coniston and Boot (Eskdale), all of which, except Ambleside and Bowness (which nearly joins Windermere) are accessible by rail. The considerable village of Grasmere lies beautifully at the head of the lake of that name ; and above Esthwaite is the small town of Hawkshead, with an ancient church, and picturesque houses curiously built on the hill-slope and sometimes spanning the streets. There are regular steamer services on Windermere and Ullswater. Coaches and cars traverse the main roads during the summer, but many of the finest dales and passes are accessible only on foot or by ponies. All the mountains offer easy routes to pedestrians, but some of them, as Scafell, Pillar, Gable (Napes Needle), Pavey Ark above Langdale and Dow Crags near Coniston, also afford ascents for experienced climbers. This mountainous district, having the sea to the west, records an unusually heavy rainfall. Near Scathwaite, below Styhead Pass, the largest annual rainfall in the British Isles is recorded, the average (1870-1899) being 133-53 in., while 173-7 was measured in 1903 and 243-98 in. in 1872. At Keswick the annual mean is 60-02, at Grasmere about 80 ins. The months of maximum rainfall at Seath- waite are November, December and January and September. Fish taken in the lakes include perch, pike, char and trout in Windermere, Ennerdale, Bassenthwaite, Derwentwater, &c., and the gwyniad or fresh-water herring in Ullswater. The industries of the Lake District include slate quarrying and some lead and zinc mining, and weaving, bobbin-making and pencil-making. Setting aside London and Edinburgh, no locality in the British Isles is so intimately associated with the history of English literature as the Lake District. In point of time the poet whose name is first connected with the region is Gray, who wrote a journal of his tour in 1769. But it was Wordsworth, a native of Cumberland, born on the outskirts of the Lake District itself, who really made it a Mecca for lovers of English poetry. Out of his long life of eighty years, sixty were spent amid its lakes and mountains, first as a schoolboy at Hawkshead, and afterwards as a resident at Grasmere (1799-1813) and Rydal Mount (1813-1850). In the churchyard of Grasmere the poet and his wife lie buried ; and very near to them are the remains of Hartley Coleridge (son of the poet), who himself lived many years at Keswick, Ambleside and Grasmere. Southey, the friend of Words- worth, was a resident of Keswick for forty years (1803-1843), and was buried in Crosthwaite churchyard. Samuel Taylor Coleridge lived some time at Keswick, and also with the Wordsworths at Grasmere. From 1807 to 1815 Christopher North (John Wilson) was settled at Windermere. De Quincey spent the greater part of the years 1809 to 1828 at Grasmere, in the first cottage which Words- worth had inhabited. Ambleside, or its environs, was also the place of residence of Dr Arnold (of Rugby), who spent there the vacations of the last ten years of his life; and of Harriet Martineau, who built herself a house there in 1845. At Keswick Mrs Lynn Linton was born in 1822. Brantwood, a house beside Coniston Lake, was the horn; of Ruskin during the last years of his life. In addition to th^se residents or natives of the locality, Shelley, Scott, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Clough, Crabb Robinson, Carlyle, Keats, Tennyson, Matthew Arnold, Mrs Hemans, Gerald Massey and others of less reputation made longer or shorter visits, or were bound by ties of friendship with the poets already mentioned. The Vale of St John, near Keswick, recalls Scott's Bridal of Triermain. But there is a deeper connexion than this between the Lake District and English letters. German literature tells of several literary schools, or groups of writers animated by the same ideas, and working in the spirit of the same principles and by the same poetic methods. The most notable instance — indeed it is almost the only instance-j-of the kind in English literature is the Lake School of Poets. Of this school the acknowledged head and founder was Wordsworth, and the tenets it professed are those laid down by the poet himself in the famous preface to the edition of The Lyrical Ballads which he published in 1800. Wordsworth's theories of poetry — the objects best suited for poetic treatment, the characteristics of such treatment and the choice of diction suitable for the purpose — may be said to have grown out of the soil and substance. of the lakes and mountains, and out of the homely lives of the people, of Cumberland and Westmore- land. See CUMBERLAND, LANCASHIRE, WESTMORLAND. The following is a selection from the literature of the subject : Harriet Martineau, The English Lakes (Windermere, 1858) ; Mrs Lynn Linton, The Lake Country (London, 1864); E. Waugh, Rambles in the Lake Country (1861) and In the Lake Country (1880); W. Knight, Through the Wordsworth Country (London, 1890); H. D. Rawnsley, Literary Associations of the English Lakes (2 vols., Glasgow, 1894) and Life and Nature of the English Lakes (Glasgow, 1899); Stopford Brooke, Dove Cottage, Wordsworth's Home from 1800 to 1808; A. G. Bradley, The Lake District, its Highways and Byeways (London, 1901); Sir John Harwood, History of the Thirlmere Water Scheme (1895); for mountain-climbing, Col. J. Brown, Mountain Ascents in Westmor- land and Cumberland (London, 1888) ; Haskett-Smith, Climbing in the British Isles, part. i. ; Owen G. Jones, Rock-climbing in the English Lake District, 2nd ed. by W. M. Crook (Keswick, 1900). LAKE DWELLINGS, the term employed in archaeology for habitations constructed, not on the dry land, but within the margins of lakes or creeks at some distance from the shore. The villages of the Guajiros in the Gulf of Maracaibo are described by Goering as composed of houses with low sloping roofs perched on lofty piles and connected with each other by bridges of planks. Each house consisted of two apartments; the floor was formed of split stems of trees set close together and covered with mats; they were reached from the shore by dug-out canoes poled over the shallow waters, and a notched tree trunk served as a ladder. The custom is also common in the estuaries of the Orinoco and Amazon. A similar system prevails in New Guinea. Dumont d'Urville describes four such villages in the Bay of Doreij containing from eight to fifteen blocks or clusters of houses, each block separately built on piles, LAKE DWELLINGS and consisting of a row of distinct dwellings. C. D. Cameron describes three villages thus built on piles in Lake Mohrya, or Moria, in Central Africa, the motive here being to prevent surprise by bands of slave-catchers. Similar constructions have been described by travellers, among the Dyaks of Borneo, in Celebes, in the Caroline Islands, on the Gold Coast of Africa, and in other places. Hippocrates, writing in the 5th century B.C., says of the people of the Phasis that their country is hot and marshy and subject to frequent inundations, and that they live in houses of timber and reeds constructed in the midst of the waters, and use boats of a single tree trunk. Herodotus, writing also in the sth century B.C., describes the people of Lake Prasias as living in houses constructed on platforms supported on piles in the middle of the lake, which are approached from the land by a single narrow bridge. Abulfeda the geographer, writing in the i3th century, notices the fact that part of the Apamaean Lake was inhabited by Christian fishermen who lived on the lake in wooden huts built on piles, and Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury) mentions that the Rumelian fishermen on Lake Prasias " still inhabit wooden cottages built over the water, as in the time of Herodotus." The records of the wars in Ireland in the i6th century show that the petty chieftains of that time had their defensive strong- holds constructed in the " freshwater lochs " of the country, and there is record evidence of a similar system in the western parts of Scotland. The archaeological researches of the past fifty years have shown that such artificial constructions in lakes were used as defensive dwellings by the Celtic people from an early period to medieval times (see CRANNOG) . Similar researches have also established the fact that in prehistoric times nearly all the lakes of Switzerland, and many in the adjoining countries — in Savoy and the north of Italy, in Austria and Hungary and in Mecklenburg and Pomerania — were peopled, so to speak, by lake-dwelling communities, living in villages constructed on platforms supported by piles at varying distances from the shores. The principal groups are those in the Lakes of Bourget, Geneva, Neuchatel, Bienne, Zurich and Constance lying to the north of the Alps, and in the Lakes Maggiore, Varese, Iseo and Garda lying to the south of that mountain range. Many smaller lakes, however, contain them, and they are also found in peat moors on the sites of ancient lakes now drained or silted up, as at Laibach in Carniola. In some of the larger lakes the number of settlements has been very great. Fifty are enumerated in the Lake of Neuchatel, thirty-two in the Lake of Constance, twenty- four in the Lake of Geneva, and twenty in the Lake of Bienne. The site of the lake dwelling of Wangen, in the Untersee, Lake of Constance, forms a parallelogram more than 700 paces in length by about 120 paces in breadth. The settlement at Merges, one of the largest in the Lake of Geneva, is 1 200 ft. long by 1 50 ft. in breadth. The settlement of Sutz, one of the largest in the Lake of Bienne, extends over six acres, and was connected with the shore by a gangway nearly 100 yds. long and about 40 ft. wide. The substructure which supported the platforms on which the dwellings were placed was most frequently of piles driven into the bottom of the lake. Less frequently it consisted of a stack of brushwood or fascines built up from the bottom and strengthened by stakes penetrating the mass so as to keep it from spreading. When piles were used they were the rough stems of trees of a length proportioned to the depth of the water, sharpened sometimes by fire and at other times chopped to a point by hatchets. On their level tops the beams supporting the platforms were laid and fastened by wooden pins, or inserted in mortices cut in the heads of the piles. In some cases the whole construction was further steadied and strengthened by cross beams, notched into the piles below the supports of the platform. The platform itself was usually composed of rough layers of unbarked stems, but occasionally it was formed of boards split from larger stems. When the mud was too soft to afford foothold for the piles they were mortised into a framework of tree trunks placed horizontally on the bottom of the lake. On the other hand, when the bottom was rocky so that the piles could not be driven, they were steadied at their bases by being enveloped in a mound of loose stones, in the manner in which the foundations of piers and breakwaters are now constructed. In cases where piles have not been used, as at Niederwil and Wauwyl, the substructure is a mass of fascines or faggots laid • parallel and crosswise upon one another with intervening layers of brushwood or of clay and gravel, a few piles here and there being fixed throughout the mass to serve as guides or stays. At Niederwil the platform was formed of split boards, many of which were 2 ft. broad and 2 or 3 in. in thickness. On these substructures were the huts composing the settle- ment; for the peculiarity of these lake dwellings is that they were pile villages, or clusters of huts occupying a common platform. The huts themselves were quadrilateral in form. The size of each dwelling is in some cases marked by boards resting edgeways on the platform, like the skirting boards over the flooring of the rooms in a modern house. The walls, which were supported by posts, or by piles of greater length, were formed of wattle-work, coated with clay. The floors were of clay, and in each floor there was a hearth constructed of flat slabs of stone. The roofs were thatched with bark, straw, reeds or rushes. As the superstructures are mostly gone, there is no evidence as to the position and form of the doorways, or the size, number and position of the windows, if there were any. In one case, at Schussenried, the house, which was of an oblong quad- rangular form, about 33 by 23 ft., was divided into two rooms by a partition. The outer room, which was the smaller of the two, was entered by a doorway 3 ft. in width facing the south. The access to the inner room was by a similar door through the partition. The walls were formed of split tree-trunks set upright and plastered with clay; and the flooring of similar timbers bedded in clay. In other cases the remains of the gangways or bridges connecting the settlements with the shore have been discovered, but often the village appears to have been accessible only by canoes. Several of these single-tree canoes have been found, one of which is 43 ft. in length and 4 ft. 4 in. in its greatest width. It is impossible to estimate with any degree of certainty the number of separate dwellings of which any of these villages may have consisted, but at Niederwil they stood almost con- tiguously on the platform, the space between them not exceeding 3 ft. in width. The size of the huts also varied considerably. At Niederwil they were 20 ft. long and 12 ft. wide, while at Robenhausen they were about 27 ft. long by about 22 ft. wide. The character of the relics shows that in some cases the settle- ments have been the dwellings of a people using no materials but stone, bone and wood for their implements, ornaments and weapons; in others, of a people using bronze as well as stone and bone; and in others again the occasional use of iron is disclosed. But, though the character of the relics is thus changed, there is no corresponding change in the construction and arrangements of the dwellings. The settlement in the Lake of Moosseedorf, near Bern, affords the most perfect example of a lake dwelling of the Stone age. It was a parallelogram 70 ft. long by 50 ft. wide, supported on piles, and having a gangway built on faggots connecting it with the land. The superstructure had been* destroyed by fire. The implements found in the relic bed under it were axe-heads of stone, with their haftings of stag's horn and wood; a flint saw, set in a handle of fir wood and fastened with asphalt; flint flakes and arrow-heads; harpoons of stag's horn with barbs; awls, needles, chisels, fish-hooks and other imple- ments of bone; a comb of yew wood 5 in. long; and a skate made out of the leg bone of a horse. The pottery consisted chiefly of roughly-made vessels, some of which were of large size, others had holes under the rims for suspension, and many were covered with soot, the result of their use as culinary vessels. Burnt wheat, barley and linseed, with many varieties of seeds and fruits, were plentifully mingled with the bones of the stag, the ox, the swine, the sheep and the goat, representing the ordinary food of the inhabitants, while remains of the beaver, the fox, the hare, the dog, the bear, the horse, the elk and the bison were also found. LAKE DWELLINGS 93 The settlement of Robenhausen, in the moor which was formerly the bed of the ancient Lake of Pfaffikon, seems to have continued in occupation after the introduction of bronze. The site covers nearly 3 acres, and is estimated to have contained 100,000 piles. In some parts three distinct successions of inhabited platforms have been traced. The first had been destroyed by fire. It is represented at the bottom of the lake by a layer of charcoal mixed with implements of stone and bone and other relics highly carbonized. The second is represented above the bottom by a series of piles with burnt heads, and in the bottom by a layer of charcoal mixed with corn, apples, cloth, bones, pottery and implements of stone and bone, separated from the first layer of charcoal by 3 ft. of peaty sediment inter- mixed with relics of the occupation of the platform. The piles of the third settlement do not reach down to the shell marl, but are fixed in the layers representing the first and second settlements. They are formed of split oak trunks, while those of the two first settlements are round stems chiefly of soft wood. The huts of this last settlement appear to have had cattle stalls between them, the droppings and litter forming heaps at the lake bottom. The bones of the animals consumed as food at this station were found in such numbers that 5 tons were collected in the construction of a watercourse which crossed the site. Among the wooden objects recovered from the relic beds were tubs, plates, ladles and spoons, a flail for threshing corn, a last for stretching shoes of hide, celt handles, clubs, long-bows of yew, floats and implements of fishing and a dug-out canoe 12 ft. long. No spindle-whorls were found, but there were many varieties of cloth, platted and woven, bundles of yarn and balls of string. Among the tools of bone and stag's horn were awls, needles, harpoons, scraping tools and haftings for stone axe-heads. The implements of stone were chiefly axe-heads and arrow-heads. Of clay and earthenware there were many varieties of domestic dishes, cups and pipkins, and crucibles or melting pots made of clay and horse dung and still retaining the drossy coating of the melted bronze. The settlement of Auvernier in the Lake of Neuchatel is one of the richest and most considerable stations of the Bronze age. It has yielded four bronze swords, ten socketed spear-heads, forty celts or axe-heads and sickles, fifty knives, twenty socketed chisels, four hammers and an anvil, sixty rings for the arms and legs, several highly ornate torques or twisted neck rings, and upwards of two hundred hair pins of various sizes up to 16 in. in length, some having spherical heads in which plates of gold were set. Moulds for sickles, lance-heads and bracelets were found cut in stone or made in baked clay. From four to five hundred vessels of pottery finely made and elegantly shaped are indicated by the fragments recovered from the relic bed. The Lac de Bourget, in Savoy, has eight settlements, all of the Bronze age. These have yielded upwards of 4000 implements, weapons and ornaments of bronze, among which were a large proportion of moulds and founders' materials. A few stone implements suggest the transition from stone to bronze; and the occasional occurrence of iron weapons and pottery of Gallo-Roman origin indicates the survival of some of the settlements to Roman times. •The relative antiquity of the earlier settlements of the Stone and Bronze ages is not capable of being deduced from existing evidence. " We may venture to place them," says Dr F. Keller, " in an age when iron and bronze had been long known, but had not come into our districts in such plenty as to be used for the common purposes of household life, at a time when amber had already taken its place as an ornament and had become an object of traffic." It is now considered that the people who erected the lake dwellings of Central Europe were also the people who were spread over the mainland. The forms and the ornamenta- tion of the implements and weapons of stone and bronze found in the lake dwellings are the same as those of the implements and weapons in these materials found in the soil of the adjacent regions, and both groups must therefore be ascribed to the industry of one and the same people. Whether dwelling on the land or dwelling in the lake, they, have exhibited so many indications of capacity, intelligence, industry and social organi- zation that they cannot be considered as presenting, even in their Stone age, a very low condition of culture or civilization. Their axes were made of tough stones, sawn from the block and ground to the fitting shape. They were fixed by the butt in a socket of stag's horn, mortised into a handle of wood. Their knives and saws of flint were mounted in wooden handles and fixed with asphalt. They made and used an endless variety of bone tools. Their pottery, though roughly finished, is well made, the vessels often of large size and capable of standing the fire as cooking utensils. For domestic dishes they also made wooden tubs, plates, spoons, ladles and the like. The industries of spinning and weaving were largely practised. They made nets and fishing lines, and used canoes. They practised agriculture, cultivating several varieties of wheat and barley, besides millet and flax. They kept horses, cattle, sheep, goats and swine. Their clothing was partly of linen and partly of woollen fabrics and the skins of their beasts. Their food was nutritious and varied, their dwellings neither unhealthy nor incommodious. They lived in the security and comfort obtained by social organization, and were apparently intelligent, industrious and progressive communities. There is no indication of an abrupt change from the use of stone to the use of metal such as might have occurred had the knowledge of copper and bronze, and the methods of working them, been introduced through the conquest of the original inhabitants by an alien race of superior culture and civilization. The improved cultural conditions become apparent in the multiplication of the varieties of tools, weapons and ornaments made possible by the more adaptable qualities of the new material; and that the development of the Bronze age culture in the lake dwellings followed the same course as in the surround- ing regions where the people dwelt on the dry land is evident from the correspondence of the types of implements, weapons, ornaments and utensils common to both these conditions of life. Other classes of prehistoric pile-structures akin to the lake dwellings are the Terremare of Italy and the Terpen of Holland. Both of these are settlements of wooden huts erected on piles, not over the water, but on flat land subject to inundations. The terremare (so named from the marly soil of which they are composed) appear as mounds, sometimes of very considerable extent, which when dug into disclose the remains and relic beds of the ancient settlements. They are most abundant in the plains of northern Italy traversed by the Po and its tributaries, though similar constructions have been found in Hungary in the valley of the Theiss. These pile-villages were often surrounded- by an earthen rampart within which the huts were erected in more or less regular order. Many of them present evidence of having been more than once destroyed by fire and reconstructed, while others show one or more reconstructions at higher levels on the same site. The contents of the relic beds indicate that they belong for the most part to the age of bronze, although in some cases they may be referred to the latter part of the Stone age. 'Their inhabitants practised agriculture and kept the common domestic animals, while their tools, weapons and ornaments were mainly of similar character to those of the contemporary lake dwellers of the adjoining regions. Some of the Italian terremare show quadrangular constructions made like the modern log houses, of undressed tree trunks superposed longitudinally and overlapping at the ends, as at Castione in the province of Parma. A similar mode of construction is found in the pile-village on the banks of the Save, near Donja Dolina in Bosnia, described in 1904 by Dr Truhelka. Here the larger houses had platforms in front of them forming terraces at different levels descending towards the river. There was a cemetery adjacent to the village in which both unburnt and cremated interments occurred, the former predominating. From the general character of the relics this settlement appeared to belong to the early Iron age. The Terpen of Holland appear as mounds somewhat similar to those of the terremare, and were also pile structures, on low or marshy lands subject to inundations from the sea. Unlike the terremare and the lake dwellings they do 94 LAKE GENEVA— LAKSHMI not seem to belong to the prehistoric ages, but yield indications of occupation in post-Roman and medieval times. AUTHORITIES. — The materials for the investigation of this singular phase of prehistoric life were first collected and systematized by Dr Ferdinand Keller (1800-1881), of Zurich, and printed inMittheilungen der Antiquarischen Gesellschaft in Zurich, vols. ix.-xxii., 410 (1855- 1886). The substance of these reports has been issued as a separate work in England, The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland and other parts of Europe, by Dr Ferdinand Keller, translated and arranged by John Edward Lee, 2nd ed. (2 vols. 8vo, London, 1878). Other works on the same subject are Fre'de'ric Troyon, Habitations lacustres des temps anciens el modernes (Lausanne, 1860); E. Desor, Les Palafittes ou constructions lacustres du lac de Neuchdtel (Paris, 1865) ; E. Desor and L. Favre, Le Bel Age du bronze lacustre en Suisse (Paris^ 1874) ; A. Perrin, Etude prehistorique sur la Savoie specialement a I' epoque lacustre (Les Palafittes du lac de Bourget, Paris, 1870); Ernest Chantre, Les Palafittes ou constructions lacustres du lac de Paladru (Chambery, 1871); Bartolomeo Gastaldi, Lake Habitations and prehistoric Remains in the Turbaries and Marl-beds of Northern and Central Italy, translated by C. H. Chambers (London, 1865); Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury), Prehistoric Times (4th ed., London, 1878); Robert Munro, The Lake-Dwellings of Europe (London, 1890), with a bibliography of the subject. (J. AN.) LAKE GENEVA, a city of Walworth county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., 65 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 2585, of whom 468 were foreign-born; (1905) 3449; (1910) 3079. It is served by the Chicago & Northwestern railway. The city is pictur- esquely situated on the shores of Lake Geneva (9 m. long and 1 1 to 3 m. wide), a beautiful body of remarkably clear water, fed by springs, and encircled by rolling hills covered with thick groves of hardwood trees. The region is famous as a summer resort, particularly for Chicago people. The city is the seat of Oakwood Sanitarium, and at Williams Bay, 6 m. distant, is the Yerkes Observatory of the University of Chicago. Dairying is the most important industrial interest. The first settlement on Lake Geneva was made about 1833. The city was chartered in 1893. LAKE OF THE WOODS, a lake in the south-west of the province of Ontario, Canada, bordering west on the province of Manitoba, and south on the state of Minnesota. It is of extremely irregular shape, and contains many islands. Its length is 70 m., breadth 10 to 50 m., area 1500 sq. m. It lies in the centre of the Laurentian region between Lakes Winnipeg and Superior, and an area of 36,000 sq. m. drains to it. It collects the waters of many rivers, the chief being Rainy river from the east, draining Rainy Lake. By the Winni- peg river on the north-east it discharges into Lake Winnipeg. At its source Winnipeg river is 1057 ft. above the sea, and drops 347 ft. in its course of 165 m. The scenery both on and around the lake is exceedingly beautiful, and the islands are largely occupied by the summer residences of city merchants. Kenora, a flourishing town at the source of the Winnipeg river, is the centre of the numerous lumbering and mining enterprises of the vicinity. LAKE PLACID, a village in Essex county, New York, U.S.A., on the W. shore of Mirror Lake, near the S. end of Lake Placid, about 42 m. N.W. of Ticonderoga. Pop. (1905) 1514; (1910) 1682. The village is served by the Delaware & Hudson railway. The region is one of the most attractive in the Adirondacks, and is a much frequented summer resort. There are four good golf courses here, and the village has a well-built club house, called the " Neighborhood House." The village lies on the narrow strip of land (about J m.) between Mirror Lake (about i m. long, N. and S., and $ m. wide), and Lake Placid, about 5 m. long (N.N.E. by S.S.W.), and about ij m. (maximum) broad; its altitude is 1864 ft. The lake is roughly divided, from N. to S. by three islands— Moose, the largest, and Hawk, both privately owned, and Buck — and is a beautiful sheet of water in a picturesque setting of forests and heavily wooded hills and mountains. Among the principal peaks in the vicinity are Whiteface Mountain (4871 ft.), about 3 m. N.W. of the N. end of the lake; McKenzie Mountain (3872 ft.), about i m. to the W., and Pulpit Mountain (2658 ft.), on the E. shore. The summit of Whiteface Mountain commands a fine view, with Gothic (4738 ft.), Saddleback (4530 ft.), Basin (4825 ft.), Marcy (5344 ft.), and Mclntyre (5210 ft.) mountains about lom. to the S. and Lake Champlain to the E., and to the N.E. may be seen, on clear days, the spires of Montreal. In the valleys E. and S. are the headwaters of the famous Ausable river. About 2 m. E. of the village, at North Elba, is the grave of the aboli- tionist, John Brown, with its huge boulder monument, and near it is another monument which bears the names of the 20 persons who bought the John Brown farm and gave it to the state. The railway to the village was completed in 1893. The village was incorporated in 1900. LAKEWOOD, a village of Ocean county, New Jersey, U.S.A., in the township of Lakewood, 59 m. S. by W. of New York city, and 8 m. from the coast, on the Central Railroad of New Jersey. Pop. (1900) of the township, including the village, 3094; (1905) 4265; (1910) 5149. Lakewood is a fashionable health and winter resort, and is situated in the midst of a pine forest, with two small lakes, and many charming walks and drives. In the village there are a number of fine residences, large hotels, a library and a hospital. The winter temperature is 10-12° F. warmer than in New York. The township of Lakewood was incorporated in 1892. LAKH (from the Sans, laksha, one hundred thousand), a term used in British India, in a colloquial sense to signify a lakh of rupees (written 1,00,000), which at the face value of the rupee would be worth £10,000, but now is worth only £6666. The term is also largely used in trade returns. A hundred lakhs make a crore. LAKHIMPUR, a district of British India in the extreme east of the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam. Area, 4529 sq. m. It lies along both banks of the Brahmaputra for about 400 m.; it is bounded N. by the Daphla, Miri, Abor and Mishmi hills, E. by the Mishmi and Kachin hills, S. by the watershed of the Patkai range and the Lohit branch of the Brahmaputra, and W. by the districts of Darrang and Sibsagar. The Brahmaputra is navigable for steamers in all seasons as far as Dibrugarh, in the rainy season as far as Sadiya; its navigable tributaries within the district are the Subansiri, Dibru and Dihing. The deputy-commissioner in charge exercises political control over numerous tribes beyond the inner surveyed border. The most important of these tribes are the Miris, Abors, Mishmis, Khamtis, Kachins and Nagas. In 1901 the population was 371,396, an increase of 46 % in the decade. The district has enjoyed remarkable and continuous prosperity. At each successive census the percentage of increase has been over 40, the present population being more than three times as great as that of 1872. This increase is chiefly due to the numerous tea gardens and to the coal mines and other enterprises of the Assam Railways and Trading Company. Lakhimpur was the first district into which tea cultivation was introduced by the government, and the Assam Company began operations here in 1840. The railway, known as the Dibru-Sadiya line, runs from Dibrugarh to Makum, with two branches to Talap and Margherita, and has been connected across the hills with the Assam-Bengal railway. The coal is of excellent quality, and is exported by river as far as Calcutta. The chief oil-wells are at Digboi. The oil is refined at Margherita, producing a good quality of kerosene oil and first-class paraffin, with wax and other by-products. The company also manufactures bricks and pipes of various kinds. Another industry is cutting timber, for the manufacture of tea-chests, &c. Lakhimpur figures largely in the annals of Assam as the region where successive invaders from the east first reached the Brahma- putra. The Bara Bhuiyas, originally from the western provinces of India, were driven out by the Chutias (a Shan race), and these in their turn gave place to their more powerful brethren, the Ahoms, in the I3th century. The Burmese, who had ruined the native kingdoms, at the end of the 1 8th century, were in 1825 expelled by the British, who placed the southern part of the country, together with Sibsagar under the rule of Raja Purandhar Singh; but it was not till 1838 that the whole was taken under direct British adminis- tration. The headquarters are at Dibrugarh. See Lakhimpur District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1905). LAKSHMI (Sans, for " mark," " sign," generally used in composition with punya, " prosperous "; hence " good sign," "good fortune"), in Hindu mythology, the wife of Vishnu, LALAING— LALLY-TOLLENDAL 95 worshipped as the goddess of love, beauty and prosperity. She has many other names, the chief being Loka mala (" mother of the world "), Padma (" the lotus "), Padma laya (" she who dwells on a lotus ") and Jaladliija (" the ocean-born "). She is represented as of a bright golden colour and seated on a lotus. She is said to have been born from the sea of milk when it was churned from ambrosia. Many quaint myths surround her birth. In the Rig Veda her name does not occur as a goddess. LALAING, JACQUES DE (c. 1420-1453), Flemish knight, was originally in the service of the duke of Cleves and afterwards in that of the duke of Burgundy, Philip III., the Good, gaining great renown by his prowess in the tiltyard. The duke of Burgundy entrusted him with embassies to the pope and the king of France (1451), and subsequently sent him to put down the revolt of the inhabitants of Ghent, in which expedition he was killed. His biography, Le Lime des Jails de messire Jacques de Lalaing, which has been published several times, is mainly the work of the Burgundian herald and chronicler Jean le Fevre, better known as Toison d'or; the Flemish historiographer Georges Chastellain and the herald Charolais also took part in its compilation. LALANDE, JOSEPH JEROME LEFRANQAIS DE (1732-1807), French astronomer, was born at Bourg (department of Ain), on the nth of July 1732. His parents sent him to Paris to study law; but the accident of lodging in the Hotel Cluny, where J. N. Delisle had his observatory, drew him to astronomy, and he became the zealous and favoured pupil of both Delisle and Pierre Lemonnier. He, however, completed his legal studies, and was about to return to Bourg to practise there as an advocate, when Lemonnier obtained permission to send him to Berlin, to make observations on the lunar parallax in concert with those of N. L. Lacaille at the Cape of Good Hope. The successful execution of his task procured for him, before he was twenty-one, admission to the Academy of Berlin, and the post of adjunct astronomer to that of Paris. He now devoted himself to the improvement of the planetary theory, publishing in 1759 a corrected edition of Halley's tables, with a history of the cele- brated comet whose return in that year he had aided Clairault to calculate. In 1762 J. N. Delisle resigned in his favour the chair of astronomy in the College de France, the duties of which were discharged by Lalande for forty-six years. His house became an astronomical seminary, and amongst his pupils were J. B. J. Delambre, G. Piazzi, P. Mechain, and his own nephew Michel Lalande. By his publications in connexion with the transit of 1769 he won great and, in a measure, deserved fame. But his love of notoriety and impetuous temper com- promised the respect due to his scientific zeal, though these faults were partially balanced by his generosity and benevolence. He died on the 4th of April 1807. Although his investigations were conducted with diligence rather than genius, the career of Lalande must be regarded as of eminent service to astronomy. As a lecturer and writer he gave to the science unexampled popularity; his planetary tables, into which he introduced corrections for mutual perturbations, were the best available up to the end of the l8th century; and the Lalande prize, instituted by him in 1802 for the chief astronomical performance of each year, still testifies to his enthusiasm for his favourite pursuit. Amongst his voluminous works are Traite d'astronomie (2 vols., 1764; enlarged edition, 4 vols., 1771-1781 ; 3rd ed., 3 vols., 1792); Histoire celeste fran$aise (1801), giving the places'of 50,000 stars; Biblio- graphie aslronomique (1803), with a history of astronomy from 1781 to 1802; Astronomic des dames (1785); Abrege de navigation (1793); Voyage d' un franqois en Italic (1769), a valuable record of his travels in 1765-1766. He communicated above one hundred and fifty papers to the Paris Academy of Sciences, edited the Connoissance des temps (1759-1774), and again (1794-1807), and wrote the concluding 2 vols. of the 2nd edition of Montucla's Hisloire des mathematiques (1802). See Memoires de I'lnslilut, t. viii. (1807) (J. B. J. Delambre); Delambre, Hist, de I' astr. au X VIII" siecle, p. 547 ; Magazin encyclo- pedique, ii. 288 (1810) (Mme de Salm) ; J. S. Bailly, Hist, de I' astr. moderne, t. iii. (ed. 1785); J. Madler, Geschichte der Himmelskunde, ii. 141; R. Wolf, Gesch. der Astronomic; J. J. Lalande, Bibl. astr. p. 428; J. C. Poggendorff, Biog. Lit. Handworterbuch; M. Marie, Hist, des sciences, ix. 35. LALIN, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Pontevedra. Pop. (1900) 16,238. Lalin is the centre of the trade in agricultural products of the fertile highlands between the Deza and Arnego rivers. The local industries are tanning and the manufacture of paper. Near Lalin are the ruins of the Gothic abbey of Carboeiro. LA LINEA, or LA LINEA DE LA CONCEPCION, a town of Spain, in the province of Cadiz, between Gibraltar and San Roque. Pop. (1900) 31,802. La Linea, which derives its name from the line or boundary dividing Spanish territory from the district of Gibraltar, is a town of comparatively modern date and was formerly looked upon as a suburb of San Roque. It is now a distinct frontier post and headquarters of the Spanish com- mandant of the lines of Gibraltar. The fortifications erected here in the i6th century were dismantled by the British in 1810, to prevent the landing of French invaders, and all the existing buildings are modern. They include barracks, casinos, a theatre and a bull-ring, much frequented by the inhabitants and garrison of Gibraltar. La Linea has some trade in cereals, fruit and vegetables; it is the residence of large numbers of labourers employed in Gibraltar. LALITPUR, a town of British India, in Jhansi district, United Provinces. Pop. (1901) 11,560. It has a station on the Great Indian Peninsula railway, and a large trade in oil-seeds, hides and ghi. It contains several beautiful Hindu and Jain temples. It was formerly the headquarters of a district of the same name, which was incorporated with that of Jhansi in 1891. The Bundela chiefs of Lalitpur were among those who most eagerly joined the Mutiny, and it was only after a severe struggle that the district was pacified. LALLY, THOMAS ARTHUR, COMTE DE, Baron de Tollendal (1702-1766), French general, was born at Romans, Dauphine, in January 1702, being the son of Sir Gerard O'Lally, an Irish Jacobite who married a French lady of noble family, from whom the son inherited his titles. Entering the French army in 1721 he served in the war of 1734 against Austria; he was present at Dettingen (1743), and commanded the regiment de Lally in the famous Irish brigade at Fontenoy (May 1745). He was made a brigadier on the field by Louis XV. He had previ- ously been mixed up in several Jacobite plots, and in 1745 accompanied Charles Edward to Scotland, serving as aide-de- camp at the battle of Falkirk (January 1746). Escaping to France, he served with Marshal Saxe in the Low Countries, and at the capture of Maestricht (1748) was made a marechal de camp. When war broke out with England in 1756 Lally was given the command of a French expedition to India. He reached Pondicherry in April 1758, and at the outset met with some trifling military success. He was a man of courage and a capable general; but his pride and ferocity made him disliked by his officers and hated by his soldiers, while he regarded the natives as slaves, despised their assistance, and trampled on their traditions of caste. In consequence everything went wrong with him. He was unsuccessful in an a.ttack on Tanjore, and had to retire from the siege of Madras (1758) owing to the timely arrival of the British fleet. He was defeated by Sir Eyre Coote at Wandiwash (1760), and besieged in Pondicherry and forced to capitulate (1761). He was sent as a prisoner of war to England. While in London, he heard that he was accused in France of treachery, and insisted, against advice, on returning on parole to stand his trial. He was kept prisoner for nearly two years before the trial began; then, after many painful delays, he was sentenced to death (May 6, 1766), and three days later beheaded. Louis XV. tried to throw the responsibility for what was un- doubtedly a judicial murder on his ministers and the public, but his policy needed a scapegoat, and he was probably well content not to exercise his authority to save an almost friendless foreigner. See G. B. Malleson, The Career of Count Lally (1865); " Z's" (the marquis de Lally-Tollendal) article in the Biographic Michaud; and Voltaire's (Euvres completes. The legal documents are pre- served in the Biblioth^que Nationale. LALLY-TOLLENDAL, TROPHIME GERARD, MARQUIS DE (1751-1830), was born at Paris on the 5th of March 1751. He was the legitimized son of the comte de Lally and only discovered 96 LALO— LAMAISM the secret of his birth on the day of his father's execution, when he resolved to devote himself to clearing his father's memory. He was supported by Voltaire, and in 1778 succeeded in persuad- ing Louis XVI. to annul the decree which had sentenced the comte de Lally; but the parlement of Rouen, to which the case was referred back, in 1784 again decided in favour of Lally's guilt. The case was retried by other courts, but Lally's innocence was never fully admitted by the French judges. In 1779 Lally- Tollendal bought the office of Grand bailli of Etampes, and in 1789 was a deputy to the states-general for the noblesse of Paris. He played some part in the early stages of the Revolution, but was too conservative to be in sympathy with all %ven of its earlier developments. He threw himself into opposition to the " tyranny " of Mirabeau, and condemned the epidemic of re- nunciation which in the session of the 4th of August 1789 destroyed the traditional institutions of France. Later in the year he emigrated to England. During the trial of Louis XVI. by the National Convention (1793) he offered to defend the king, but was not allowed to return to France. He did not return till the time of the Consulate. Louis XVIII. created him a peer of France, and in 1816 he became a member of the French Academy. From that time until his death, on the nth of March 1830, he devoted himself to philanthropic work, especially identifying himself with prison reform. See his Plaidoyer pour Louis KVI. (London, 1793); Lally- Tollendal was also in part responsible for the Memoires, attributed to Joseph Weber, concerning Marie Antoinette (1804); he further edited the article on his father in the Biographic Michaud ; see also Arnault, Discours prononce auxjunerailles de M. le marquis de Lally- Tollendal le 13 mars 1830 (Paris) ; Gautbier de Brecy, Necrologie de M. le marquis de Lally-Tollendal (Paris, undated) ; Voltaire, (Euvres completes (Paris, 1889), in which see the analytical table of contents, vol. ii. LALO, EDOUARD (1823-1892), French composer, was born at Lille, on the 27th of January 1823. He began his musical studies at the conservatoire at Lille, and in Paris attended the violin classes of Habeneck. For several years Lalo led a modest and retired existence, playing the viola in the quartet party organized by Armingaud and Jacquard, and in composing chamber music. His early works include two trios, a quartet, and several pieces for violin and pianoforte. In 1867 he took part in an operatic competition, an opera from his pen, entitled Fiesque, obtaining the third place out of forty-three. This work was accepted for production at the Paris Opera, but delays occurred, and nothing was done. Fiesque was next offered to the Theatre de la Monnaie, Brussels, and was about to be produced there when the manager became bankrupt. Thus, when nearly fifty years of age, Lalo found himself in difficulties. Fiesque was never performed, but the composer published the pianoforte score, and eventually employed some of the music in other works. After the Franco-German war French composers found their opportunity in the concert-room. Lalo was one of these, and during the succeeding ten years several interesting works from his pen were produced, among them a sonata for violoncello, a " divertissement " for orchestra, a violin concerto and the Symphonie Espagnole for violin and orchestra, one of his best- known compositions. In the meanwhile he had written a second opera, Le Roi d'Ys, which he hoped would be produced at the Opera. The administration offered him the " scenario " of a ballet instead. Lalo was obliged to be content with this, and set to work with so much energy that he fell ill, the last scenes of the ballet being orchestrated by Gounod. Namouna, the ballet in question, was produced at the Opera in 1882. Six years later, on the 7th of May 1888, Le Roi d'Ys was brought out at the Opera Comique, and Lalo was at last enabled to taste the sweets of success. Unfortunately, fame came to him too late in life. A pianoforte concerto and the music to Neron, a pantomimic piece played at the Hippodrome in 1891, were his last two works. He had begun a new opera, but had only written the first act when, on the 23rd of April 1892, he died. This opera, La Jacquerie, was finished by Arthur Coquard, and was produced in 1895 at Monte Carlo, Aix-les-Bains and finally in Paris. Lalo had distinct originality, discernible in his employment of curious rhythmic devices. His music is ever ingenious and brilliantly effective. LA MADDALENA, an island 2\ m. from the N.E. coast of Sardinia. Pop. (1901) 8361. Napoleon bombarded it in 1793 without success, and Nelson made it his headquarters for some time. It is now an important naval station of the Italian fleet, the anchorage being good, and is strongly fortified. A bridge and an embankment connect it with Caprera. It appears to have been inhabited in Roman times. LAMAISM, a system of doctrine partly religious, partly political. Religiously it is the corrupt form of Buddhism prevalent in Tibet and Mongolia. It stands in a relationship to primitive Buddhism similar to that in which Roman Catholicism, so long as the temporal power of the pope was still in existence, stood to primitive Christianity. The ethical and metaphysical ideas most conspicuous in the doctrines of Lamaism are not confined to the highlands of central Asia, they are accepted in great measure also hi Japan and China. It is the union of these ideas with a hierarchical system, and with the temporal sovereignty of the head of that system in Tibet, which constitutes what is distinctively understood by the term Lamaism. Lamaism has acquired a special interest to the student of comparative history through the instructive parallel which its history presents to that of the Church of Rome. The central point of primitive Buddhism was the doctrine of " Arahatship " — a system of ethical and mental self -culture, in which deliverance was found from all the mysteries and sorrows of life in a change of heart to be reached ™f here on earth. This doctrine seems to have been vehicle." held very nearly in its original purity from the time when it. was propounded by Gotama in the 6th century B.C. to the period in which northern India was conquered by the Huns about the commencement of the Christian era. Soon after that time there arose a school of Buddhist teachers who called their doctrine the " Great Vehicle." It was not in any contradic- tion to the older doctrine, which they contemptuously called the " Little Vehicle," but included it all, and was based upon it. The distinguishing characteristic of the newer school was the importance which it attached to " Bodhisatship." The older school had taught that Gotama, who had propounded the doctrine of Arahatship, was a Buddha, that only a Buddha is capable of discovering that doctrine, and that a Buddha is a man who by self-denying efforts, continued through many hundreds of different births, has acquired the so-called Ten Paramitas or cardinal virtues in such perfection that he is able, when sin and ignorance have gained the upper hand throughout the world, to save the human race from impending ruin. But until the process of perfection has been completed, until the moment when at last the sage, sitting under the Wisdom tree acquires that particular insight or wisdom which is called Enlightenment or Buddhahood, he is still only a Bodhisat. The link of connexion between the various Bodhisats in the future Buddha's successive births is not a soul which is transferred from body to body, but the karma, or character, which each successive Bodhisat inherits from his predecessors in the long chain of existences. Now the older school also held, in the first place, that, when a man had, in this life, attained to Arahatship, his karma would not pass on to any othe'r individual in another life — or in other words, that after Arahatship there would be no rebirth; and, secondly, that four thousand years after the Buddha had pro- claimed the Dhamma or doctrine of Arahatship, his teaching would have died away, and another Buddha would be required to bring mankind once more to a knowledge of the truth. The leaders of the Great Vehicle urged their followers to seek to attain, not so much to Arahatship, which would involve only their own salvation, but to Bodhisatship, by the attainment of which they would be conferring the blessings of the Dhamma upon countless multitudes in the long ages of the future. By thus laying stress upon Bodhisatship, rather than upon Arahat- ship, the new school, though they doubtless merely thought themselves to be carrying the older orthodox doctrines to their logical conclusion, were really changing the central point of LAMAISM 97 Buddhism, and were altering the direction of their mental vision. It was of no avail that they adhered in other respects in the main to the older teaching, that they professed to hold to the same ethical system, that they adhered, except in a few unimportant details, to the old regulations of the order of the Buddhist mendi- cant recluses. The ancient books, preserved in the Pali Pitakas, being mainly occupied with the details of Arahatship, lost their exclusive value in the eyes of those whose attention was being directed to the details of Bodhisatship. And the opinion that every leader in their religious circles, every teacher distinguished among them for his sanctity of life, or for his extensive learning, was a Bodhisat, who might have and who probably had inherited the karma of some great teacher of old, opened the door to a flood of superstitious fancies. It is worthy of note that the new school found its earliest professors and its greatest expounders in a part of India outside the districts to which the personal influence of Gotama and of his immediate followers had been confined. The home of early Buddhism was round about Kosala and Magadha; in the district, that is to say, north and south of the Ganges between where Allahabad now lies on the west and Rajgir on the east. The home of the Great Vehicle was, at first, in the countries farther to the north and west. Buddhism arose in countries where Sanskrit was never more than a learned tongue, and where the exclusive claims of the Brahmins had never been universally admitted. The Great Vehicle arose in the very stronghold of Brahminism, and among a people to whom Sanskrit, like Latin in the middle ages in Europe, was the literary lingua franca. The new literature therefore, which the new movement called forth, was written, and has been preserved, in Sanskrit — its principal books of Dharma, or doctrine, being the following nine: (i) Prajnd-pdramitd; (2) Ganda-vyuha; (3) Dasa-bhumis-vara; (4) Samddhi-rdja; (5) Lankdvatdra; (6) Saddharma-pundarika; (7) Tathdgata-guhyaka; (8) Lalita-vistara; (9) Suvarna-prabhdsa. The date of none of these works is known with any certainty, but it is highly improbable that any one of them is older than the 6th century after the death of Gotama. Copies of all of them were brought to Europe by Mr B. H. Hodgson, and other copies have been received since then; but only one of them has as yet been published in Europe (the Lalita Vistara, edited by Lofmann), and only two have been translated into any European language. These are the Lalita Vislara, translated into French, through the Tibetan, by M. Foucaux, and the Saddharma Pundarika, translated into English by Professor Kern. The former is legendary work, partly in verse, on the life of Gotama, the historical Buddha; and the latter, also partly in verse, is devoted to proving the essential identity of the Great and the Little Vehicles, and the equal authenticity of both as doctrines enunciated by the master himself. Of the authors of these nine works, as of all the older Buddhist works with one or two exceptions, nothing has been ascertained. The founder of the system of the Great Vehicle is, however, often referred to under the name of Nagarjuna, whose probable date is about A.D. 200. Together with Nagarjuna, other early teachers of the Great Vehicle whose names are known are Vasumitra, Vasubandhu, Aryadeva, Dharmapala and Gunamati — all of whom were looked upon as Bodhisats. As the newer school did not venture so far as to claim as Bodhisats the disciples stated in the older books to have been the contemporaries of Gotama (they being precisely the persons known as Arahats), they attempted to give the appearance of age to the Bodhisat theory by representing the Buddha as being surrounded, not only by his human com- panions the Arahats, but also by fabulous beings, whom they represented as the Bodhisats existing at that time. In the opening words of each Mahayana treatise a list is given of such Bodhisats, who were beginning, together with the historical Bodhisats, to occupy a position in the Buddhist church of those times similar to that occupied by the saints in the corre- sponding period of the history of Christianity in the Church of Rome. And these lists of fabulous Bodhisats have now a distinct historical importance. For they grow in length in the later xvi. 4 works; and it is often possible by comparing them one with another to fix, not the date, but the comparative age of the books in which they occur. Thus it is a fair inference to draw from the shortness of the list in the opening words of the Lalita Vistara, as compared with that in the first sections of the Sad- dharma Putidarlka, that the latter work is much the younger of the two, a conclusion supported also by other considerations. Among the Bodhisats mentioned in the Saddharma Puiidarika, and not mentioned in the Lalita Vislara, as attendant on the Buddha are Manju-sri and Avalokitesvara. That these saints were already acknowledged by the followers of the Great Vehicle at the beginning of the 5th century is clear from the fact that Fa Hien, who visited India about that time, says that " men of the Great Vehicle " were then worshipping them at Mathura, not far from Delhi (F. H., chap. xvi.). These were supposed to be celestial beings who, inspired by love of the human race, had taken the so-called Great Resolve to become future Buddhas, and who therefore descended from heaven when the actual Buddha was on earth, to pay reverence to him, and to learn of him. The belief in them probably arose out of the doctrine of the older school, which did not deny the existence of the various creations of previous mythology and speculation, but allowed of their actual existence as spiritual beings, and only deprived them of all power over the lives of men, and declared them to be temporary beings liable, like men, to sin and ignor- ance, and requiring, like men, the salvation of Arahatship. Among them the later Buddhists seem to have placed their numerous Bodhisats; and to have paid especial reverence to Manju-sri as the personification of wisdom, and to Avalokite- swara as the personification of overruling love. The former was afterwards identified with the mythical first Buddhist missionary, who is supposed to have introduced civilization into Tibet about two hundred and fifty years after the death of the Buddha. The way was now open to a rapid fall from the simplicity of early Buddhism, in which men's attention was directed to the various parts of the system of self-culture, to a belief in a whole pantheon of saints or angels, mystic' which appealed more strongly to the half-civilized trinities. races among whom the Great Vehicle was now pro- fessed. A theory sprang up which was supposed to explain the marvellous powers of the Buddhas by representing them as only the outward appearance, the reflection, as it were, or emanation, of ethereal Buddhas dwelling in the skies. These were called Dhydni Buddhas, and their number was supposed to be, like that of the Buddhas, innumerable. Only five of them, however, occupied any space in the speculative world in which the ideas of the later Buddhists had now begun to move. But, being Buddhas, they were supposed to have their Bodhisats; and thus out of the five last Buddhas of the earlier teaching there grew up five mystic trinities, each group con- sisting of one of these five Buddhas, his prototype in heaven the Dhyani Buddha, and his celestial Bodhisat. Among these hypothetical beings, the creations of a sickly scholasticism, hollow abstractions without life or reality, the particular trinity in which the historical Gotama was assigned a subordinate place naturally occupied the most exalted rank. Amitabha, the Dhyani-Buddha of this trinity, soon began to fill the largest place in the minds of the new school; and Avalokiteswara, his Bodhisat, was looked upon with a reverence somewhat less than his former glory. It is needless to add that, under the overpowering influence of these vain imaginations, the earnest moral teachings of Gotama became more and more hidden from view. The imaginary saints grew and flourished. Each new creation, each new step in the theory, demanded another, until the whole sky was filled with forgeries of the brain, and the nobler and simpler lessons of the founder of the religion were hidden beneath the glittering stream of metaphysical subtleties. Still worse results followed on the change of the earlier point of view. The acute minds of the Buddhist pandits, no longer occupied with the practical lessons of Arahatship, turned their 98 LAMAISM attention, as far as it was not engaged upon their hierarchy of mythological beings, to questions of metaphysical speculation, which, in the earliest Buddhism, are not only discouraged but forbidden. We find long treatises on the nature of being, idealistic dreams which have as little to do with the Bodhisatship that is concerned with the salvation of the world as with the Arahatship that is concerned with the perfect life. Only one lower step was possible, and that was not long in being taken. The animism common alike to the untaught Huns and to their Hindu conquerors, but condemned in early Buddhism, was allowed to revive. As the stronger side of Gotama's teaching was neglected, the debasing belief in rites and ceremonies, and charms and incantations, which had been the especial object of his scorn, began to spread like the Birana weed warmed by a tropical sun in marsh and muddy soil. As in India, after the expulsion of Buddhism, the degrading worship of Siva and his dusky bride had been incorporated into Hinduism from the savage devil worship of Aryan and of non-Aryan tribes, so, as pure Buddhism died away in the north, the Tantra system, a mixture of magic and witchcraft and sorcery, was incorporated into the corrupted Buddhism. The founder of this system seems to have been Asanga, an influential monk of Peshawar, who wrote the first text-book of the creed, the Y ogachchara Bhumi Sdstra, in the 6th Vantra century A.D. Hsuan Tsang, who travelled in the first system. half of the 7th, found the monastery where Asanga had lived in ruins, and says that he had lived one thousand years after the Buddha.1 Asanga managed with great dexterity to reconcile the two opposing systems by placing a number of Saivite gods or devils, both male and female, in the inferior heavens of the then prevalent Buddhism, and by representing them as worshippers and supporters of the Buddha and of Avalokitesvara. He thus made it possible for the half-converted and rude tribes to remain Buddhists while they brought offerings, and even bloody offerings, to these more congenial shrines, and while their practical belief had no relation at all to the Truths or the Noble Eightfold Path, but busied itself almost wholly With obtaining magic powers (Siddhi), by means of magic phrases (Dharani), and magic circles (Maifdala). Asanga's happy idea bore but too ample fruit. In his own country and Nepal, the new wine, sweet and luscious to the taste of savages, completely disqualified them from enjoying any purer drink; and now in both countries Saivism is supreme, and Buddhism is even nomin- ally extinct, except in some outlying districts of Nepal. But this full effect has only been worked out in the lapse of ages; the Tantra literature has also had its growth and its development, and some unhappy scholar of a future age may have to trace its loathsome history. The nauseous taste repelled even the self-sacrificing industry of Burnouf, when he found the later Tantra books to be as immoral as they are absurd. " The pen," he says, " refuses to transcribe doctrines as miserable in respect of form as they are odious and degrading in respect of meaning." Such had been the decline and fall of Buddhism considered as an ethical system before its introduction into Tibet. The manner in which its order of mendicant recluses, at first founded to afford better opportunities to those who wished to carry out that system in practical life, developed at last into a hier- archical monarchy will best be understood by a sketch of the history of Tibet. Its real history commences with Srong Tsan Gampo, who was born a little after 600 A.D., and who is said in the Chinese chronicles to have entered, in 634, into diplomatic Epomical relationship with Tai Tsung, one of the emperors of history. the Tang dynasty. He was the founder of the present capital of Tibet, now known as Lhasa; and in the year 622 (the same year as that in which Mahomet fled from Mecca) he began the formal introduction of Buddhism into Tibet. For this purpose he sent the minister Thumi Sambhota, afterwards looked upon as an incarnation of Manju-sri, to India, there to collect the sacred books, and to learn and translate them. 1 Watters's Yuan Chwang, edited by Rhys Davids and Bushell, i. 210, 356, 271. Thumi Sambhota accordingly invented an alphabet for the Tibetan language on the model of the Indian alphabets then in use. And, aided by the king, who is represented to have been an industrious student and translator, he wrote the first books by which Buddhism became known in his native land. The most famous of the works ascribed to him is the Mani Kambum, "the Myriad of Precious Words" — a treatise chiefly on religion, but which also contains an account of the introduction of Buddhism into Tibet, and of the closing part of the life of Srong Tsan Gampo. He is also very probably the author of another very ancient standard work of Tibetan Buddhism, the Samatog, a short digest of Buddhist morality, on which the civil laws of Tibet have been founded. It is said in the Mani Kambum to have fallen from heaven in a casket (Tibetan, samatog), and, like the last-mentioned work, is only known to us in meagre abstract. King Srong Tsan Gampo's zeal for Buddhism was shared and supported by his two queens, Bribsun, a princess from Nepal, and Wen Ching, a princess from China. They are related *o have brought with them sacred relics, books and pictures, for whose better preservation two large monasteries were erected. These are the cloisters of La Brang (Jokhang) and Ra Moche, still, though much changed and enlarged, the most sacred abbeys in Tibet, and the glory of Lhasa. The two queens have become semi-divine personages, and are worshipped under the name of the two Dara-Eke, the " glorious mothers," being regarded as incarnations of the wife of Siva, representing respectively two of the qualities which she personifies, divine vengeance and divine love. The former is worshipped by the Mongolians as Okkin Tengri, " the Virgin Goddess "; but in Tibet and China the r&le of the divine virgin is filled by Kwan Yin, a personification of Avalokitesvara as the heavenly word, who is often represented with a child in her arms. Srong Tsan Gampo has also become a saint, being looked upon as an incarnation of Avalokitesvara; and the description in the ecclesiastical historians of the measures he took for the welfare of his subjects do great credit to their ideal of the perfect Buddhist king. He is said to have spent his long reign in the building of reservoirs, bridges and canals; in the promotion of agriculture, horticulture and manufactures; in the establishment of schools and colleges; and in the maintenance of justice and the encouragement of virtue. But the degree of his success must have been slight. For after the death of himself and of his wives Buddhism gradu- ally decayed, and was subjected by succeeding kings to cruel persecutions; and it was not till more than half a century afterwards, under King Kir Song de Tsan, who reigned 740-786, that true religion is acknowledged by the ecclesiastical historians to have become firmly established in the land. This monarch again sent to India to replace the sacred books that had been lost, and to invite Buddhist pandits to translate them. The most distinguished of those who came j/ye were Santa Rakshita, Padma Sambhava and Kamala Tibetan Slla, for whom, and for their companions, the king sacred built a splendid monastery still existing, at Samje, about three days' journey south-east of Lhasa. It was to them that the Tibetans owed the great collection of what are still regarded as their sacred books — the Kandjur. It consists of 100 volumes containing 689 works, of which there are two or three complete sets in Europe, one of them in the India Office library. A detailed analysis of these scriptures has been pub- lished by the celebrated Hungarian scholar Csoma de Koros, whose authoritative work has been republished in French with complete indices and very useful notes by M. Leon Peer. These volumes contain about a dozen works of the oldest school of Buddhism, the Hlnayana, and about 300 works, mostly very short, belonging to the Tantra school. But the great bulk of the collection consists of Mahayana books, belonging to all the previously existing varieties of that widely extended Buddhist sect; and, as the Sanskrit originals of many of these writings are now lost, the Tibetan translations will be of great value, not only for the history of Lamaism, but also for the history of the later forms of Indian Buddhism. The last king's second son, Lang Darma, concluded in May 822 LAMAISM 99 a treaty with the then emperor of China (the twelfth of the Tang dynasty), a record of which was engraved on a stone put up in the above-mentioned great convent of La Brang (Jokhang), and is still to be seen there.1 He is described in the church chronicles as an incarnation of the evil spirit, and is said to have succeeded in suppressing Buddhism throughout the greater part of the land. The period from Srong Tsan Gampo down to the death of Lang Darma, who was murdered about A.D. 850, in a civil war, is called in the Buddhist books " the first introduction of religion." It was followed by more than a century of civil disorder and wars, during which the exiled Buddhist monks attempted unsuccessfully again and again to return. Many are the stories of martyrs and confessors who are believed tp have lived in these troublous times, and their efforts were at last crowned with success, for in the century commencing with the reign of Bilamgur in 971 there took place " the second introduction of religion " into Tibet, more especially under the guidance of the pandit Atlsha, who came to Tibet in 1041, and of his famous native pupil and follower Brom Ston. The long period of depression seems not to have been without a beneficial influence on the persecuted Buddhist church, for these teachers are reported to have placed the Tantra system more in the background, and to have adhered more strongly to the purer forms of the Mahayana development of the ancient faith. For about three hundred years the Buddhist church of Tibet was left in peace, subjecting the country more and more com- The pletely to its control, and growing in power and in temporal wealth. During this time it achieved its greatest sove- victory, and underwent the most important change in reigntyot j^s character and organization. After the reintroduc- ie Lamas. tion ^ j^^ism into the "kingdom of snow," the ancient dynasty never recovered its power. Its representatives continued for some time to claim the sovereignty; but the country was practically very much in the condition of Germany at about the same time — chieftains of almost independent power ruled from their castles on the hill-tops over the adjacent valleys, engaged in petty wars, and conducted plundering expeditions against the neighbouring tenants, whilst the great abbeys were places of refuge for the studious or religious, and their heads were the only rivals to the barons in social state, and in many respects the only protectors and friends of the people. Meanwhile Jenghiz Khan had founded the Mongol empire, and his grandson Kublai Khan became a convert to the Buddhism of the Tibetan Lamas. He granted to the abbot of the Sakya monastery in southern Tibet the title of tributary sovereign of the country, head of the Buddhist church, and overlord over the numerous barons and abbots, and in return was officially crowned by the abbot as ruler over the extensive domain of the Mongol empire. Thus was the foundation laid at one and the same time of the temporal sovereignty of the Lamas of Tibet, and of the suzerainty over Tibet of the emperors of China. One of the first acts of the " head of the church " was the printing of a carefully revised edition of the Tibetan Scriptures — an undertaking whidi occupied altogether nearly thirty years and was not completed till 1306. Under Kublai's successors in China the Buddhist cause flourished greatly, and the Sakya Lamas extended their power both at home and abroad. The dignity of abbot at Sakya became hereditary, the abbots breaking so far the Buddhist rule of celibacy that they remained married until they had begotten a son and heir. But rather more than half a century afterwards their power was threatened by a formidable rival at home, a Buddhist reformer. Tsongkapa, the Luther of Tibet, was born about 1357 on the spot where the famous monastery of Kunbum now stands. He very early entered the order, and studied at Sakya, Brigung and other monasteries. He then spent eight years as a hermit in Takpo in southern Tibet, where the comparatively purer teaching of Atlsha (referred to above) was still prevalent. About 1390 he appeared as a public 1 Published with facsimile and translation and notes in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1879-1880, vol. xii. of Tibet. teacher and reformer in Lhasa, and before his death in 1419 there were three huge monasteries there containing 30,000 of his disciples, besides others in other parts of the country. His voluminous works, of which the most famous are the Sumbun and the Lam Nim Tshenpo, exist in printed Tibetan copies in Europe, but have not yet been translated or analysed. But the principal lines on which his reformation proceeded are sufficiently attested. He insisted in the first place on the complete carrying out of the ancient rules of the order as to the celibacy of its members, and as to simplicity in dress. One result of the second of these two reforms was to make it necessary for every monk openly to declare himself either in favour of or against the new views. For Tsongkapa and his followers wore the yellow or orange-coloured garments which had been the distinguishing mark of the order in the lifetime of its founder, and in support of the ancient rules Tsongkapa reinstated the fortnightly rehearsal of the Patimokkha or " disburdenment " in regular assemblies of the order at Lhasa — a practice which had fallen into desuetude. He also restored the custom of the first disciples to hold the so-called Vassa or yearly retirement, and the public meeting of the order at its close. In all these respects he was simply following the directions of the Vinaya, or regulations of the order, as established probably in the time of Gotama himself, and as certainly handed down from the earliest times in the pitakas or sacred books. Further, he set his face against the Tantra system, and against the animistic superstitions which had been allowed to creep into life again. He laid stress on the self-culture involved in the practice of the paramitas or cardinal virtues, and established an annual national fast or week of prayer to be held during the first days of each year. This last institution indeed is not found in the ancient Vinaya, but was almost certainly modelled on the traditional account of the similar assemblies convoked by Asoka and other Buddhist sovereigns in India every fifth year. Laymen as well as monks take part in the proceedings, the details of which are unknown to us except from the accounts of the Catholic mission- aries— Fathers Hue and Gabet — who describe the principal ceremonial as, in outward appearance, wonderfully like the high mass. In doctrine the great Tibetan teacher, who had no access to the Pali Pitakas, adhered in the main to the purer forms of the Mahayana school; in questions of church govern- ment he took little part, and did not dispute the titular supremacy of the Sakya Lamas. But the effects of his teaching weakened their power. The " orange-hoods," as his followers were called, rapidly gained in numbers and influence, until they so over- shadowed the " red-hoods," as the followers of the older sect were called, that in the middle of the isth century the emperor of China acknowledged the two leaders of the new sect at that time as the titular overlords of the church and tributary rulers over the realm of Tibet. These two leaders were then known as the Dalai Lama and the Pantshen Lama, and were the abbots of the great monasteries at Gedun Dubpa, near Lhasa, and at Tashi Lunpo, in Farther Tibet, respectively. Since that time the abbots of these monasteries have continued to exercise the sovereignty over Tibet. As there has been no further change in the doctrine, and no further reformation in discipline, we may leave the ecclesiastical history of Lamaism since that date unnoticed, and consider some principal points on the constitution of the Lamaism of to-day. And first as to the mode of electing successors to the two Great Lamas. It will have been noticed that it was an old idea of the northern Buddhists to look upon distinguished members of the order as incarnations of Avalokitesvara, of Manju-sri, or of Amitabha. These beings were supposed to possess the power, whilst they continued to live in heaven, of appearing on earth in a Nirmana- kdya, or apparitional body. In the same way the Pantshen Lama is looked upon as an incarnation, the Nirmana-kaya, of Amitabha, who had previously appeared under the outward form of Tshonkapa himself; and the Dalai Lama is looked upon as an incarnation of Avalokitesvara. Theoretically, therefore, the former, as the spiritual successor of the great teacher and also of IOO LAMALOU-LES-BAINS— LAMAR Amitabha, who occupies the higher place in the mythology of the Great Vehicle, would be superior to the latter, as the spiritual representative of Avalokitesvara. But practically the Dalai Lama, owing to his position in the capital,1 has the political supremacy, and is actually called the Gyalpo Rinpotshe, " the glorious king " — his companion being content with the title Pantshen Rinpotshe, " the glorious teacher." When either of them dies it is necessary for the other to ascertain in whose body the celestial being whose outward form has been dissolved has been pleased again to incarnate himself. For that purpose the names of all male children born just after the death of the deceased Great Lama are laid before his survivor. He chooses three out of the whole number; their names are thrown into a golden casket provided for that purpose by a former emperor of China. The Chutuktus, or abbots of the great monasteries, then assemble, and after a week of prayer, the lots are drawn in their presence and in presence of the surviving Great Lama and of the Chinese political resident. The child whose name is first drawn is the future Great Lama; the other two receive each of them 500 pieces of silver. The Chutuktus just mentioned correspond in many respects to the Roman cardinals. Like the Great Lamas, they bear the title of Rinpotshe or Glorious, and are looked ifpon as incarnations of one or other of the celestial Bodhisats of the Great Vehicle mythology. Their number varies from ten to a hundred; and it is uncertain whether the honour is inherent in the abbacy of certain of the greatest cloisters, or whether the Dalai Lama exercises the right of choosing them. Under these high officials of the Tibetan hierarchy there come the Chubil Khans, who fill the post of abbot to the lesser monasteries, and are also incarnations. Their number is very large; there are few monas- teries in Tibet or in Mongolia which do not claim to possess one of these living Buddhas. Besides these mystical persons there are in the Tibetan church other ranks and degrees, corresponding to the deacon, full priest, dean and doctor of divinity in the West. At the great yearly festival at Lhasa they make in the cathedral an imposing array, not much less magnificent than that of the clergy in Rome; for the ancient simplicity of dress has disappeared in the growing differences of rank, and each division of the spiritual army is distinguished in Tibet, as in the West, by a special uniform. The political authority of the Dalai Lama is confined to Tibet itself, but he is the acknowledged head also of the Buddhist church throughout Mongolia and China. He has no supremacy over his co-religionists in Japan, and even in China there are many Buddhists who are not practically under his control or influence. The best work on Lamaism is still Koppen's Die Lamaische Hierarchic und Kirche (Berlin, 1859). See also Bushell, " The Early History of Tibet," in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1879-1880, vol. xu. ; Sanang Setzen's History of the East Mongols (in Mongolian, translated into German by J. Schmidt, Geschichte der Ost- Mongolen) ; Analyse du Kandjur," by M. L&m Peer, in Annales du Musee Gaimet (1881); Schott, Ueber den Buddhismus in Hoch-Asien; Gutzlaff, Geschichte des Chinesischen Reiches; Hue and Gabet Souvenirs d'un voyage dans la Tartarie, le Tibet, et la Chine (Pans, 1858) ; Pallas's Sammlung historischer Nachrichten uber die Mongohschen Volkerschaften ; Babu Sarat Chunder Das's "Contri- butions on the Religion and History of Tibet," in the Journal of the Bengal Asiatic Society, 1881; L. A. Waddell, The Buddhism of Tibet (London, 1895); A. H. Francke, History of Western Tibet (London, 1907) ; A. Griinwedel, Mythologie des Buddhismus in Tibet und der Mongolei (Berlin, 1900). (T. W. R. D.) LAMALOU-LES-BAINS, a watering-place of southern France in the department of Herault, 53! m. W. of Montpellier by rail, in a valley of the southern C6vennes. .Pop. (1906)720. The waters, which are both hot and cold, are used in cases of rheu- matism, sciatica, locomotor ataxy and nervous maladies. LAMA-MIAO, or DOLON-NOR, a city of the province of Chih-li, China, 150 m. N. of Peking, in a barren sandy plain watered by the Urtingol, a tributary of the Shang-tu-ko. The town proper, almost exclusively occupied by Chinese, is about a mile in length 'This statement, representing the substantial and historical position, is retained, in spite of the crises of March 1910, when the Dalai L&ma took refuge from the Chinese in India, and of 1904, when the British expedition occupied Lhasa and the Dalai Lama fled to China (see TIBET). by half a mile in breadth, has narrow and dirty streets, and con- tains a population of about 26,000. Unlike the ordinary Chinese town of the same rank, it is not walled. A busy trade is carried on between the Chinese and the Mongolians, who bring in their cattle, sheep, camels, hides and wool to barter for tea, tobacco, cotton and silk. At some distance from the Chinese town lies the Mongolian quarter, with two groups of lama temples and villages occupied by about 2300 priests. Dr Williamson (Journeys in North China, 1870) described the chief temple as a huge oblong building with an interior not unlike a Gothic church. Lama- miao is the seat of a manufactory of bronze idols and other articles of ritual, which find their way to all parts of Mongolia and Tibet. The craftsmen work in their own houses. LAMAR, LUCIUS QUINTUS CINCINNATUS (1825-1893), American statesman and judge, was born at the old " Lamar Homestead," in Putnam county, Georgia, on the I7th of September 1825. His father, Lucius Q. C. Lamar (1797-1834), was an able lawyer, a judge of the superior court of Georgia, and the compiler of the Laws of Georgia from 1810 to 1819 (1821). In 1845 young Lamar graduated from Emory College (Oxford, Ga.), and in 1847 was admitted to the bar. In 1849 he removed to Oxford, Mississippi, and in 1850-1852 was adjunct professor of mathematics in the state uni- versity. In 1852 he removed to Covington, Ga., to practise law, and in 1853 was elected a mejnber of the Georgia House of Representatives. In 1855 he returned to Mississippi, and two years later became a member of the National House of Repre- sentatives, where he served until December 1860, when he with- drew to become a candidate for election to the " secession " convention of Mississippi. He was elected to the convention, and drafted for it the Mississippi ordinance of secession. In the summer of 1860 he had accepted an appointment to the chair of ethics and metaphysics in the university of Mississippi, but, having been appointed a lieutenant-colonel in the Confederate Army in the spring of 1861, he resigned his professorship. The colonel of his regiment (Nineteenth Mississippi) was killed early in the battle of Williamsburg, on the sth of May 1862, and the command then fell to Lamar, but in October he resigned from the army. In November 1862 he was appointed by President Jefferson Davis special commissioner of the Confederacy to Russia; but he did not proceed farther than Paris, and his mission was soon terminated by the refusal of the Confederate Senate to confirm his appointment. In 1866 he was again appointed to the chair of ethics and metaphysics in the uni- versity of Mississippi, and in the next year was transferred to the chair of law, but in 1870, Republicans having become trustees of the university upon the readmission of the state into the Union, he resigned. From 1873 to 1877 he was again a Demo- cratic representative in Congress; from 1877 to 1885 he was a United States senator; from 1885 to January 1888 he was secretary of the interior; and from 1888 until his death at Macon, Ga., on the 23rd of January 1893, he was an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. In Congress Lamar fought the silver and greenback craze and argued forcibly against the protective tariff; in the department of the interior he introduced various reforms; and on the Supreme Court bench his dissenting opinion in the Neagle Case (based upon a denial that certain powers belonging to Congress, but not exercised, were by implication vested in the department of justice) is famous. But he is perhaps best known for the part he took after the Civil War in helping to effect a reconciliation between the North and the South. During the early secession movement he strove to arouse the white people of the South from their indifference, declaring that secession alone could save them from a doom similar to that of the former whites of San Domingo. He probably never changed his convictions as to the righteousness of the " lost cause "; but he accepted the result of the war as a final settlement of the differences leading to it, and strove to restore the South in the Union, and to effect the reunion of the nation in feeling as well as in government. This is in part seen from such speeches as his eulogy on Charles Sumner (271)1 of April 1874), his leadership in reorganizing the Democratic LAMARCK 101 party of his own state, and his counsels of peace in the disputed presidential election of 1876. See Edward Mayes, Lucius Q. C. Lamar: His Life, Times and Speeches (Nashville, Tenn., 1896). LAMARCK, JEAN BAPTISTE PIERRE ANTOINE DE MONET, CHEVALIER DE (1744-1829), French naturalist, was born on the ist of August 1744, at Bazantin, a village of Picardy. He was an eleventh child; and his father, lord of the manor and of old family, but of limited means, having placed three sons in the army, destined this one for the church, and sent him to the Jesuits at Amiens, where he continued till his father's death. After this he would remain with the Jesuits no longer, and, not yet seventeen years of age, started for the seat of war at Bergen- op-Zoom, before which place one of his brothers had already been killed. Mounted on an old horse, with a boy from the village as attendant, and furnished by a lady with a letter of introduction to a colonel, he reached his destination on the evening before a battle. Next morning the colonel found that the new and very diminutive volunteer had posted himself in the front rank of a body of grenadiers, and could not be induced to quit the position. In the battle, the company which he had joined became exposed to the fire of the enemy's artillery, and in the confusion of retreat was forgotten. All the officers and subalterns were killed, and not more than fourteen men were left, when the oldest grenadiers seeing there were no more French in sight proposed to the young volunteer so soon become com- mandant to withdraw his men. This he refused to do without orders. These at last arrived; and for his bravery he was made an officer on the spot, and soon after was named to a lieutenancy. After the peace, the regiment was sent to Monaco. There one of his comrades playfully lifted him by the head, and to this it was imputed that he was seized with disease of the glands of the neck, so severe as to put a stop to his military career. He went to Paris and began the study of medicine, supporting himself by working in a banker's office He early became interested in meteorology and in physical and chemical speculations of a chimerical kind, but happily threw his main strength into botany, and in 1778 published his Flore fran$aise, a work in which by a dichotomous system of contrasting characters he enabled the student with facility to determine species. This work, which went through several editions and long kept the field, gained for its author immediate popularity as well as admission to the Academy of Sciences. In 1781 and 1782, under the title of botanist to the king, an appointment obtained for him by Buffon, whose son accompanied him, he travelled through various countries of Europe, extending his knowledge of natural history; and on his return he began those elaborate contributions to botany on which his reputation in that science principally rests, namely, the Dictionnaire de Botanigue and the Illustrations de Genres, voluminous works contributed to the Encyclopedic Methodique (1785). In 1793, in consequence of changes in the organization of the natural history department at the Jardin du Roi, where he had held a botanical appointment since 1788, Lamarck was presented to a zoological chair, and called on to lecture on the Insecta and Vermes of Linnaeus, the animals for which he introduced the term In- iiertebrata. Thus driven, comparatively late in life, to devote his principal attention to zoology instead of botany, he had the misfortune soon after to suffer from impaired vision; and the malady resulted subsequently in total blindness. Yet his greatest zoological work, the Histoirc naturelle des animaux sans vertebres, was published from 1815 to 1822, with the assistance, in the last two volumes, of his eldest daughter and of P. A. Latreille (1762-1833). A volume of plates of the fossil shells of the neighbourhood of Paris was collected in 1823 from his memoirs in the Annales des Museums. He died on the i8th of December 1829. The character of Lamarck as a naturalist is remarkable alike for its excellences and its defects. His excellences were width of scope, fertility of ideas and a pre-eminent faculty of precise description, arising not only from a singularly terse style, but from a clear insight into both the distinctive features and the resemblances of forms. That part of his zoological work which constitutes his solid claim to the highest honour as a zoologist is to be found in his extensive and detailed labours in the depart- ments of living and fossil Invertebrata. His endeavours at classification of the great groups were necessarily defective on account of the imperfect knowledge possessed in his time in regard to many of them, e.g. echinoderms, ascidians and in- testinal worms; yet they are not without interest, particularly on account of the comprehensive attempt to unite in one great division as Articulala all those groups that appeared to present a segmented construction. Moreover, Lamarck was the first to distinguish vertebrate from invertebrate animals by the presence of a vertebral column, and among the Invertebrata to found the groups Crustacea, Arachnida and Annelida. In 1785 (Hist, del' A cad.} he evinced his appreciation of the necessity of natural orders in botany by an attempt at the classification of plants, interesting, though crude and falling immeasurably short of the system which grew in the hands of his intimate friend A. L. de Jussieu. The problem of taxonomy has never been put more philosophically than he subsequently put it in his Animaux sans vertebres: " What arrangement must be given to the general distribution of animals to make it conformable to the order of nature in the production of these beings? " The most prominent defect in Lamarck must be admitted to have been want of control in speculation. Doubtless the specula- tive tendency furnished a powerful incentive to work, but it outran the legitimate deductions from observation, and led him into the production of volumes of worthless chemistry without experimental basis, as well as into spending much time on fruitless meteorological predictions. His A nnuaires Meteor ologiques were published yearly from 1800 to 1810, and were not discontinued until after an unnecessarily public and brutal tirade from Napoleon, administered on the occasion of being presented with one of his works on natural history. To the general reader the name of Lamarck is chiefly interesting on account of his theory of the origin of life and of the diversities of animal forms. The idea, which appears to have been favoured by Buffon before him, that species were not through all time unalterable, and that the more complex might have been developed from pre-existent simpler forms, became with Lamarck a belief or, as he imagined, a demonstration. Spontaneous generation, he considered, might be easily conceived as resulting from such agencies as heat and electricity causing in small gelatinous bodies an utricular structure, and inducing a " singular tension," a kind of " erethisme " or " orgasme "; and, having thus accounted for the first appearance of life, he explained the whole organization of animals and formation of different organs by four laws (introduction to his Histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertebres, 1815): — 1. " Life by its proper forces tends continually to increase the volume of every body possessing it, and to enlarge its parts, up to a limit which it brings about. 2. " The production of a new organ in an animal body results from the supervention of a new want (besoin) continuing to make itself felt, and a new movement which this want gives birth to and en- courages. 3. " The development of organs and their force of action are con- stantly in ratio to the employment of these organs. 4. All which has been acquired, laid down, or changed in the organization of individuals in the course of their .life is conserved by generation and transmitted to the new individuals which proceed from those which have undergone those changes.'' The second law is often referred to as Lamarck's hypothesis of the evolution of organs in animals by appetence or longing, although he does not teach that the animal's desires affect its conformation directly, but that altered wants lead to altered habits, which result in the formation of new organs as well as in modification, growth or dwindling of those previously existing. Thus, he suggests that, ruminants being pursued by carnivora, their legs have grown slender; and, their legs being only fit for support, while their jaws are weak, they have made attack with the crown of the head, and the determination of fluids thither has led to the growth of horns. So also the stretching of the giraffe's neck to reach the foliage he supposes to have led 102 LA MARGHERITA— LAMARTINE to its elongation; and the kangaroo, sitting upright to support the young in its pouch, he imagines to have had its fore-limbs dwarfed by disuse, and its hind legs and tail exaggerated by using them in leaping. The fourth law expresses the inheritance of acquired characters, which is denied by August Weismann and his followers. For a more detailed account of Lamarck's place in the history of the doctrine of evolution, see EVOLUTION. LA MARGHERITA, CLEMENTE SOLARO, COUNT DEL (1792- 1869), Piedmontese statesman, was born at Mondovi. He studied law at Siena and Turin, but Piedmont was at that time under French domination, and being devoted to the house of Savoy he refused to take his degree, as this proceeding would have obliged him to recognize the authority of the usurper; after the restoration of the Sardinian kingdom, however, he graduated. In 1816 he entered the diplomatic service. Later he returned to Turin, and succeeded in gaining the confidence and esteem of King Charles Albert, who in 1835 appointed him minister of foreign affairs. A fervent Roman Catholic, devoted to the pope and to the Jesuits, friendly to Austria and firmly attached to the principles of autocracy, he strongly opposed every attempt at political innovation, and was in consequence bitterly hated by the liberals. When the popular agitation in favour of con- stitutional reform first broke out the king felt obliged to dispense with La Margherita's services, although he had conducted public affairs with considerable ability and absolute loyalty, even upholding the dignity of the kingdom in the face of the arrogant attitude of the cabinet of Vienna. He expounded his political creed and his policy as minister to Charles Albert (from February 1835 to October 1847) in his Memorandum storico-politico, published in 1851, a document of great interest for the study of the conditions of Piedmont and Italy at that time. In 1853 he was elected deputy for San Quirico, but he persisted in regarding his mandate as derived from the royal authority rather than as an emanation of the popular will. As leader of the Clerical Right in the parliament he strongly opposed Cavour's policy, which was eventually to lead to Italian unity, and on the estab- lishment of the kingdom of Italy he retired from public life. LA MARMORA, ALFONSO FERRERO (1804-1878), Italian general and statesman, was born at Turin on the i8th of November 1804. He entered the Sardinian army in 1823, and was a captain in March 1848, when he gained distinction and the rank of major at the siege of Peschiera. On the 5th of August 1848 he liberated Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, from the Milan revolutionaries, and in October was promoted general and appointed minister of war. After suppressing the revolt of Genoa in 1849, he again assumed in November 1849 the portfolio of war, which, save during the period of his command of the Crimean expedition, he retained until 1859. Having recon- structed the Piedmontese army, he took part in the war of 1859 against Austria; and in July of that year succeeded Cavour in the premiership. In 1860 he was sent to Berlin and St Peters- burg to arrange for the recognition of the kingdom of Italy, and subsequently he held the offices of governor of Milan and royal lieutenant at Naples, until, in September 1864, he succeeded Minghetti as premier. In this capacity he modified the scope of the September Convention by a note in which he claimed for Italy full freedom of action in respect of national aspirations to the possession of Rome, a document of which Viscontf Venosta afterwards took advantage when justifying the Italian occupation of Rome in 1870. In April 1866 La Marmora concluded an alliance with Prussia against Austria, and, on the outbreak of war in June, took command of an army corps, but was defeated at Custozza on the 23rd of June. Accused of treason by his fellow- countrymen, and of duplicity by the Prussians, he eventually published in defence of his tactics (1873) a series of documents entitled Un po' piii di luce sugli evenli dell' anno 1866 (More light on the events of 1866) a step which caused irritation in Germany, and exposed him to the charge of having violated state secrets. Meanwhile he had been sent to Paris in 1867 to oppose the French expedition to Rome, and in 1870, after the occupation of Rome by the Italians, had been appointed lieu- tenant-royal of the new capital. He died at Florence on the 5th of January 1878. La Marmora's writings include Un episodio del risorgimenlo italiano (Florence, 1875); and / segreti di stato nel governo constituzionale (Florence, 1877). See G. Massani, // generate Alfonso La Marmora (Milan, 1880). LAMARTINE, ALPHONSE MARIE LOUIS DE PRAT DE (1790-1869), French poet, historian and statesman, was born at Macon on the 2ist of October 1790. The order of his surnames is a controversial matter, and they are sometimes reversed. The family of Lamartine was good, and the title of Prat was taken from an estate in Franche Comte. His father was im- prisoned during the Terror, and only released owing to the events of the gth Thermidor. Lamartine's early education was received from his mother. He was sent to school at Lyons in 1805, but not being happy there was transferred to the care of the Peres de la Foi at Belley, where he remained until 1809. For some time afterwards he lived at home, reading romantic and poetical literature, but in 1811 he set out for Italy, where he seems to have sojourned nearly two years. His family having been steady royalists, he entered the Gardes du corps at the return of the Bourbons, and during the Hundred Days he sought refuge first in Switzerland and then at Aix-en-Savoie, where he fell in love, with abundant results of the poetical kind. After Waterloo he re- turned to Paris. In 1818-1819 he revisited Switzerland, Savoy and Italy, the death of his beloved affording him new subjects for verse. After some difficulties he had his first book, the Meditations, poetiques el religieuses, published (1820). It was exceedingly popular, and helped him to make a position. He had left the army for some time; he now entered the diplomatic service and was appointed secretary to the embassy at Naples. On his way to his post he married, in 1823, at Geneva a young English lady, Marianne Birch, who had both money and beauty, and in the same year his Nouvellcs meditations poetiques appeared. In 1824 he was transferred to Florence, where he remained five years. His Last Canto of C/tilde Harold appeared in 1825, and he had to fight a duel (in which he was wounded) with an Italian officer, Colonel Pepe, in consequence of a phrase in it. Charles X., on whose coronation he wrote a poem, gave him the order of the Legion of Honour. The Harmonies poeliques et religieuses appeared in 1829, when he had left Florence. Having refused an appointment in Paris under the Polignac ministry, he went on a special mission to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. In the same year he was elected to the Academy. Lamartine was in Switzer- land, not in Paris, at the time of the Revolution of July, and, though he put forth a pamphlet on " Rational Policy," he did not at that crisis take any active part in politics, refusing, however, to continue his diplomatic services under the new government. In 1832 he set out with his wife and daughter for Palestine, having been unsuccessful in his candidature for a seat in the chamber. His daughter Julia died at Beirut, and before long he received the news of his election by a constituency (Bergues) in the department of the Nord. He returned through Turkey and Germany, and made his first speech shortly after the beginning of 1834. Thereafter he spoke constantly, and acquired considerable reputation as an orator, — bringing out, moreover, many books in prose and verse. His Eastern travels (Voyage en Orient) appeared in 1835, his Chute d'un ange and Jocelyn in 1837, and his Recueillemenls, the last remarkable volume of his poetry, in 1839. As the reign of Louis Philippe went on, Lamartine, who had previously been a liberal royalist, something after the fashion of Chateaubriand, became more and more democratic in his opinions. He set about his greatest prose work, the Histoire des Girondins, which at first appeared periodically, and was published as a whole in 1847. Like many other French histories, it was a pamphlet as well as a chronicle, and the subjects of Lamartine's pen became his models in politics. At the revolution of February Lamartine was one of the first to declare for a provisional government, and became a member of it, with the post of minister for foreign affairs. He was elected for the new constituent assembly in ten different departments, and was chosen one of the five members of the Executive Com- mittee. For a few months indeed Lamartine, from being a. LAMARTINE 103 distinguished man of letters, an official of inferior rank in diplo- macy, and an eloquent but unpractical speaker in parliament, became one of the foremost men in Europe. His inexperience in the routine work of government, the utterly unpractical nature of his colleagues, and the turbulence of the Parisian mob, proved fatal to his chances. He gave some proofs of statesman- like ability, and his eloquence was repeatedly called into requisi- tion to pacify the Parisians. But no one can permanently carry on the government of a great country by speeches from the balcony of a house in the capital, and Lamartine found himself in a dilemma. So long as he held aloof from Ledru-Rollin and the more radical of his colleagues, the disunion resulting weakened the government; as soon as he effected an approxima- tion to them the middle classes fell off from him. The quelling of the insurrection of the i5th of May was his last successful act. A month later the renewal of active disturbances brought on the fighting of June, and Lamartine's influence was extin- guished in favour of Cavaignac. Moreover, his chance of renewed political pre-eminence was gone. He had been tried and found wanting, having neither the virtues nor the vices of his situation. In January 1849, though he was nominated for the presidency, only a few thousand votes were given to him, and three months later he was not even elected to the Legislative Assembly. The remaining story of Lamartine's life is somewhat melancholy. He had never been a rich man, nor had he been a saving one, and during his period of popularity and office he had incurred great expenses. He now set to work to repair his fortune by un- remitting literary labour. He brought out in the Presse (1849) a series of Confidences, and somewhat later a kind of autobiography, entitled Raphael. He wrote several historical works of more or less importance, the History of the Revolution of 1848, The History of the Restoration, The History of Turkey, The History of Russia, besides a large number of small biographical and miscellaneous works. In 1858 a subscription was opened for his benefit. Two years afterwards, following the example of Chateaubriand, he supervised an elaborate edition of his own works in forty-one volumes. This occupied five years, and while he was engaged on it his wife died (1863). He was now over seventy; his powers had deserted him, and even if they had not the public taste had entirely changed. His efforts had not succeeded in placing him in a position of independence; and at last, in 1867, the government of the Empire (from which he had perforce stood aloof, though he never considered it necessary to adopt the active protesting attitude of Edgar Quinet and Victor Hugo) came to his assistance, a vote of £20,000 being proposed in April of that year for his benefit by Emile Ollivier. This was creditable to both parties, for Lamartine, both as a distinguished man of letters and as a past servant of the state, had every claim to the bounty of his country. But he was reproached for accepting it by the extreme republicans and irreconcilables. He did not enjoy it long, dying on the 28th of February 1869. As a statesman Lamartine was placed during his brief tenure of office in a position from which it would have been almost impossible for any man, who was not prepared and able to play the dictator, to emerge with credit. At no time in history were unpractical crotchets so rife in the heads of men as in 1848. But Lamartine could hardly have guided the ship of state safely even in much calmer weather. He was amiable and even estimable, the chief fault of his character being vanity and an incurable tendency towards theatrical effect, which makes his travels, memoirs and other personal records as well as his historical works radically untrustworthy. Nor does it appear that he had any settled political ideas. He did good by moderating the revolutionary and destructive ardour of the Parisian populace in 1848 ; but he had been perhaps more responsible than any other single person for bringing about the events of that year by the vague and frothy republican declamation of his Histoire des Girondins. More must be said of his literary position. Lamartine had the ad- vantage of coming at a time when the literary field, at least in the departments of belles lettres, was almost empty. The feeble school of descriptive writers, epic poets of the extreme decadence, fabulists and miscellaneous verse-makers, which the Empire had nourished could satisfy no one. Madame de Stael was dead; Chateaubriand, though alive, was something of a classic, and had not effected a full revolution. Lamartine did not himself go the complete length of the Romantic revival, but he went far in that direction. He availed himself of the reviving interest in legitimism and Catholicism which was represented by Bonald and Joseph de Maistre, of the nature worship of Rousseau and Bernardin de Saint Pierre, of the senti- mentalism of Madame de Stael, of the medievalism and the romance of Chateaubriand and Scott, of the maladie du siecle of Chateaubriand and Byron. Perhaps if his matter be very closely analysed it will be found that he added hardly anything of his own. But if the parts of the mixture were like other things the mixture itself was not. It seemed indeed to the immediate generation so original that tradition has it that the Meditations were refused by a publisher because they were in none of the accepted styles. They appeared when Lamartine was nearly thirty years old. The best of them, and the best thing that Lamartine ever did, is the famous Lac, describing his return to the little mountain tarn of Le Bourget after the death of his mistress, with whom he had visited it in other days. The verse is exquisitely harmonious, the sentiments conventional but refined and delicate, the imagery well chosen and gracefully expressed. There is an un- questionable want of vigour, but to readers of that day the want of vigour was entirely compensated by the presence of freshness and grace. Lamartine's chief misfortune in poetry was not only that his note was a somewhat weak one, but that he could strike but one. The four volumes of the Meditations, the Harmonies and the Recueille- ments, which contained the prime of his verse, are perhaps the most monotonous reading to be found anywhere in work of equal bulk by a poet of equal talent. They contain nothing but meditative lyrical pieces, almost any one of which is typical of the whole, though there is considerable variation of merit. The two narrative poems which succeeded the early lyrics, Jocelyn and the Chute d'un ange, were, according to Lamartine's original plan, parts of a vast " Epic of the Ages," some further fragments of which survive. Jocelyn had at one time more popularity in England than most French verse. La Chute d'un ange, in which the Byronic influence is more obvious than in any other of Lamartine's works, and in which some have also seen that of Alfred de Vigny, is more ambitious in theme, and less regu- lated by scrupulous conditions of delicacy in handling, than most of its author's poetry. It does, however, little more than prove that such audacities were not for him. As a prose writer Lamartine was very fertile. His characteristics in his prose fiction and descriptive work are not very different from those of his poetry. He is always and everywhere sentimental, though very frequently, as in his shorter prose tales (The Stone Mason of Saint-Point, Graziella, &c.), he is graceful as well as sentimental. In his histories the effect is worse. It has been hinted that Lamartine's personal narratives are doubtfully trust- worthy; with ^egard to his Eastern travels some of the episodes were stigmatized as mere inventions. In his histories proper the special motive for embellishment disappears, but the habit of in- accuracy remains. As an historian he belongs exclusively to the rhetorical school as distinguished from the philosophical on the one hand and the documentary on the other. It is not surprising when these characteristics of Lamartine's work are appreciated to find that his fame declined with singular rapidity in France. As a poet he had lost his reputation many years before he died. He was entirely eclipsed by the brilliant and vigorous school who succeeded him with Victor Hugo at their head. His power of initiative in poetry was very small, and the range of poetic ground which he could cover strictly limited. He could only carry the picturesque sentimentalism of Rousseau, Bernardin de Saint Pierre and Chateaubriand a little farther, and clothe it in language and verse a little less antiquated than that of Chgnedolle and Mille- voye. He has been said to be a French Cowper, and the parallel holds good in respect of versification and of his relative position to the more daringly innovating school that followed, though not in respect of individual peculiarities. Lamartine in short occupied a kind of half-way house between the i8th century and the Romantic move- ment, and he never got any farther. When Matthew Arnold questioned his importance in conversation with Sainte-Beuve, the answer was, " He is important to us," and it was a true answer; but the limitation is obvious. In more recent years, however, efforts have been made by Brunetiere and others to remove it. The usual revolution of critical as of other taste, the oblivion of personal and political unpopularity, and above all the reaction against Hugo and the extreme Romantics, have been the main agents in this. La- martine has been extolled as a pattern of combined passion and restraint, as a model of nobility of sentiment, and as a harmonizer of pure French classicism in taste and expression with much, if not all, the better part of Romanticism itself. These oscillations of opinion ar» frequent, if not universal, and it is only after more than one or two swings that the pendulum remains at the perpendicular. The above remarks are an attempt to correct extravagance in either direction. But it is difficult to believe that Lamartine can ever permanently take rank among the first order of poets. The edition mentioned is the most complete one of Lamartine, but there are many issues of his separate works. After his death some poems and Memoir es inedits of his youth were published, and also two volumes of correspondence, while in 1893 Mile V. de Lamartine added a volume of Lettres to him. The change of views above re- ferred to may be studied in the detached articles of MM. Brunetiere, * LAMB Faguet, Lemaitre, &c., and in the more substantive work of Ch. de Pomairols, Lamartine (1889); E. Deschanel, Lamartine (1893); E. Zyrowski, Lamartine (1896); and perhaps best of all in the Preface to Emile Legouis' Clarendon Press edition of Jocelyn (1906), where a vigorous effort is made to combat the idea of Lamartine's sentimentality and femininity as a poet. (G. SA.) LAMB, CHARLES (1775-1834), English essayist and critic, was born in Crown Office Row, Inner Temple, London, on the loth of February 1775. His father, John Lamb, a Lincolnshire man, who filled the situation of clerk and servant-companion to Samuel Salt, a member of parliament and one of the benchers of the Inner Temple, was successful in obtaining for Charles, the youngest of three surviving children, a presentation to Christ's Hospital, where the boy remained from his eighth to his fifteenth year (1782-1789). Here he had for a schoolfellow Samuel Taylor Coleridge, his senior by rather more than two years, and a close and tender friendship began which lasted for the rest of the lives of both. When the time came for leaving school, where he had learned some Greek and acquired consider- able facility in Latin composition, Lamb, after a brief stay at home (probably spent, as his school holidays had often been, over old English authors in Salt's library) was condemned to the labours of the desk — " an inconquerable impediment " in his speech disqualifying him for the clerical profession, which, as the school exhibitions were usually only given to those preparing for the church, thus deprived him of the only means by which he could have obtained a university education. For a short time he was in the office of Joseph Paice, a London merchant, and then for twenty-three weeks, until the 8th of February 1792, he held a small post in the Examiner's Office of the South Sea House, where his brother John was established, a period which, although his age was but sixteen, was to provide him nearly thirty years later with materials for the first of the Essays of Elia. On the sth of April 1792, he entered the Accountant's Office in the East India House, where during the next three and thirty years the hundred official folios of what he used to call his true " works " were produced. Of the years 1792-1795 we know little. At the end of 1794 he saw much of Coleridge and joined him in writing sonnets in the Morning Post, addressed to eminent persons: early in 1795 he met Southey and was much in the company of James White, whom he probably helped in the composition of the Original Letters of Sir John Falstaff; and at the end of the year for a short time he became so unhinged mentally as to necessitate confinement in an asylum. The cause, it is probable, was an unsuccessful love affair with Ann Simmons, the Hertfordshire maiden to whom his first sonnets are addressed, whom he would have seen when on his visits as a youth to Blakesware House, near Widford, the country home of the Plumer family, of which Lamb's grandmother, Mary Field, was for many years, until her death in 1792, sole custodian. It was in the late summer of 1796 that a dreadful calamity came upon the Lambs, which seemed to blight all Lamb's prospects in the very morning of life. On the 22nd of September his sister Mary, " worn down to a state of extreme nervous misery by attention to needlework by day and to her mother at night," was suddenly seized with acute mania, in which she stabbed her mother to the heart. The calm self-mastery and loving self-renunciation which Charles Lamb, by constitution excitable, nervous and self-mistrustful, displayed at this crisis in his own history and in that of those nearest him, will ever give him an imperishable claim to the reverence and affection of all who are capable of appreciating the heroisms of common life. With the help of friends he succeeded in obtaining his sister's release from the life-long restraint to which she would otherwise have been doomed, on the express condition that he himself should undertake the responsibility for her safe keeping. It proved no light charge: for though no one was capable of affording a more intelligent or affectionate companionship than Mary Lamb during her periods of health, there was ever present the apprehension of the recurrence of her malady; and when from time to time the premonitory symptoms had become unmistakable, there was no alternative but her removal, which took place in quietness and tears. How deeply the whole course of Lamb's domestic life must have been affected by his singular loyalty as a brother needs not to be pointed out. Lamb's first appearance as an author was made in the year of the great tragedy of his life (1796), when there were published in the volume of Poems on Various Subjects by Coleridge four sonnets by " Mr Charles Lamb of the India House." In the following year he contnbuted, with Charles Lloyd, a pupil of Coleridge, some pieces in blank verse to the second edition of Coleridge's Poems. In 1797 his short summer holiday was spent with Coleridge at Nether Stowey, where he met the Wordsworths, William and Dorothy, and established a friendship with both which only his own death terminated. In 1798, under the influence of Henry Mackenzie's novel Julie de Roubigne, he published a short and pathetic prose tale entitled Rosamund Gray, in which it is possible to trace beneath disguised conditions references to the misfortunes of the author's own family, and many personal touches; and in the same year he joined Lloyd in a volume of Blank Verse, to which Lamb contributed poems occasioned by the death of his mother and his aunt Sarah Lamb, among them being his best-known lyric, " The Old Familiar Faces." In this year, 1798, he achieved the unexpected publicity of an attack by the Anti- Jacobin upon him as an associate of Coleridge and Southey (to whose Annual Anthology he had contributed) in their Jacobin machinations. In 1799, on the death of her father, Mary Lamb came to live again with her brother, their home then being in Pentonville; but it was not until 1800 that they really settled together, their first independent joint home being at Mitre Court Buildings in the Temple, where they lived until 1809. At the end of 1801, or beginning of 1802, appeared Lamb's first play John Woodvil, on which he set great store, a slight dramatic piece written in the style of the earlier Elizabethan period and containing some genuine poetry and happy delineation of the gentler emotions, but as a whole deficient in plot, vigour and character; it was held up to ridicule by the Edinburgh Review as a specimen of the rudest condition of the drama, a work by " a man of the age of Thespis." The dramatic spirit, however, was not thus easily quenched in Lamb, and his next effort was a farce, Mr H , the point of which lay in the hero's anxiety to conceal his name " Hogsflesh "; but it did not survive the fifst night of its appearance at Drury Lane, in December 1806. Its author bore the failure with rare equanimity and good humour — even to joining in the hissing — and soon struck into new and more successful fields of literary exertion. Before, however, passing to these it should be men- tioned that he made various efforts to earn money by journalism, partly by humorous articles, partly as dramatic critic, but chiefly as a contributor of sarcastic or funny paragraphs, " sparing neither man nor woman," in the Morning Post, principally in 1803. In 1807 appeared Tales founded on the Plays of Shakespeare, written by Charles and Mary Lamb^ in which Charles was responsible for the tragedies and Mary for the comedies; and in 1808, Specimens of English Dramatic Poets who lived about the time of Shakespeare, with short but felicitous critical notes. It was this work which laid the foundation of Lamb's reputation as a critic, for it was filled with imaginative understanding of the old playwrights, and a warm, discerning and novel apprecia- tion of their great merits. In the same year, 1808, Mary Lamb, assisted by her brother, published Poetry for Children, and a collection of short school-girl tales under the title Mrs Leicester's School; and to the same date belongs The Adventures of Ulysses, designed by Lamb as a companion to The Adventures of Telemachus. In 1810 began to appear Leigh Hunt's quarterly periodical, The Reflector, in which Lamb published much (includ- ing the fine essays on the tragedies of Shakespeare and on Hogarth) that subsequently appeared in the first collective edition of his Works, which he put forth in 1818. Between 1811, when The Reflector ceased, and 1820, he wrote almost nothing. In these years we may imagine him at 'his most social period, playing much whist and entertaining his friends on Wednesday or Thursday nights; meanwhile gathering LAMB— LAMBALLE, PRINCESSE DE that reputation as a conversationalist or inspirer of conversation in others, which Hazlitt, who was at one time one of Lamb's closest friends, has done so much to celebrate. When in 1818 ap- peared the Works in two volumes, it may be that Lamb considered his literary career over. Before coming to 1820, and an event which was in reality to be the beginning of that career as it is generally known— the establishment of the London Magazine — it should be recorded that in the summer of 1819 Lamb, with his sister's full consent, proposed marriage to Fanny Kelly, the actress, who was then in her thirtieth year. Miss Kelly could not accept, giving as one reason her devotion to her mother. Lamb bore the rebuff with characteristic humour and fortitude. The establishment of the London Magazine in 1820 stimulated Lamb to the production of a series of new essays (the Essays of Elia) which may be said to form the chief corner-stone in the small but classic temple of his fame. The first of these, as it fell out, was a description of the old South Sea House, with which Lamb happened to have associated the name of a "gay light-hearted foreigner " called Elia, who was a clerk in the days of his service there. The pseudonym adopted on this occasion was retained for the subsequent contributions, which appeared collectively in a volume of essays called Elia, in 1823. After a career of five years the London Magazine came to an end; and about the same period Lamb's long connexion with the India House terminated, a pension of £450 (£441 net) having been assigned to him. The increased leisure, however, for which he had long sighed, did not prove favourable to literary pro- duction, which henceforth was limited to a few trifling contribu- tions to the New Monthly and other serials, and the excavation of gems from the mass of dramatic literature bequeathed to the British Museum by David Garrick, which Lamb laboriously read through in 1827, an occupation which supplied him for a time with the regular hours of work he missed so much. The malady of his sister, which continued to increase with ever shortening intervals of relief, broke in painfully on his lettered ease and comfort; and it is unfortunately impossible to ignore the deteriorating effects of an over-free indulgence in the use of alcohol, and, in early life, tobacco, on a temperament such as his. His removal on account of his sister to the quiet of the country at Enfield, by tending to withdraw him from the stimulating society of the large circle of literary friends who had helped to make his weekly or monthly " at homes " so remarkable, doubtless also tended to intensify his listlessness and helplessness. One of the brightest elements in the closing years of his life was the friendship and companionship of Emma Isola, whom he and his sister had adopted, and whose marriage in 1833 to Edward Moxon, the publisher, though a source of unselfish joy to Lamb, left him more than ever alone. While living at Edmonton, whither he had moved in 1833 so that his sister might have the continual care of Mr and Mrs Walden, who were accustomed to patients of weak intellect, Lamb was overtaken by an attack of erysipelas brought on by an accidental fall as he was walking on the London road. After a few days' illness he died on the 27th of December, 1834. The sudden death of one so widely known, admired and beloved, fell on the public as well as on his own attached circle with all the poignancy of a personal calamity and a private grief. His memory wanted no tribute that affection could bestow, and Wordsworth com- memorated in simple and solemn verse the genius, virtues and fraternal devotion of his early friend. Charles Lamb is entitled to a place as an essayist beside Montaigne, Sir Thomas Browne, Steele and Addison. He unites many of the characteristics of each of these writers — refined and exquisite humour, a genuine and cordial vein of pleasantry and heart-touching pathos. His fancy is distinguished by great delicacy and tenderness; and even his conceits are imbued with human feeling and passion. He had an extreme and almost exclusive partiality for earlier prose writers, particularly for Fuller, Browne and Burton, as well as for the dramatists of Shake- speare's time; and the care with which he studied them is apparent in all he ever wrote. It shines out conspicuously in his style, which has an antique air and is redolent of the peculiarities of the I7th century. Its quaintness has subjected the author to the charge of affectation, but there is nothing really affected in his writings. His style is not so much an imitation as a reflexion of the older writers; for in spirit he made himself their contemporary. A confirmed habit of studying them in preference to modern literature had made something of their style natural to him; and long experience had rendered it not only easy and familiar but habitual. It was not a masquerade dress he wore, but the costume which showed the man to most advantage. With thought and meaning often profound, though clothed in simple language, every sentence of his essays is pregnant. He played a considerable part in reviving the dramatic writers of the Shakesperian age; for he preceded Gifford and others in wiping the dust of ages from their works. In his brief comments on each specimen he displays exquisite powers of discrimination: his discernment of the true meaning of his author is almost infallible. His work was a departure in criticism. Former editors had supplied textual criticism and alternative readings: Lamb's object was to show how our ancestors felt when they placed themselves by the power of imagination in trying situations, in the conflicts of duty or passion or the strife of contending duties; what sorts of loves and enmities theirs were. As a poet Lamb is not entitled to so high a place as that which can be claimed for him as essayist and critic. His dependence on Elizabethan models is here also manifest, but in such a way as to bring into all the greater prominence his native deficiency in " the accomplishment of verse." Yet it is impossible, once having read, ever to forget the tenderness and grace of such poems as " Hester," " The Old Familiar Faces," and the lines " On an infant dying as soon as born " or the quaint humour of " A Farewell to Tobacco." As a letter writer Lamb ranks very high, and when in a nonsensical mood there is none to touch him. Editions and memoirs of Lamb are numerous. The Letters, with a sketch of his life by Sir Thomas Noon Talfourd, appeared in 1837; the Final Memorials of Charles Lamb by the same hand, after Mary Lamb's death, in 1848; Barry Cornwall's Charles Lamb: A Memoir, in 1866. Mr P. Fitzgerald's Charles Lamb: his Friends, his Haunts and his Books (1866); W. Carew Hazlitt's Mary and Charles Lamb (1874). Mr Fitzgerald and Mr Hazlitt have also both edited the Letters, and Mr Fitzgerald brought Talfourd to date with an edition of Lamb's works in 1870-1876. Later and fuller editions are those of Canon Ainger in 12 volumes, Mr Macdonald in 12 volumes and Mr E. V. Lucas in 7 volumes, to which in 1905 was added The Life of Charles Lamb, in 2 volumes. (E. V. L.) LAMB (a word common to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. Lamm), the young of sheep. The Paschal Lamb or Agnus Dei is used as a symbol of Jesus Christ, the Lamb of God (John i. 29), and " lamb," like " flock," is often used figuratively of the members of a Christian church or community, with an allusion to Jesus' charge to Peter (John xxi. 15). The "lamb and flag" is an heraldic emblem, the dexter fore-leg of the lamb supporting a staff bearing a banner charged with the St George's cross. This was one of the crests of the Knights Templars, used on seals as early as 1 241 ; it was adopted as a badge or crest by the Middle Temple, the Inner Temple using another crest of the Templars, the winged horse or Pegasus. The old Tangier regiment, now the Queen's Royal West Surrey Regiment, bore a Paschal Lamb as its badge. From their colonel, Percy Kirke (.,the ciliated junctions ; il,j., inter-lamellar junction. C,Transverse section of a fila- ment taken so as to cut neither a ciliated junction nor an inter- lamellar junction, f.e., Frontal epithelium; l.f.e'., l.f.e"., the two rows of latero-frpntal epithelial cells with long cilia ; ch, chitinous tubular lining of the filament; lac., blood lacuna traversed by a few processes of connective tissue cells; b.c., blood -corpuscle. near the labial tentacles, but it is at first only a ridge, and does not project as a free cylindrical axis until the back part of the foot is reached. This is difficult to see in Anodonta, but if the mantle-skirt be entirely cleared away, and if the dependent lamellae which spring from the ctenidial axis be carefully cropped so as to leave the axis itself intact, we obtain the form shown in fig. 15, where g and h are respectively the left and the right ctenidial axes projecting freely beyond the body. In Area this can be seen with far less trouble, for the filaments are more easily removed than are the consolidated lamellae formed by the filaments of Anodonta, and in Area the free axes of the ctenidia are large and firm in texture (fig. 9, c,d). If we were to make a vertical section across the long axis of a Lamellibranch which had the axis of its ctenidium free from its origin onwards, we should find such relations as are shown in the diagram fig. 16, A. The gill axis d is seen lying in the sub-pallial chamber between the foot 6 and the mantle c. From it depend the gill- filaments or lamellae — formed by united filaments — drawn as black lines/. On the left side these lamellae are represented as having only a small reflected growth, on the right side the reflected ramus or lamella is complete (fr and er)v The actual condition in Anodonta at the region where the gills begin anteriorly is shown in fig. 16, B. The axis of the ctenidium is seen to be adherent to, or fused by con- crescence with, the body-wall, and moreover on each side the outer lamella of the outer gill-plate is fused to the mantle, whilst the inner lamella of the inner gill-plate is fused to the foot. If we take another section nearer the hinder margin of the foot, we get the arrangement LAMELLIBRANCHIA 117 f f f s FIG. 12. — Transverse Section of the Outer Gill-plate of Dreissensia polymorpha. (After R. H. Peck.) nch, lac, pig, Constituent gill-filaments. Fibroussub-epidermic tissue. Chitonous substance of the filaments. Cells related to the chitonous substance. Lacunar tissue. Pigment-cells. be, Blood-corpuscles. fe. Frontal epithelium. //e',//e",Tworowsoflatero-frontal epithelial cells with long cilia. Irf, Fibrous, possibly muscular, I substance of the inter- filamentar junctions. A, ?; 0.1, o\l FIG. 13. — Transverse Sections of Gill-plates of Anodonta. (After R. H. Peck.) Outer gill-plate. Inner gill-plate. A portion of B more highly Outer lamella, [magnified. Inner lamella. Blood-vessel. L, ch, Constituent filaments. Lacunar tissue. Chitonous substance of the filament. chr, Chitonous rod embedded in the softer substance ch,' shown diagrammatically in fig. 16, C, and more correctly in fig. 17. In this region the inner lamellae of the inner gill-plates are no longer f f FIG. 14.— Gill-lamellae of Anodonta. (After R. H. Peck.) Diagram of a block cut from the outer lamella of the outer gill-plate and seen from the inter- lamellar surface. /, Constituent filaments ; trf, fibrous tissue of the transverse inter-filamentar junc- tions; v, blood-vessel ilj, Inter- lamellar junction. The series of oval holes on the back of the lamella are the water-pores which open between the filaments in irregular rows separated hori- zontally by the transverse inter- filmentar junctions. 9 * affixed to the foot Passing still farther back behind the foot, we find in Anodonta the condition shown in the section D, fig. 16. The axes i are now free; the outer lamellae of the outer a L gill-plates (er) still adhere by concrescence to the mantle-skirt, whilst the inner lamellae of the inner gill-plates meet one another and fuse by concrescence at g. In the lateral view of the animal with reflected mantle-skirt and gill-plates, a the line of concrescence of the inner lamellae of the inner gill-plates is readily seen; it is marked aa in %• I (5)- In the same figure the free part of the _ inner lamella of. the inner , FJG- I5-— Diagram of a view from gill-plate resting on the foot the left s'de of the animal of Anodonta. is marked z, whilst the at- cygnaea, from which the mantle-skirt, tached parjt— the most the labial tentacles and the gill-fila- anterior— has been snipped raents have been entirely removed so with scissors so as to show a? to show V16 relations of the axis the genital and nephridial °£ the gill-plumes or ctemdia g, h. apertures x and y. The con- (Original.) crescence, then, of the free ?• Centro-dorsal area. edge of the reflected lamellae b< Anterior adductor muscle. of the gill-plates of Anodon <•- P°ste"or adductor muscle. is very extensive. It is im- "> Mouth. portant, because such a '• Anus. concrescence is by no means /> £.°°t. universal, and does not «- Free portion of the axis of left occur, for example, in , ctemdium. Mytilus or in Area; further, *• Axis of right ctemdium. because when its occurrence *• Portion of the axis of the left is once appreciated, the re- ctemdium which is fused with the base of the foot, the two dotted lines indicating the origins of the two rows of gill-filaments. duction of the gill-plates of Anodonta to the plume- type of the simplest ctenidium presents no difficulty; and, w, Line of origin of the anterior labial lastly, it has importance in ..ten,tac'e •' reference to its physiological »• Nephridial aperture. significance. The mechani- °< genital aperture. cal result of the concrescence r< Line of onPn of the postenor labial of the outer lamellae to the tentacle. mantle-flap, and of the inner lamellae to one another as shown in section D, fig. 16, is that the sub-pallial space is divided into two spaces by a horizontal septum. The upper space (i) communicates with the outer world n8 LAMELLIBRANCHIA by the excurrent or superior siphonal notch of the mantle (fig. I, d)', the lower space communicates by the lower siphonal FIG. 16.— Diagrams of Transverse Sections of a Lamellibranch to show the Adhesion, by Concrescence, of the Gill-Lamellae to the Mantle-flaps, to the foot and to one another. (Lankester.) er, Reflected lamella of outer gill- plate. /, Adaxial lamella of inner gill- plate. fr. Reflected lamella of inner gill-plate. g, Line of concrescence of the reflected lamellae of the two inner gill-plates. h, Rectum. i, Supra-branchial space of the sub-pallial chamber. A, Shows two conditions free gill-axis. B, Condition at foremost region in Anodonta. [donta. C, Hind region of foot in Ano- D, Region altogether posterior to the foot in Anodonta. a, Visceral mass. b, Foot. c, Mantle flap. d, Axis of gill or ctenidium. e, Adaxial lamella of outer gill- plate. notch (e in fig. i). The only communication between the two spaces, excepting through the trellis-work of the gill-plates, is by the slit (z in fig. I (5)) left by the non-concrescence of a part of the inner lamella of the inner gill-plate with the foot. A probe (g) is introduced through this slit-like passage, i— J+4-1— 1 --V/MSIM&V V \\\\ and it is seen to pass out by the excurrent siphonal notch. It is through this passage, or in- directly through the pores of the gill-plates, that the water introduced into the lower sub- pallial space must pass on its way to the excurrent siphonal notch. Such a subdivision of the pallial chamber, and direc- tionof thecurrentsset up within it do not exist in a number of Lamellibranchs which have the gill-lamellae comparatively free (Mytilus, Area, Trigonia, &c.), and it is in these forms that FIG. 1 7.— Vertical Section through there is Ieast modification by an Anodonta, about the mid-region Concrescence of the primary of the Foot filamentous elements of the m. Mantle-flap. lamellae. br, Outer, 6V, inner gill-plate— each ,, In *he 2? **">* of ^ composed of two lamellae. Encyclopaedia Professor (Sir) /, Foot. R- Lankester suggested tha v. Ventricle of the heart, a, Auricle. p,p', Pericardial cavity. i, Intestine. „= -- these differences of gill-struc- ture would furnish characters of _ classificatory value, and this suggestion has been followed out by Dr Paul Pelseneer in the classification now generally adopted. The alimentary canal of Anodonta is shown in fig. I (4). The mouth is placed between the anterior adductor and the foot; the anus opens on a median papilla overlying the posterior adductor, and discharges into the superior pallial chamber along which the excurrent stream passes. The coil of the intestine in Anodonta is. similar to that of other Lamellibranchs. The rectum traverses the pericardium, and has the ventricle of the heart wrapped, as it were, around it. This is not an unusual arrangement in Lamellibranchs, and a similar disposition occurs in some Gastropoda (Haliotis). A pair of ducts (ai) lead from the first enlargement of the alimentary tract called stemach into a pair of large digestive glands, the so- called liver, the branches of which are closely packed in this region (a/). The food of the Anodonta, as of other Lamellibranchs, consists of microscopic animal and vegetable organisms, brought to the mouth by the stream which sets into the sub-pallial chamber at the lower siphonal notch (e in fig. i). Probably a straining of water from solid particles is effected by the lattice-work of the ctenidia or gill-plates. The heart of Anodonta consists of a median ventricle embracing the rectum (fig. 18, A), and giving off an anterior and a posterior artery. FIG. 18. — Diagrams showing the Relations of Pericardium and Nephridia in a Lamellibranch such as Anodonta. Pericardium opened dorsally so as to expose the heart and the floor of the pericardial chamber d. B, Heart removed and floor of the pericardium cut away on the left side so as to open the non-glandular sac of the nephridium, exposing the glandular sac 6, which is also cut into so as to show the probe /. C, Ideal pericardium and neph- ridium viewed laterally. D, Lateral view showing the actual relation of the glandu- lar and non-glandular sacs of the nephridium. The arrows indicate the course of fluid a, Ventricle of the heart. b, Auricle. bb, Cut remnant of the auricle. c, Dorsal wall of the pericardium cut and reflected. e, Reno-pericardial orifice. /, Probe introduced into the left reno-pericardial orifice. g, Non-glandular sac of the left nephridium. h, Glandular sac of the left nephridium. i, Pore leading from the glandu- lar into the non-glandular sac of the left nephridium. k, Pore leading from the non- glandular sac to the exterior. ac, Anterior. ab, Posterior, cut remnants of the intestine and ventricle. from the pericardium out- wards. and of two auricles which open into the ventricle by orifices pro- tected by valves. The blood is colourless, and has colourless amoeboid corpuscles floating in it. In Ceratisolen legumen, various species of ^4rcaand a few other species the blood is crimson, owing to the presence of corpuscles impregnated with haemoglobin. In Anodonta the blood is driven by the ventricle through the arteries into vessel-like spaces, which soon become irregular lacunae surrounding the viscera, but in parts — e.g. the labial tentacles and walls of the gut — very fine vessels with endothelial cell-lining are found. The blood makes its way by large veins to a venous sinus which lies in the middle line below the heart, having the paired renal organs (nephridia) placed between it and that organ. Hence it passes through the vessels of the glandular walls of the nephridia right and left into the gill- lamellae, whence it returns through many openings into the widely- stretched auricles. In the filaments of the gill of Protobranchia and many Filibranchia the tubular cavity is divided by a more or less complete fibrous septum into two channels, for an afferent and efferent blood-current. The ventricle and auricles of Anodonta lie in a pericardium which is clothed with a pavement endothelium (d, fig. 18). LAMELLIBRANCHIA 119 It does not contain blood or communicate directly with the blocd- system; this isolation of the pericardium we have noted already in Gastropods and Cephalopods. A good case for the examination of the question as to whether blood enters the pericardium of Lamelli- branchs, or escapes from the foot, or by the renal organs when the animal suddenly contracts, is furnished by the Ceratisolen legumen, which has red blood-corpuscles. According to observations made by Penrose on an uninjured Ceratisolen legumen, no red corpuscles are to be seen in the pericardia! space, although the heart is filled with them, and no such corpuscles are ever discharged by the animal when it is irritated. The pair of renal organs of Anodonta, called in Lamelli- branchs the organs of Bojanus, lie below the membranous floor of the pericardium, and open into it by two well-marked apertures (e and / in fig. 18). Each nephridium, after being bent upon itself as shown in fig. 18, C, D, opens to the exterior by a pore placed at the point marked x in fig. I (5) (6). One half of each nephridium is of a dark-green colour and glandular (h in fig. 18). This opens into the reflected portion which overlies it as shown in the diagram fig. 18, D, i; the 19. — Nerve-ganglia and latter has non-glandular walls, of three Lamellibranchs. and opens by the pore k to the (From Gegenbaur.) A, Of Teredo. B, Of Anodonta. C, Of Pecten. a, Cerebral ganglion-pair (=cere- bro-pleuro-visccral). b, Pedal ganglion-pair. c, Olfactory (osphradial) ganglion- pair. FIG Cords exterior. The renal organs may be more ramified in other Lamellibranchs than they are in Anodonta. In some they are difficult to discover. That of the common oyster was de- scribed by Hoek. Each ne- pliridium in the oyster is a pyriform sac, which communi- cates by a narrow canal with the urino-genital groove placed to the front of the great ad- ductor muscle; by a second narrow canal it communicates with the pericardium. From all parts of the pyriform sac narrow stalk-like tubes are given off, ending in abundant widely-spread branching glandular caeca, which form the essential renal secreting apparatus. The genital duct opens by a pore into the urino-genital groove of the oyster (the same arrangement being repeated on each side of the body) close to but distinct from the aperture of the nephridial canal. Hence, except for the formation of a urino-genital groove, the aper- tures are placed as they are in Anodonta. Previously to Hoek's discovery a brown-coloured investment of the auricles of the heart of the oyster had been supposed to represent the nephridia in a rudi- mentary state. This investment, which occurs also in many Fili- branchia, forms the pericardial glands, comparable to the pericardial accessory glandular growths of Cephalopoda. In Unionidae and several other forms the pericardial glands are extended into divcrti- cula of the pericardium which penetrate the mantle and constitute the organ of Heber. The glands secrete hippuric acid which passes from the pericardium into the renal organs. Nervous System and Sense-Organs. — In Anodonta there are three well-developed pairs of nerve ganglia (fig. 19, B, and fig. I (6)). An anterior pair, lying one on each side of the mouth (fig. 19, B, a) and connected in front of it by a commissure, are the repre- sentatives of the cerebral and pleural ganglia of the typical Mollusc, which are not here differentiated as they are in Gastropods. A pair placed close together in the foot (fig. 19, B, b, and fig. I (6), ax) are the typical pedal ganglia ; they are joined to the cerebro- pleural ganglia by connectives. Posteriorly beneath the posterior adductors, and covered only by a thin layer of elongated epidermal cells, are the visceral ganglia. United with these ganglia on the outer sides are the osphradial ganglia, above which the epithelium is modified to form a pair of sense-organs, corresponding to the osphradia of other Molluscs. In some Lamellibranchs the osphradial ganglia receive nerve-fibres, not from the visceral ganglia, but from the cerebral ganglia along the visceral commissure. Formerly the posterior pair of ganglia were identified as simply the osphradial ganglia, and the anterior pair as the cerebral, pleural and visceral ganglia united into a single pair. But it has since been discovered that in the Protobranchia the cerebral ganglia and the pleural are distinct, each giving origin to its own connective which runs to the pedal ganglion. The cerebro- e> FIG. 20. — Otocyst of Cyclas. (From Gegenbaur.) c, Capsule. e, Ciliated cells lining the same. o, Otolith. pedal and pleuro-pedal connectives, however, in these cases are only separate in the initial parts of their course, and unite together for the lower half of their length, or for nearly the whole length. Moreover, in many forms, in which in the adult condition there is only a single pair of anterior ganglia and a single pedal connective, a pleural ganglion distinct from the cerebral has been recognized in the course of development. There is, however, no evidence of the union of a visceral pair with the cerebro-pleural. The sense-organs of Anodonta other than the osphradia consist of a pair of otocysts attached to the pedal ganglia (fig. I (6), ay). The otocysts of Cyclas are peculiarly favourable for study on account of the transparency of the small foot in which they lie, and may be taken as typical of those of Lamellibranchs generally. The structure of FIG. 21.— Pallial Eye of Spondylus. (From Hickson.) a, Prae-corncal epithelium. /, Retinal nerve. b, Cellular lens. g, Complementary nerve. c, Retinal body. h, Epithelial cells filled with d, Tapetum. pigment. e, Pigment. k, Tentacle. one is exhibited in fig. 20. A single otolith is present as in the veliger embryos of Opisthobranchia. In Filibranchia and many Proto- branchia the otocyst (or statocyst) contains numerous particles (otocpnia). The organs are developed as invaginations of the epi- dermis of the foot, and in the majority of the Protobranchia the orifice of invagination remains open throughout life; this is also the case in Mytilus including the common mussel. Anodonta has no eyes of any sort, and the tentacles on the mantle edge are limited to its posterior border. This deficiency is very usual in the class; at the same time, many Lamellibranchs nave tentacles on the edge of the mantle supplied by a pair of large well-developed nerves, which are given off from the cerebro-pleural ganglion-pair, A t~ B FIG. 22. — Two Stages in the Development of Anodonta. (From Balfour.) both figures represent the glochidium stage. A, When free swimming, shows by, Byssus. a.ad.Anterior adductor. p.ad, Posterior adductor. mt, Mantle-flap. /, Foot. br. Branchial filaments. au.v, Otocyst. the two dentigerous valves widely open. B, A later stage, after fixture to the fin of a fish. sh. Shell. ad, Adductor muscle. i, Teeth of the shell. al, Alimentary canal. and very frequently some of these tentacles have undergone a special metamorphosis converting them into highly-organized eyes. Such eyes on the mantle-edge are found in Pecten, Spondylus, Lima, Pinna, Pectunculus, Modiola, Cardium, Tellina, Mactra, Venus, Solen, Pholas and Galeomma. They are totally distinct from the cephalic eyes of typical Mollusca, and have a different structure and historical development. They have originated not as pits but as tentacles. They agree with the dorsal eyes of Onciditim (Pulmonata) in the curi- ous fact that the optic nerve penetrates the capsule of the eye and passes in front of the retinal body (fig. 21), so that its fibres join the anterior faces of the nerve-end cells as in Vertebrates, instead of their posterior faces as in the cephalic eyes of Mollusca and Arthro- poda; moreover, the lens is not a cuticular product but a cellular structure, which, again, is a feature of agreement with the Vertebrate 120 LAMELLIBRANCHIA eye. It must, however, be distinctly borne in mind that there is a fundamental difference between the eye of Vertebrates and of all other groups in the fact that in the Vertebrata the retinal body is itself a part of the central nervous system, and not a separate I pigmented epithelial fossa containing a cuticular lens. In the Arcidae the pallial eyes are compound or faceted somewhat like those of Arthropods. Generative Organs. — The gonads of Anodonta are placed in distinct male and female individuals. In some Lamellibranchs — for in- stance, the European Oyster and the Pisidium pusillum — the sexes are united in the same individual ; but here, as in most hermaphro- dite animals, the two sexual elements are not ripe in the same individual at the same moment. It has been conclusively shown that the Ostrea edulis does not fertilize itself. The American Oyster (O. virginiana) and the Portuguese Oyster (O. angulata) have the sexes separate, and fertilization is effected in the open water after the dis- charge of the ova and the sperma- tozoa from the females and males respectively. In the Ostrea edulis fertilization of the eggs is effected at the moment of their escape from the uro- genital groove, or even before, by means of spermatozoa drawn into the sub-pallial chamber by the incurrent ciliary stream, and the embryos pass through the early stages of development whilst en- tangled between the gill-lamellae of the female parent (fig. 23). In Anodonta the eggs pass into the space between the two lamellae of the outer gill-plate, and are there fertilized, and advance whilst still in this position to the glochidium phase of development (fig. 22). They may be found here in thousands in the summer and autumn months. The gonads themselves are extremely simple arborescent glands which open to the exterior by two simple ducts, one right and one left, continu- ous with the tubular branches of the gonads. Lamellibranchs there FIG. 23. — Development of the Oyster. Ostrea edulis. (Modified from Horst.) A, Blastulastage(one-cell-layered sac), with commencing in- vagination of the wall of the sac at bl, the blastopore. B, Optical section of a somewhat later stage, in which a second invagination has be- gun— namely, that of the shell-gland sk. bl, Blastopore. en, Invaginatedendoderm(wallof the future arch-enteron). ec, Ectoderm. C, Similar optical section at a little later stage. The in- vagination connected with the blastopore is now more contracted, d; and cells, me, forming the mesoblast from which the ccelom and muscu- larand skeleto-trophic tissues develop, are separated. D, Similar section of a later stage. The blastopore, bl, has closed; the anus will sub- sequently perforate the cor- responding area. A new aperture, m, the mouth, has eaten its way into the in- vaginated endodermal sac, and the cells pushed in with it constitute the stomodae- um. The shell-gland, sk, is flattened out, and a delicate shell, s, appears on its sur- face. The ciliated velar ring is cut in the section, as shown by the two projecting cilia on the upper part of the figure. The embryo is now a Trochosphere. E, Surface view of an embryo at a period almost identical with that of D. F, Later embryo seen as a trans- m, Mouth. [parent object. ft, Foot. a, Anus. e, Intestine. st, Stomach. tp. Velar area of the prostomium. The extent of the shell and commencing upgrowth of the mantle-skirt is indicated by a line forming a curve from a to F. N.B. — In this development, as in that of Pisidium (fig. 25), no part of the blastopore persists either as mouth or as anus, but the aperture closes — the pedicle of invagination, or narrow neck of the invaginated arch-enteron, becoming the intestine. The mouth and the anus are formed as independent in-pushings, the mouth with stomodaeum first, and the short anal proctodaeum much later. This interpretation of the appearances is contrary to that of Horst, from whom our drawings of the oyster's development are taken. The account given by the American William K. Brooks differs greatly as to matter of fact from that of Horst, and appears to be erroneous in some respects. modification of the epidermis — myelonic as opposed to epidermic. The structure of the reputed eyes of several of the above-named genera has not been carefully examined. In Pecten and Spondylus, however, they have been fully studied (see fig. 21, and explanation). Rudimentary cephalic eyes occur in the Mytilidae and in Avicula at the base of the first filament of the inner gill, each consisting of a FIG. 24. — Embryo of Pisid- ium pusillum in the diblastula stage, surface view (after Lan- kester). The embryo has increased in size by accumula- tion of liquid between the outer and the invaginated cells. The blastopore has closed. In the most primitive is no separate generative aperture but the gonads discharge into the renal cavity, as in Patella among Gastro- pods. This is the case in the Protobranchia, e.g. Solenomya, in which the gonad opens into the reno-pericardial duct. But the generative products do not pass through the whole length of the renal tube: there is a direct opening from the pericardial end of the tube to the distal end, and the ova or sperms pass through this. In Area, in Anomiidae and in Pectinidae the gonad opens into the external part of the renal tube. The next stage of modification is seen in Ostraea, Cyclas and some Lucinidae, in which the generative and renal ducts FIG. 25. — B, Same embryo as fig. 24, in optical median section, showing the invaginated cells hy which form the arch-enteron, and the mesoblastic cells me which are budded off from the surface of the mass hy, and apply themselves to the inner surface of the epiblastic cell-layer ep. C, The same embryo focused so as to show the meso- blastic cells which immediately underlie the outer cell-layer. open into a cloacal slit on the surface of the body. In Mytilus the two apertures are on a common papijla, in other cases the two aper- tures are as in Anodonta. The Anatinacea and Poromya among the Septibranchia are, however, peculiar in having two genital apertures on each side, one male and one female. These forms are hermaphro- dite, with an ovary and testis completely separate from each other on each side of the body, each having its own duct and aperture. The development of Anodonta is remarkable for the curious larval form known as glochidium (fig. 22). The glochidium quits the gill- pouch of its parent and swims by alternate opening and shutting of the vajves of its shell, as do adult Pecten and Lima, trailing at the same time a long byssus thread. This byssus is not homologous with LAMELLIBRANCHIA 121 that of other Lamellibranchs, but originates from a single glandular epithelial cell embedded in the tissues on the dorsal anterior side of the adductor muscle. By this it is brought into contact with the fin of a fish, such as perch, stickleback or others, and effects a hold thereon by means of the toothed edge of its shells. Here it becomes encysted, and is nourished by the exudations of the fish. It remains in this condition for a period of two to six weeks, and during this time the permanent organs are developed from the cells of two sym- metrical cavities behind the adductor muscle. The early larva of Anodonta is not unlike the trochosphere of other Lamellibranchs, but the mouth is wanting. The glochidium is formed by the precocious development of the anterior adductor and the retardation of all the other organs except the shell. Other Lamellibranchs exhibit either a trochosphere larva which becomes a veliger differing only from the Gastropod's and Pteropod's veliger in having bilateral shell-calcifications in- stead of a single central one; or, like Anodonta, they may develop within the gill-plates of the mother, though without presenting such a specialized larva as the glochidium. An example of the former is seen in the development of the Euro- pean oyster, to the figure of which and its explanation the reader is specially referred (fig. 23). An example of the latter is seen in a common little fresh- water bivalve, the Pisidium pusillum, which has been studied by Lankester. The gastrula is formed in this case by invagina- tion. The embryonic cells con- tinue to divide, and form an B FlG.26. — Diagram of Embryo of Pisidium. The unshaded area gives the position of the shell-valve. (After Lankester.) m, Mouth. Anus. Foot. Branchial filaments. mn, Margin of the mantle-skirt. B, Organ of Bojanus. x, f, br, oval vesicle containing liquid (fig. 24) ; within this, at one pole, is seen the mass of in- vaginated cells (fig. 25, hy). These invaginated cells are the archenteron ; they proliferate and give off branching cells, which apply themselves (fig. 25, C) to the inner face of the vesicle, thus forming the mesoblast. The outer single layer of cells which constitutes the surface of the vesicle is the ectoderm or epiblast. The little mass of hypoblast or enteric cell-mass now enlarges, but remains connected with the cicatrix of the blastopore or orifice of invagination by a stalk, the rectal peduncle. The enteron itself becomes bilobed and is joined by a new invagination, that of the mouth and stomodaeum. The mesoblast multiplies its cells, which become partly muscular and partly skeleto- trophic. Centro-dorsally now appears the em- byronic shell-gland. The pharynx or stomodaeum is still small, the foot not yet prominent. A later stage is seen in fig. 26, where the pharynx is widely open and the foot prominent. No ciliated al An extraordinary modification of the veliger occurs in the de- velopment of Nucula and Yoldia and probably other members of the same families. After the formation of the gastrula by epibole the larva becomes enclosed by an ectodermic test covering the whole of the original surface of the body, including the shell-gland, and leaving only a small opening at the posterior end in which the stomo- daeum and proctodaeum are formed. In Yoldia and Nucula proximo. the test consists of five rows of flattened cells, the three median rows bearing circlets of long cilia. At the anterior end of the test is the apical plate from the centre of which projects a long flagellum as in many other Lamellibranch larvae. In Nucula delphinodonta the test is uniformly covered with short cilia, and there is no flagellum. When the larval development is completed the test is cast off, its cells breaking apart and falling to pieces leaving the young animal with a well-developed shell exposed and the internal organs in an advanced state. The test is really a ciliated velum developed in the normal position at the apical pole but reflected backwards in such a way as to cover the original ectoderm except at the posterior end. In Yoldia and Nucula proximo, the ova are set free in the water and the test-larvae are free-swimming, but in Nucula delphinodonta the female forms a thin-walled egg-case of mucus attached to the posterior end of the shell and in communication with the pallia! chamber; in this case the eggs develop and the test-larva is en- closed. A similar modification of the velum occurs in Dentalium and in Myzomenia among the Amphineura. CLASSIFICATION OF LAMELLIBRANCHIA The classification originally based on the structure of the gills by P. Pelseneer included five orders, viz. : the Protobranchia in which the gill-filaments are flattened and not reflected; the Filibranchia in which the filaments are long and reflected, with non- vascular junctions; the Pseudo-lamellibranchia in which the gill-lamellae are vertically folded, the interfilamentar and interlamellar junctions being vascular or non-vascular; the Eulamellibranchia in which the interfilamentar and inter- lamellar junctions are vascular; and lastly the Septibranchia in which the gills are reduced to a horizontal paitition. The Pseudolamellibranchia included the oyster, scallop and their allies which formerly constituted the order Monomyaria, having only a single large adductor muscle or in addition a very small anterior adductor. The researches of W. G. Ridewood have shown that in gill-structure the Pectinacea agree with the Fili- branchia and the Ostraeacea with the Eulamellibranchia, and accordingly the order Pseudolamellibranchia is now suppressed and its members divided between the two other orders mentioned. The four orders now retained exhibit successive stages in the modification of the ctenidia by reflection and concrescence of the filament, but other organs, such as the heart, adductors, renal organs, may not show corresponding stages. On the contrary considerable differences in these organs may occur within any single order. The Protobranchia, how- ever, possess several primitive characters besides that of the branchiae. In them the foot has a flat ventral sur- face used for creeping, as in Gastropods, the byssus gland is but slightly developed, the pleural ganglia are distinct, _ there is a relic of the pharyngeal cavity, in some forms with a pair of glandular sacs, the gonads retain their primitive connexion with the renal cavities, and the otocysts are open. After Drew, in Lankester's Treatise on Zoology. (A. & C. Black.) \ FIG. 27. — Surface view of a forty-five hour embryo of Yo{dia limatula. a.c, Apical cilia, bl, Blastopore. x, Depression where the cells that form the cerebral ganglia come to the surface. velum or pre-oral (cephalic) lobe ever develops. The shell-gland disappears, the mantle-skirt is raised as a ridge, the paired shell- valves are secreted, the anus opens by a proctodaeal ingrowth into the rectal peduncle, and the rudiments of the gills (br) and of the renal organs (B) appear (fig. 26, lateral view), and thus the chief organs and general form of the adult are acquired. Later changes consist in the growth of the shell-valves over the whole area of the mantle-flaps, and in the multiplication of the gill-filaments and their consolidation to form gill-plates. It is important to note that the gill-filaments are formed one by one posteriorly. The labial tentacles are formed late. In the allied genus Cyclas, a byssus gland is formed in the foot and subsequently disappears, but no such gland occurs in Pisidium, Order I. PROTOBRANCHIA In addition to the characters given above, it may be noted that the mantle is provided with a hypobranchial gland on the outer side of each gill, the auricles are muscular, the kidneys are glandular through their whgle length, the sexes are separate. Fam. i. Solenomyidae. — One row of branchial filaments is directed dorsally, the other ventrally; the mantle has a long postero- ventral suture and a single posterior aperture; the labial palps of each side are fused together; shell elongate; hinge without teeth; periostracum thick. Solenomya. Fam. 2. Nuculidae. — Labial palps free, very broad, and provided with a posterior appendage; branchial filaments transverse; shell has an angular dorsal border; mantle open along its whole border. Nucula. Acila. Pronucula. Fam. 3. Ledidae. — Like the Nuculidae, but mantle has two posterior sutures and two united siphons. Leda. Yoldia. Malletia. 122 LAMELLIBRANCHIA Fam. 4. Clenodontidae. — Extinct; Silurian. The fossil group Palaeoconcha is connected with the Proto- branchia through the Solenomyidae. It contains the following extinct families. Fam. I. Praecardiidae. — Shell equivalve with hinge dentition as in Area. Praeeardium; Silurian and Devonian. Fam. 2. Antipleuridae. — Shell inequivalve. Antipleura ; Silurian. Fam. 3. Cardiolidae. — Shell equivalve and ventricose; hinge without teeth. Cardiola ; Silurian and Devonian. Fam. 4. Grammysiidae. — Shell thin, equivalve, oval or elongate; hinge without teeth. Grammy sia ; Silurian and Devonian. Protomya; Devonian. Cardiomorpha; Silurian to Carbon- iferous. Fam. 5. Vlastidae. — Shell very inequivalve; hinge without teeth. Vlasta ; Silurian. Fam. 6. Solenopsidae. — Shell equivalve, greatly elongated, um- bones very far forward. Solenopsis ; Devonian to Trias. Order II. FILIBRANCHIA Gill-filament ventrally directed and reflected, connected by ciliated junctions. Foot generally provided with a highly developed byssogenous apparatus. Sub-order I. — Anomiacea. Very asymmetrical, with a single large posterior adductor. The heart is not contained in the pericardium, lies dorsad of the rectum and gives off a single aorta anteriorly. The reflected borders of the inner gill-plates of either side are fused together in the middle line. The gonads open into the kidneys and the right gonad extends into the mantle. Shell thin; animal fixed. Fam. I. Anomiidae. — Foot small; inferior (right) valve of adult perforated to allow passage of the byssus. Anomia; byssus large and calcified; British. Plncuna; byssus atrophied in adult. Hypotrema. Carolia. Ephippium. Placunanomia. Sub-order II. — Arcacea. Symmetrical; mantle open throughout its extent; generally with well developed anteiior and posterior adductors. The heart lies in the pericardium and gives off two aortae. Gills without inter- lamellar junctions. Renal and genital apertures separate. Fam. I. Arcidae. — Borders of the mantle bear compound pallial eyes. The labial palps are direct continuations of the lips. Hinge pliodont, that is to say, it has numerous teeth on either side of the umbones and the teeth are perpendicular to the edge. Area; foot byssiferous; British. Pectunculus ; foot without byssus; British. Scaphula; freshwater; India. Argina. Bathyarca. Barbatia. Senilia. Anadara. Adacnarca. Fam. 2. Parallelodontidae. — Shell as in Area, but the posterior hinge teeth elongated and parallel to the cardinal border. Cucullaea; recent and fossil from the Jurassic. All the other genera are fossil: Parallelodon; Devonian to Tertiary. Car- bonaria; Carboniferous, &c. Fam. 3. Limopsidae. — Shell orbicular, hinge curved, ligament longer transversely than antero-posteriorly ; foot elongate, pointed anteriorly and posteriorly. Limopsis. Trinaeria; Tertiary. Fam. 4. Philobryidae. — Shell thin, vry inequilateral, anterior part atrophied, umbones projecting. Philobrya. Fam. 5. Cyrlodontidae. — Extinct; shell equivalve and inequi- lateral, short, convex. Cyrtodonta; Silurian and Devonian. Cypricardites, Silurian. Vanuxemia ; Silurian. Fam. 6. Trigoniidae. — Shell thick; foot elongated, pointed in front and behind, ventral border sharp; byssus absent. 7>z- gonia; shell sub-triangular, umbones directed backwards. This genus was very abundant in the Secondary epoch, especially in Jurassic seas. There are six living species, all in Australian seas. Living specimens were first discovered in 1827. Schiz- odus; Permian. Myophoria; Trias. Fam. 7. Lyrodesmidae. — Extinct; shell inequilateral, posterior side shorter; hinge short, teeth in form of a fan. Lyrodesma; Silurian. • Sub-order III. — Mylilacea. Symmetrical, the anterior adductor small or absent. Heart gives off only an anterior aorta. Surface of gills smooth, gill-filaments all similar, with interlamellar junctions. Gonads generally extend into mantle and open at sides of kidneys. Foot linguiform and byssiferous. Fam. I. Mytilidae. — Shell inequilateral, anterior end short; hinge without teeth ; ligament external. Mantle has a posterior suture. Cephalic eyes present. Mylilus; British. Modiola; British. Lithodomus. Modiolaria; British. Crenella. Stavelia. Daerydium. Myrina. Idas. Septifer. Fam. 2. Modiolopsidae. — Extinct; Silurian to Cretaceous; ad- ductor muscles sub-equal. Modiolopsis. — Modiomorpha. Myo- concha. Fam. 3. Pernidae. — Shell very inequilateral; ligament sub- divided; mantle open throughout; anterior adductor absent. Perna. Crenatula ; inhabits sponges. Bakewellia. Gervilleia ; Trias to Eocene. Odontoperna; Trias. Inoceramus; Jurassic to Cretaceous. Sub-order IV. — Pectinaeea. Monomyarian, with open mantle. Gills folded and the filaments at summits and bases of the folds are different from the others. Gonads contained in the visceral mass and generally open into renal cavities. Foot usually rudimentary. Fam. I. Vulsellidae. — Shell high; hinge toothless; foot without byssus. Vulsella. Fam. 2. Aviculidae. — Shell very inequilateral; cardinal border straight with two auriculae, the posterior the longer. Foot with a very stout byssus. Gills fused to the mantle. Avicula; British. Meleagrina. Pearls are obtained from a species of this genus in the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean, &c. Malleus. Several extinct genera. Fam. 3. Prasinidae. — Shell inequilateral, with anterior umbones and prominent anterior auricula; cardinal border arched. Prasina. Fam. 4. Pterineidae. — Extinct; Palaeozoic. Fam. 5. Lunulicardiidae. — Extinct ; Silurian and Devonian. Fam. 6. Conocardiidae. — Extinct ; Silurian to Carboniferous. Fam. 7. A mbonyehiidae.— Extinct; Silurian and Devonian. The last two families are dimyarian, with small anterior adductor. Fam. 8. Myalinidae. — Extinct; Silurian to Cretaceous; ad- ductors sub-equal. Fam. 9. Amussiidae. — Shell orbicular, smooth externally with radiating costae internally. Gills without interlamellar junc- tions. Amussium. Fam. 10. Spondylidae. — Shell very inequivalve, fixed by the right valve which is the larger. No byssus. Spondylus; shell with spiny ribs, adherent by the spines. Plicatula. Fam. II. Pectinidae. — Shell with radiating ribs; dorsal border with two auriculae. Foot byssiferous. Mantle borders with welj developed eyes. Pecten; shell orbicular, with equal auriculae; without a byssal sinus; British. Chlamys; an- terior auricula the larger and with a byssal sinus; British. Pedum, Hinnites. Pseudamussium. Camptonectes. Hyalo- pecten; abyssal. Sub-order V. — Dimyacea. Dimyarian, with orbicular and almost equilateral sh'll; adherent; hinge without teeth -and ligament internal. Gills with free non- reflected filaments. Fam. Dimyidae. — Characters of the sub-order. Dimya; recent in abyssal depths and fossil since the Jurassic. Order III. EULAMELLIBEANCHIA Edges of the mantle generally united by one or two sutures. Two adductors usually present. Branchial filaments united by vascular interfilamentar junctions and vascular interlamellar junctions; the latter contain the afferent vessels. The gonads always have their own proper external apertures. Sub-order I. — Ostraeacea. Monomyarian or with a very small anterior adductor. Mantle open ; foot rather small ; branchiae folded ; shell inequivalve. Fam. I. Limidae. — Shell with auriculae. Foot digitiform, with byssus. Borders of mantle with long and numerous tentacles. Gills not united with mantle. Lima; members of this genus form a nest by means of the byssus, or swim by clapping the valves of the shell together. Limaea. Fam. 2. Ostraeidae. — Foot much reduced and without byssus. Heart usually on the ventral side of the rectum. Gills fused to the mantle. Shell irregular, fixed in the young by the left and larger valve. Ostraea: foot absent in the adult; edible and cultivated ; some species, as the British O. edulis, are hermaphro- dite. Fam. 3. Eligmidae. — Extinct; Jurassic. Fam. 4. Pinnidae. — Shell elongated, truncated and gaping posteriorly. Dimyarian, with a very small anterior adductor. Foot with byssus. Pinna; British. Cyrtopinna. Avictilo- pinna; fossil, Carboniferous and Permian. Pinnigena; Jurassic and Cretaceous. Atrina; fossil and recent, from Carboniferous to present day. Sub-order II. — Submytilacea. Mantle only slightly closed ; usually there is only a single suture. Siphons absent or very short. Gills smooth. Nearly always di- myarian. Shell equivalve, with an external ligament. Fam. I. Dreissensiidae. — Shell elongated; hinge without teeth; summits of valves with an internal septum. Siphons short. Dreissensia; lives in fresh water, but originated from the Caspian Sea; introduced into England about 1824. Fam. 2. Modiolareidae. — Foot with a plantar surface; the two branchial plates serve as incubatory pouches. Modiolarca. Fam. 3. Astartidae. — Shell concentrically striated; foot elongate, without byssus. A starts; British. Woodia. Opts; Secondary. Prosocoelus ; Devonian. LAMELLIBRANCHIA 123 Fam. 4. Crassatellidae. — Shell thick, with concentric striae, liga- ment external ; foot short. Crassalella. Cuna. Fam. 5. Carditidae. — Shell thick, with radiating costae ; foot carinated, often byssiferous. Cardita. Thecalia. Milneria. Venericardia. Fam. 6. Condylocardiidae. — Like Carditidae, but with an external ligament. Condylocardia, Carditella. Carditopsis. Fam. 7. Cyprinidae. — Mantle open in front, with two pallia! sutures; external gill-plates smaller than the internal. Cyprina; British. Cypricardia. Pleurophorus; Devonian to Trias. A nisocardia ; Jurassic to Tertiary. Veniella; Cretace- ous to Tertiary. Fam. 8. Isocardiidae. — Mantle largely closed, pedal orifice small ; gill-plates of equal size; shell globular, with prominent and coiled umbones. Isocardia; British. Fam. 9. Callocardiidae. — Siphons present ; external gill-plate smaller than the internal; umbones not prominent. Callo- cardia; abyssal. Fam. 10. Lucinidae. — Labial pajps very small; gills without an external plate. Lucina; British. Montacuta; British. Cryptodon. Fam. II. Corbidae. — Shell thick, with denticulated borders; anal aperture with valve but no siphon; foot elongated and pointed. Corbis. Gonodon; Trias and Jurassic. Mutiella; Upper Cretaceous. Fam. 12. Ungulinidae. — Foot greatly elongated, vermiform, end- ing in a glandular enlargement. Ungulina. Diplodonta; British. Axinus; British. Fam. 13. Cyrenellidae. — Two elongated, united, non-retractile siphons; freshwater. Cyrenella. Joanisiella. Fam. 14. Tancrediidae. — Shell elongate, sub-triangular. Extinct. Tancredia ; Trias to Cretaceous. Meekia ; Cretaceous. Fam. 15. Unicardiidae. — Shell sub-orbicular, nearly equilateral, with concentric striae. Extinct, Carboniferous to Cretaceous. Unicardium. Scaldia. Pseudedmondia. Fam. 1 6. Leptonidae. — Shell thin; no siphons; foot long and byssiferous; marine; hermaphrodite and incubatory. Kellya; British. Lepton; commensal with the Crustacean Gebia; British. Erycina; Tertiary. Pythina. Scacchia. Sporlella. Cyamium. Fam. 17. Galeommidae. — Mantle reflected over shell; shell thin, gaping; adductors much reduced. Galeomma; British. Scintilla. Hindsiella. Ephippodonta; commensal with shrimp Axius. The three following genera with an internal shell prob- ably belong to this family : — Chlamydoconcha. Scioberetia ; com- mensal with a Spatangid. Entovalva; parasitic in Synapta. Fam. 1 8. Kellyellidae. — Shell ovoid; anal aperture with very short siphon; foot elongated. Kellyella. Turlonia; British. Allopagus; Eocene. Luletia; Eocene. Fam. 19. Cyrenidae. — Two siphons, more or less united, with papillose orifices; pallia! line with a sinus; freshwater. Cyrena. Corbicula. Batissa. Velorita. Galatea. Fischeria. Fam. 20. Cycladidae. — One siphon or two free siphons with simple orifices; pallial line simple; her- maphrodite, embryos incubated in external gill-plate; fresh- water, Cyclas; British. Pisid- ium ; British. Fam. 21. Rangiidae. — Two short siphons; shell with prominent umbones and internal ligament. Rangia; brackish water, Florida. Fam. 22. Cardiniidae. — Shell elon- gated, inequilateral. Extinct. Cardinia; Trias and Jurassic. Anthracosia; Carboniferous and Permian. Anoplophora; Trias. Pachycardia; Trias. Fam. 23. Megalodpntidae. — Shell inequilateral, thick; posterior adductor impression on a myo- phorous apophysis. Extinct. Megalodon; Devonian to Jur- assic. Pachyrisma; Trias and Jurassic. Durga; ] urassic. Dicerocardium; Jurassic. Fam. 24. Unionidae. — Shell equi- lateral; mantle with a single pallial suture and no siphons; freshwater; larva a glochidium. Unio; British. Anodonta; British. Pseudodon. Quadrula. Arconaia. Monocondylea. Solenaia. Mycetopus. Fam. 25. Mutelidae. — Differs from Unionidae in having two pallial sutures; freshwater. Mutela. Pliodon. Spatha. Iridina. Hyria. Castalia. Aplodon. Plagiodon. Fam. 26. Aetheriidae. — Shell irregular, generally fixed in the adult; foot absent; freshwater. Aetheria. Mulleria. Bartlettia. tr II- / f FIG. 28. — Lateral view of a Mactra, the right valve of the shell and right mantle-flap removed, and the siphons retracted. (From Gegen- baur.) br, br' , Outer and inner gill- plates. /, Labial tentacle, to, tr, Upper and lower siphons ms, Siphonal muscle of the mantle-flap. ma. Anterior adductor muscle. mp. Posterior adductor muscle. p, Foot. Umbo. Sub-order III. — Tellinacea. Mantle not extensively closed ; two pallial sutures and two well- developed siphons. Gills smooth. Foot compressed and elongated. Labial palps very large. Dimyarian ; pallial line with a deep sinus. Fam. I. Tellinidae. — External gill-plate directed upwards; siphons separate and elongated; foot with byssus; palps very large; ligament external. Tellina; British. Gastrana; British. Capsa. Macpma. Fam. 2. Scrobiculariidae. — External gill-plates directed upwards; siphons separate and excessively long; foot without byssus. Scrobicularia; estuarine; British. Syndosmya; British. Cumingia. Fam. 3. Donacidae. — External gill-plate directed ventrally ; siphons separate, of moderate length, anal siphon the longer. Donax; British. Iphigeneia. Fam. 4. Mesodesmatidae. — External gill-plate directed ventrally ; siphons separate and equal. Mesodesma. Emilia; British. FIG. 29. — The same animal as fig. 28, with its foot and siphons expanded. Letters as in fig. 28. (From Gegenbaur.) Fam. 5. Cardiliidae. — Shell very high and short ; dimyarian ; posterior adductor impression on a prominent apophysis. Cardilia. Fam. 6. Mactridae. — External gill-plate directed ventrally; siphons united, invested by a chitinous sheath; foot long, bent at an angle, without byssus. Mactra; British (figs. 28, 29). Mulinia. Harvtlla. Raeta. Eastonia. Heterocardia. Van- ganella. Sub-order IV. — Veneracea. Two pallial sutures, siphons somewhat elongated and partially or wholly united. Gills slightly folded. A bulb on the posterior aorta. Ligament external. Fam. I. Veneridae. — Foot well developed; pallial sinus shallow or absent. Venus; British. • Dosinia; British. Tapes; British. Cyclina. Lucinopsis; British. Meretrix. Circe; British. Vene- rupis. Fam. 2. Petricolidae. — Boring forms with a reduced foot ; shell elongated, with deep pallial sinus. Petricola. P. pholadiformis, originally an inhabitant of the coast of the United States, has been acclimatized for some years in the North Sea. Fam. 3. Glaucomyidae. — Siphons very long and united; foot small; shell thin, with deep pallial sinus; fresh or brackish water. Glaucomya. Tanysiphon. Sub-order V. — Cardiacea. Two pallial sutures. Siphons generally short. Foot cylindrical, more or less elongated, byssogenous. Gills much folded. Shell equivalve, with radiating costae and external ligament. Fam. I . Cardiidae. — Mantle slightly closed ; siphons very short, surrounded by papillae which often bear eyes; foot very long, geniculated; pallial line without sinus; two adductors, Cardium', British. Pseudo-kellya. Byssocardium; Eocene. Lithocardium; Eocene. Fam. 2. Limnocardiidae. — Siphons very long, united throughout; shell gaping; two adductors; brackish waters. Limnocardium; Caspian Sea and fossil from the Tertiary. Archicardium; Tertiary. Fam. 3. Tridacnidae. — Mantle closed to a considerable extent; apertures distant from each other; no siphons; a single ad- ductor; shell thick. Tridacna. Hippopus. Sub-order VI. — Chamacea. Asymmetrical, inequivalve, fixed, with extensive pallial sutures; no siphons. Two adductors. Foot reduced and without byssus. Shell thick, without pallial sinus. Fam. i. Chamidae. — Shell with sub-equal valves and prominent umbones more or less spirally coiled ; ligament external. Chama. Diceras; Jurassic. Requienia; Cretaceous. Mather- onia; Cretaceous. Fam. 2. Caprinidae. — Shell inequivalve ; fixed valve spiral or conical; free valve coiled or spiral; Cretaceous. Caprina. Caprotina. Caprintda, &c. Fam. 3. Monopleuridae, — Shell very inequivalve; fixed valve conical or spiral; free valve operculiform ; Cretaceous. Mono- pleuron. Baylea. The two following families, together known as Rudistae, are closely allied to the preceding; they are extinct marine forms from Secondary deposits. They were fixed by the 124 LAMENNAIS conical elongated right valve; the free left valve is not spiral, and is furnished with prominent apophyses to which the adductors were attached. Fam. 4. Radiolitidae. — Shell conical or biconvex, without canals in the external layer. Radiolites. Biradiolites. Fam. 5. Hippurilidae. — Fixed valve long, cylindro-conical, with three longitudinal furrows which correspond internally to two pillars for support of the siphons. Hippurites. Arnaudia. Sub-order VII. — Myacea. Mantle closed to a considerable extent; siphons well developed; gills much folded and frequently prolonged into the branchial siphon. Foot compressed and generally byssiferous. Shell gaping, with a pallial sinus. Fam. i. Psammobiidae. — Siphons very long and quite separate; foot large; shell oval, elongated, ligament external. Psam- mobia; British. Sanguinolaria. Asaphis. Elizia. Soleno- tettina. Fam. 2. Myidae. — Siphons united for the greater part of their length, and with a circlet of tentacles near their extremities; foot reduced; shell gaping; ligament internal. Mya; British. Sphenia; British. Tugonia. Platyodon. Cryptomya. Fam. 3. Corbulidae. — Shell sub-trigonal, inequivalve; pallial sinus shallow; siphons short, united, completely retractile; foot large, pointed, often byssiferous. Corbulomya. Paramya. Erodona and Himella are fluviatile forms from South America. Fam. 4. Lutrariidae. — Mantle extensively closed; a fourth pallial aperture behind the foot; siphons long and united; shell elongated, a spoon-shaped projection for the ligament on each valve. Lutraria; British. Tresus. Standella. Fam. 5. Solenidae. — Elongated burrowing forms; foot cylindrical, powerful, without byssus; shell long, truncated and gaping at each end. Solenocurtus ; British. Tagelus; estuarine. Cerati- solen; British. Cultellus; British. Siliqua. Solen; British. Ensis; British. Fam. 6. Saxicavidae. — Mantle extensively closed, with a small pedal orifice; siphons long, united, covered by a chitinous sheath; gills prolonged into the branchial siphon; foot small; shell gaping. Saxicaya; British. Glycimeris. Cyrtodaria. Fam 7. Gastrochaenidae. — Shell thin, gaping widely at the posterior end; anterior adductor much reduced; mantle ex- tensively closed; siphons long, united. Gaslrochaena; British. Fistulana. Sub-order VIII. — Adesmacea. Ligament wanting; shell gaping, with a styloid appphysis in the umbonal cavities. Gills prolonged into the branchial siphon. Mantle largely closed, siphons long, united. Foot short, truncated, discoid, without byssus. Fam. I. Pholadidae. — Shell containing all the organs; heart traversed by the rectum; two aortae. Shell with a pallial sinus; dorsal region protected by accessory plates. Pholas; British. Pholadidea; British. Jouannetia. Xylophaga; British. Martesia. Fam. 2. Teredinidae. — Shell globular, covering only a small portion of the vermiform body; heart on ventral side of rectum; a single aorta; siphons long, united and furnished with two posterior calcareous " pallets." Teredo; British. Xylotrya. Sub-order IX. — Anatinacea. Hermaphrodite, the ovaries and testes distinct, with separate apertures. Foot rather small. Mantle frequently presents a fourth orifice. External gill-plate directed dorsally and without reflected lamella. Hinge without teeth. Fam. i. Thracidae. — Mantle with a fourth aperture; siphons long, quite separate, completely retractile and invertible. Thracia; British. Asthenothaerus. Fam. 2. Periplomidae. — Siphons separate, naked, completely re- tractile but not invertible. Periploma. Cochlodesma. Tyleria. Fam. 3. Anatinidae. — Siphons long, united, covered by a chitinous sheath, not completely retractile. Anatina. Plectomya; Jurassic and Cretaceous. Fam. 4. Pholadomyidae. — Mantle with fourth aperture; siphons very long, completely united, naked, incompletely retractile; foot small, with posterior appendage. Pholadomya. Fam. 5. Arcomyidae. — Extinct; Secondary and Tertiary. Arco- mya. Goniomya. Fam. 6. Pholadellidae. — Extinct ; Palaeozoic. Pholadella. Phy- timya. Allorisma. Fam. 7. Pkuromyidae. — Extinct; Secondary. Pleuromya. Gres- slya. Ceromya. Fam. 8. Pandoridae. — Shell thin, inequivalve, free; ligament internal; siphons very short. Pandora; British. Coelodon. Clidiophora. Fam. p. Myochamidae. — Shell very inequivalve, solid, with a pallial sinus; siphons short; foot small. Myochama. Myodora. Fam. 10. Chamostraeidae. — A fourth pallial aperture present; pedal aperture small; siphons very short and separate; shell fixed by the right valve, irregular. Chamostraea. Fam. II. ClavageUidae.— Pedal aperture very small, foot rudi- mentary; valves continued backwards into a calcareous tube secreted by the siphons. Clavagella. Brechites (Aspergillum). Fam. 12. Lyonsiidae. — Foot byssiferous; siphons short, in- vertible. Lyonsia; British. Entodesma. Mytilimeria. Fam. 13. Verticordiidae. — Siphons short, gills papillose; foot small; shell globular. Many species abyssal. Verticordia. Euciroa. Lyonsiella. Halicardia. Order IV. SEPTIBRANCHIA Gills have lost their respiratory function, and are transformed into a muscular septum on each side between mantle and foot. All marine, live at considerable depths, and are carnivorous. Fam. i. Poromyidae. — Siphons short and separate; branchial siphon with a large valve; branchial septum bears two groups of orifices on either side; hermaphrodite. Poromya; British. Dermatomya. Liopistha; Cretaceous. Fam. 2. Cetoconchidae. — Branchial septum with three groups of orifices on each side; siphons short, separate, branchial siphon with a valve. Cetoconcha (Silenia). Fam. 3. Cuspidariidae. — Branchial septum with four or five pairs of very narrow symmetrical orifices; siphons long, united, their extremities surrounded by tentacles; sexes separate. Cuspi- daria; British. AUTHORITIES. — T. Barrois, " Le Stylet crystallin des Lamelli- branches," Revue biol. Nord France, i. (1890); Jameson, "On the Origin of Pearls," Proc. Zool. Soc. (London, 1902); R. H. Peck, " The Minute Structure of the Gills of Lamellibranch Mollusca," Quart. Journ. Micr. Set. xvii. (1877); W. G. Ridewood, "On the Structure of the Gills of the Lamellibranchia," Phil. Trans. B. cxcv. (I9O3); K- Mitsukuri, " On the Structure and Significance of some aberrant forms of Lamellibranchiate Gills," Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. xxi. (1881); A. H. Cooke, " Molluscs," Cambridge Natural History, vol. iii.; Paul Pelseneer, " Mollusca," Treatise on Zoology, edited by E. Ray Lankester, pt. v. (E. R. L.; J. T. C.) LAMENNAIS, HUGUES F1JLICIT6 ROBERT DE (1782-1854), French priest, and philosophical and political writer, was born at Saint Malo, in Brittany, on the igth of June 1782. He was the son of a shipowner of Saint Malo ennobled by Louis XVI. for public services, and was intended by his father to follow mercantile pursuits. He spent long hours in the library of an uncle, devouring the writings of Rousseau, Pascal and others. He thereby acquired a vast and varied, though superficial, erudition, which determined his subsequent career. Of a sickly and sensitive nature, and impressed by the horrors of the French Revolution, his mind was early seized with a morbid view of life, and this temper characterized him throughout all his changes of opinion and circumstance. He was at first inclined towards rationalistic views, but partly through the influence of his . brother Jean Marie (1775-1861), partly as a result of his philo- sophical and historical studies, he felt belief to be indispensable to action and saw in religion the most powerful leaven of the community. He gave utterance to these convictions in the Reflexions sur I'etat de I'eglise en France pendant le j8itm' siecle et sur so, situation actuelle, published anonymously in Paris in 1808. Napoleon's police seized the book as dangerously ideo- logical, with its eager recommendation of religious revival and active clerical organization, but it awoke the ultramontane spirit which has since played so great a part in the politics of churches and of states. As a rest from political strife, Lamennais devoted most of the following year to a translation, in exquisite French, of the Speculum Monachorum of Ludovicus Blosius (Louis de Blois) which he entitled Le Guide spirituel (1809). In 1811 he received the tonsure and shortly afterwards became professor of mathe- matics in an ecclesiastical college founded by his brother at Saint Malo. Soon after Napoleon had concluded the Concordat with Pius VII. he published, in conjunction with his brother, De la tradition de I'eglise sur I' institution des eveques (1814), a writing occasioned by the emperor's nomination of Cardinal Maury to the archbishopric of Paris, in which he strongly condemned the Gallican principle which allowed bishops to be created irrespective of the pope's sanction. He was in Paris at the first Bourbon restoration in 1814, which he hailed with satisfaction, less as a monarchist than as a strenuous apostle of religious regeneration. Dreading the Cent Jours, he escaped to London, where he obtained a meagre livelihood by giving French lessons in a school founded by the abbe Jules Carron for French 6migres; LAMENNAIS 125 he also became tutor at the house of Lady Jerningham, whose first impression of him as an imbecile changed into friendship. On the final overthrow of Napoleon in 1815 he returned to Paris, and in the following year, with many misgivings as to his calling, he yielded to his brother's and Carron's advice, and was ordained priest by the bishop of Rennes. The first volume of his great work, Essai sur V indifference en matiere de religion, appeared in 1817 (Eng. trans, by Lord Stanley of Alderley, London, i8g8), and affected Europe like a spell, investing, in the words of Lacordaire, a humble priest with all the authority once enjoyed by Bossuet. Lamennais denounced toleration, and advocated a Catholic restoration to belief. The right of private judgment, introduced by Descartes and Leibnitz into philosophy and science, by Luther into religion and by Rousseau and the Encyclopaedists into politics and society, had, he contended, terminated in practical atheism and spiritual death. Ecclesiastical authority, founded on the absolute revelation delivered to the Jewish people, but supported by the universal tradition of all nations, he proclaimed to be the sole hope of regenerating the European communities. Three more volumes (Paris, 1818-1824) followed, and met with a mixed reception from the Gallican bishops and monarchists, but with the enthusiastic adhesion of the younger clergy. The work was examined by three Roman theologians, and received the formal approval of Leo XII. Lamennais visited Rome at the pope's request, and was offered a place in the Sacred College, which he refused. On his return to France he took a prominent part in political work, and together with Chateaubriand, the vicomte de Villele, was a regular contributor to the Conservateur, but when Villele became the chief of the supporters of absolute monarchy, Lamennais withdrew his support and started two rival organs, Le Drapeau blanc and Le Memorial catholique. Various other minor works, together with De la religion considfree dans ses rapports avec I'ordre civil el polilique (2 vols., 1825- 1826), kept his name before the public. He retired to La Chfinaie and gathered round him a host of brilliant disciples, including C. de Montalembert, Lacordaire and Maurice de Guerin, his object being to form an organized body of opinion to persuade the French clergy and laity to throw off the yoke of the state connexion. With Rome at his back, as he thought, he adopted a frank and bold attitude in denouncing the liberties of the Gallican church. His health broke down and he went to the Pyrenees to recruit. On his return to La Che'naie in 1827 he had another dangerous illness, which power- fully impressed him with the thought that he had only been dragged back to life to be the instrument of Providence. Les Progres de la revolution et de la guerre conlre I'eglise (1828) marked Lamennais's complete renunciation of royalist principles, and henceforward he dreamt of the advent of a theocratic democracy. To give effect to these views he founded L'Avenir, the first number of which appeared on the i6th of October 1830, with the motto " God and Liberty." From the first the paper was aggressively democratic; it demanded rights of local administration, an enlarged suffrage, universal freedom of conscience, freedom of instruction, of meeting, and of the press. Methods of worship were to be criticized, improved or abolished in absolute sub- mission to the spiritual, not to the temporal authority. With the help of Montalembert, he founded the Agence generale pour la defense de la liberte religieuse, which became a far-reaching organization, it had agents all over the land who noted any violations of religious freedom and reported them to head- quarters. As a result, L'Avenir's career was stormy, and the opposition of the Conservative bishops checked its circulation; Lamennais, Montalembert and Lacordaire resolved to suspend it for a while, and they set out to Rome in November 1831 to obtain the approval of Gregory XVI. The " pilgrims of liberty " were, after much opposition, received in audience by the pope, but only on the condition that the object which brought them to Rome should not be mentioned. This was a bitter disappointment to such earnest ultramontanes, who received, a few days after the audience, a letter from Cardinal Pacca, advising their departure from Rome and suggesting that the Holy See, whilst admitting the justice of their intentions, would like the matter left open for the present. Lacordaire and Montal- embert obeyed; Lamennais, however, remained in Rome, but his last hope vanished with the issue of Gregory's letter to the Polish bishops, in which the Polish patriots were reproved and the tsar was affirmed to be their lawful sovereign. He then " shook the dust of Rome from off his feet." At Munich, in 1832, he received the encyclical Mirari iios, condemning his policy; as a result L'Avenir ceased and the Agence was dissolved. Lamennais, with his two lieutenants, submitted, and deeply wounded, retired to La Chenaie. His genius and prophetic insight had turned the entire Catholic church against him, and those for whom he had fought so long were the fiercest of his opponents. The famous Paroles d'un croyant, published in 1834 through the intermediary of Sainte-Beuve, marks Lamennais's severance from the church. " A book, small in size, but immense in its perversity," was Gregory's criticism in a new encyclical' letter. A tractate of aphorisms, it has the vigour of a Hebrew prophecy and contains the choicest gems of poetic feeling lost in a whirlwind of exaggerations and distorted views of kings and rulers. The work had an extraordinary circulation and was translated into many European languages. It is now forgotten as a whole, but the beautiful appeals to love and human brother- hood are still reprinted in every hand-book of French literature. Henceforth Lamennais was the apostle of the people alone. Les Affaires de Rome, des maux de I'eglise et de la societe (1837) came from old habit of religious discussions rather than from his real mind of 1837, or at most it was but a last word. Le Lime du peuple (1837), De I'esclavage moderne (1839), Politique a I' usage du peuple (1839), three volumes of articles from the journal of the extreme democracy, Le Monde, are titles of works which show that he had arrived among the missionaries of liberty, equality and fraternity, and he soon got a share of their martyrdom. Le Pays et le gouvernement (1840) caused him a year's imprisonment. He struggled through difficulties of lost friendships, limited means and personal illnesses, faithful to the last to his hardly won dogma of the sovereignty of the people, and, to judge by his contribution to Louis Blanc's Revue du progres was ready for something like communism. He was named president of the " Societe de la solidarite republicaine," which counted half a million adherents in fifteen days. The Revolution of 1848 had his sympathies, and he started Le Peuple constiluant; however, he was compelled to stop it on the loth of July, complaining that silence was for the poor, but again he was at the head of La Revolution democratique et sociale, which also succumbed. In the constituent assembly he sat on the left till the coupe d'ttal of Napoleon III. in 1851 put an end to all hopes of popular freedom. While deputy he drew up a constitution, but it was rejected as too radical. There- after a translation of Dante chiefly occupied him till his death, which took place in Paris on the 27th of February 1854. He refused to be reconciled to the church, and was buried according to his own directions at Pere La Chaise without funeral rites, being mourned by a countless concourse of democratic and literary admirers. During the most difficult time of his republican period he found solace for his intellect in the composition of Une voix de prison, written during his imprisonment in a similar strain to Les paroles d'un croyant. This is an interesting contribution to the literature of captivity; it was published in Paris in 1846. He also wrote Esquisse de philosophie (1840). Of the four volumes of this work the third, which is an exposition of art as a development from the aspirations and necessities of the temple, stands pre-eminent, and remains the best evidence of his thinking power and brilliant style. There are two so-called (Euvres completes de Lamennais, the first in 10 volumes (Paris, 1836-1837), and the other in 10 volumes (Paris, 1844) ; both these are very incomplete and only contain the works mentioned above. The most noteworthy of his writings subse- quently published are: Amschaspands et Darvands (1843), Le Deuil de la Pologne (1846), Melanges philosophiques et politiques (1856), Les £vangiles (1846) and La Divine Comedie, these latter being trans- lations of the Gospels and of Dante. 126 LAMENTATIONS Part of his voluminous correspondence has also appeared. The most interesting volumes are the following : Correspondance de F. de Lamennais, edited by E. D. Forgues (2 vols., 1855-1858) , (Euvres inedites de F. Lamennais, edited by Ange Blaize (2 vols., 1866); Correspondance inedite entre Lamennais et le baron de Vitrolles, edited by E. D. Forgues (1819-1853); Confidences de Lamennais, lettres inedites de 1821 a 1848, edited by A. du Bois de la Villerabel (1886) : Lamennais d'apres des documents inedits, by Alfred Roussel (Rennes. 2 vols., 1892) ; Lamennais intime, d'apres une Correspondance inedite. by A. Roussel (Rennes, 1897); Un Lamennais inconnu, edited by A. Laveille (1898); Lettres de Lamennais a Montalembert, edited by E. D. Forgues (1898); and many other letters published in the Revue bleue, Revue britannique. &c. A list of lives or studies on Lamennais would fill several columns. The following may be mentioned. A Blaize, Essai biographique sur M. de Lamennais (1858); E. D. Forgues, Notes et souvenirs (1859); F. Brunetiere, Nouveaux essais sur la litterature contemporaine (1893) ; E. Faguet, Poliliques et moralistes, ii. (1898) ; P. Janet, La Philosophie de Lamennais (1890); P. Mercier, S.J., Lamennais d'apres sa Correspondance et les travaux les plus recents (1893); A. Mollien et F. Duine, Lamennais, sa vie et ses idees; Pages choisies (Lyons. 1898) ; The Hon. W. Gibson, The Abbe de Lammenais and the Liberal Catholic Movement in France (London, l8g6);E. Renan Essais de morale et de critique (1857) ; E. Scherer, Melanges de critique religieuse (1859); G. E. Spuller, Lamennais, etude d'histoire et de politique religieuse (1892); Mgr. Ricard, L'ecole menaisienne (1882), and Sainte-Beuve, Portraits conter,;porains, tome i. (1832), and Nouveaux Lundis, tome i. p. 22 ; tome xi. p. 347. LAMENTATIONS (Lamentations of Jeremiah), a book of the Old Testament. In Hebrew MSS. and editions this little collec- tion of liturgical poems is entitled IWK Ah howi, the first word of ch. i. (and chs. ii., iv.); cf. the books of the Pentateuch, and the Babylonian Epic of Creation (a far older example). In the Septuagint it is called Qfrijvoi, " Funeral-songs " or " Dirges," the usual rendering of Heb. mrp (Am. v. i; Jer. vii. 29; 2 Sam. i. 17), which is, in fact, the name in the Talmud (Baba Bathra 150) and other Jewish writings; and it was known as such to the Fathers (Jerome, Cinoth). The Septuagint (B) introduces the book thus: " And it came to pass, after Israel was taken captive and Jerusalem laid waste, Jeremiah sat weeping, and lamented with this lamentation over Jerusalem, and said . . .," a notice which may have related originally to the first poem only. Some Septuagint MSS., and the Syriac and other versions, have the fuller title Lamentations of Jeremiah. In the Hebrew Bible Lamentations is placed among the Cetubim or Hagiographa, usually as the middle book of the five Megilloth or Ferial Rolls (Canticles, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther) according to the order of the days on which they are read in the Synagogue, Lamentations being read on the pth of Ab (6th of August), when the destruction of the Temple is commemorated (Mass. Sopherim 18). But the Septuagint appends the book to Jeremiah (Baruch intervening), just as it adds Ruth to Judges \. thus making the number of the books of the Hebrew Canon the same as that of the letters of the Hebrew alphabet, viz. twenty-two (so Jos. c. Ap. i. 8), instead of the Synagogal twenty-four (see Baba Bathra 146). External features and poetical structure. — These poems exhibit a peculiar metre, the so-called " limping verse," of which Am. v. 2 is a good instance: " She is fallen, to rise no more — Maid Israel ! Left lorn upon her land — none raising her ! " A longer line, with three accented syllables, is followed by a shorter with two. Chs. i.-iii. consist of stanzas of three such couplets each; chs. iv. and v. of two like Am. v. 2. This metre came in time to be distinctive of elegy. The text of Lamenta- tions, however, so often deviates from it, that we can only affirm the tendency of the poet to cast his couplets into this type (Driver). Some anomalies, both of metre and of sense, may be removed by judicious emendation; and many lines become smooth enough, if we assume a crasis of open vowels of the same class, or a diphthongal pronunciation of others, or contraction or silence of certain suffixes as in Syriac. The oldest elegiac utterances are not couched in this metre; e.g. David's (2 Sam. iii. 33 f. Abner; ib. i. 19-27 Saul and Jonathan). Yet the refrain of the latter, ' Eik naf 'lu gibbortm, " Ah how are heroes fallen ! " agrees with our longer line. The remote ancestor of this Hebrew metre may be recognized in the Babylonian epic of Gilgamesh, written at least a thousand years earlier: — Ea-bdni ibri kufdni \ Nimru sha c.eri. " Eabani, my friend, my little brother ! | Leopard of the Wild!" and again: — Kiki luskul Kiki luqul-ma Ibrt shd ardmmu \ Itemi titfish " How shall I be dumb ? How shall I bewail ? The friend whom I love | Is turned to clay ! " Like a few of the Psalms, Lamentations i.-iv. are alphabetical acrostics. Each poem contains twenty-two stanzas, correspond- ing to the twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet; and each stanza begins with its proper letter. (In ch. iii. each of the three couplets in a stanza begins with the same letter, so that the alphabet is repeated thrice: cf. Psalm cxix. for an eight-fold repetition.) The alphabet of Lamentations ii. iii. iv. varies from the usual order of the letters by placing Pe before Ain. The same was doubtless the case in ch. i. also until some scribe altered it. He went no further, because the sen«e forbade it in the other instances. The variation may have been one of local use, either in Judea or in Babylonia; or the author may have had some fanciful reason for the transposition, such as, for example, that Pe following Samech (BD) might suggest the word nso, "Wail ye!" (2 Sam. iii. 31). Although the oldest Hebrew elegies are not alphabetic acrostics, it is a curious fact that the word IJTH, " Was he a coward? " (Sc. tel? ; Is. vii. 4), is formed by the initial letters of the four lines on Abner (om. 1, line 3); and the initials of the verses of David's great elegy are NSK rron K.I, which may be read as a sentence meaning, perhaps, " Lo, I the Avenger" (cf. Deut. xxxii. 41, 43) "will go forth! "; or the first two letters (Vn) may stand for "Tin 'in, " Alas, my brother! " (Jer. xxii. 18; cf. xxxiv. 5). In cryptic fashion the poet thus registers a vow of vengeance on the Philistines. Both kinds of acrostic occur side by side in the Psalms. Psalm ex., an acrostic of the same kind as David's elegy, is followed by Psalms cxi. cxii., which are alphabetical acrostics, like the Lamentations. Such artifices are not in them- selves greater clogs on poetic expression than the excessive alliteration of old Saxon verse or the strict rhymes of modern lyrics. (Alliteration, both initial and internal, is common in Lamentations.) As the final piece, ch. v. may have suffered more in transmission than those which precede it — even to the extent of losing the acrostic form (like some of the Psalms and Nahum i.), besides half of its stanzas. If we divide the chapter into quatrains, like ch. iv., we notice several vestiges of an acrostic. The Aleph stanza (verses 7, 8) still precedes the Beth (verses 9, 10), and the Ain is still quite clear (verses 17, 18; cf. i. 16). Transposing verses 5, 6, and correcting their text, we see that the Jod stanza (verses 3, 4) precedes the Lamed (verses 6, 5), Caph having disappeared between them. With this clue, we may rearrange the other quatrains in alphabetical sequence, each according to its initial letter. We thus get a broken series of eleven stanzas, beginning with the letters x (verses 7, 8), 3 (9, 10), a (21, 22), i (19, cf. Psalm cii. 13; and 20),' 1 (i, 2), n (13, cnin; 14), 1 (3, 4), ^ (6, onxS; 5, rrsDn . . . Sir), 3 (ii, 12), y (17, 18), and a (15, 16), successively. An internal connexion will now be apparent in all the stanzas. General subject and outline of contents. — The theme of Lamenta- tions is the final siege and fall of Jerusalem (586 B.C.), and the attendant and subsequent miseries of the Jewish people. In ch. i. we have a vivid picture of the distress of Zion, after all is over. The poet does not describe the events of the siege, nor the horrors of the capture, but the painful experience of subjection and tyranny which followed. Neither this nor ch. ii. is strictly a " dirge." Zion is not dead. She is personified as a widowed princess, bereaved and desolate, sitting amid the ruins of her former joys, and brooding over her calamities. From verse nc to the end (except verse 17) she herself is the speaker: — " O come, ye travellers all ! Behold and see If grief there be like mine ! " LAMENTATIONS 127 She images her sorrows under a variety of metaphors (cf. ch. iii. 1-18); ascribing all her woes to Yahweh's righteous wrath, provoked by her sins, and crying for vengeance on the malicious rivals who had rejoiced at her overthrow. The text has suffered much. Verse $c read: '2^3 (v. 18), " into captivity," O'l* (v. 7), " adversaries." For verse 7, see Budde, V. 14: ipai, read "»??:, " was bound." Verse igc read: wpa '3 ima S!T\ esi a-BM1? 73N " For they s -ught food to restore life, and found it not:" cf. Septuagint; and verses u, 16. Verse 20: the incongruous 'n"io no 'D, " For I grievously re- belled," should be 'Dm naai, "My inwards burn"; Hos. xi. 8. Verses 21 f. : "All my foes heard, rejoiced That IT" (cf. Psalm ix. 13), "Thou didst. Bring Thou" (TIN ion), "the Day Thou hast proclaimed; Let them become like me! Let the time " (i"iy; see Septuagint) " of their calamity come! " Chapter ii. — "Ah how in wrath the Lord | Beclouds Bath- Sion! " The poet laments Yahweh's anger as the true cause which destroyed city and kingdom, suspended feast and Sabbath, rejected altar and sanctuary. He mentions the uproar of the victors in the Temple; the dismantling of the walls; the exile of king and princes (verses 1-9). He recalls the mourning in the doomed city; the children dying of hunger in the streets; the prophets deluding the people with vain hopes. Passers-by jeered at the fallen city; and all her enemies triumphed over her (verses 10-17). Sion is urged to cry to the Lord in protest against His pitiless work (verses 18-22). Here too emendation is necessary. Verse 40: urn rx.t, " He fixed His arrow," sc. on the string (Septuagint, tirtpiiaatv) • cf. Psalm xi. 2. Add at the end >s« (n.\) ,-^j, " He spent His anger:" see iv. n; Ezek. vii. 8, xx. 8, 21. Verse 6: UDB'D -m ps-i, " And He broke down the wall of His dwelling- place " (Septuagint TO (TKi^Aia aiiTju; cf. PsaLn Ixxxiv. 7/., where ivo follows, as here). Is. v. 5; Psalms Ixxx. 13, Ixxxix. 41. Perhaps DI.VI, verses 2, 17. But Septuagint nal &i*ir(Tin(v = Bnm (i. 13, 17) =013-1 (iv. 4) or even ps i. Verse 9, perhaps: " He sunk (y?o) her gates in the ground, — He shattered her bars; He made her king and her princes wander (I?N, Jer. xxiii. l) — Among the nations without Torah " (cf. Ezek. vii. 26 f.). Verse 18: " Cry much " (n-n; or bitterly, "c, Zeph. i. 14) " unto the Lord, O Virgin Daughter of Zion! " Verse 19 is metrically redundant, and the last clauses do not agree with what follows. " For the life of thy children " was altered from " for what He hath done to thee " (iS ^lyj? ^ •) ; and then the rest was added. The uniform gloom of this, the most dirge-like of all the pieces, is unrelieved by a single ray of hope, even the hope of vengeance; cf. chapters i. iii. iv. ad fin. Chapter iii. — Here the nation is personified as a man (cf. Hos. xi. i), who laments his own calamities. In view of i. 12-22, ii. 20-22, this is hardly a serious deviation from the strict form of elegy (Klagclicd). Budde makes much of " the close external connexion with ch. ii." The truth is that the break is as great as between any two of these poems. Chapter ii. ends with a mother's lament over her slaughtered children; chapter iii. makes an entirely new beginning, with its abruptly independent " I am the Man! " The suppression of the Divine Name is intentional. Israel durst not breathe it, until compelled by ihe climax, verse 18: cf. Am. vi. 10. Contrast its frequency afterwards, when ground of hope is found in the Divine pity and purpose (verses 22-40), and when the contrite nation turns toils God in prayer (verses 55-66). The spiritual aspect of things is now the main topic. The poet deals less with incident, and more with the moral significance of the nation's sufferings. It is the religious culmination of the book. His poem is rather lyrical than narrative, which may account for some obscurities in the connexion of thought; but his alphabetic scheme proves that he designed twenty-two stanzas, not sixty-six detached couplets. There is something arresting in that bold " I am the Man " ; and the lyrical intensity, the religious depth and beauty of the whole, may well blind us to occasional ruggedness of metre and language, abrupt transitions from figure to figure and other alleged blemishes, some of which may not have seemed such to the poet's contemporaries (e.g. the repetition of the acrostic word, far more frequent in Psalm cxix.); and some disappear on revision of the text. Verse 5, perhaps: "He swallowed me up" (Jer. Ii. 34) "and begirt my head " (Septuagint) " with gloom " (n9sN Is. Iviii. 10, cf. verse 6, yet cf. also nieSn, Neh. ix. 32). Verse 14: "all my people," rather all peoples (Heb. MSS. and Syr.). Verse i6b, rd. 'JWWI, " He made me bore " (i.e. grovel) " in the ashes:" cf. Jer. vi. 26; Ezek. xxvii. 30. Verse 170 should be: ran •B-D.J cSiy1? " And He cast off my soul for ever:" see verse 31; Psalm Ixxxviii. 15. Verse 26: " It is good to wait" frnn1?) "in silence " (osn Is. xlvii. 5); or " It is good that he wait and be silent" (ay}\ V# -3; cf. verse 27). Verse 31, add vrsu, "his soul." The verse is a reply to 170. Verses 34-36 render: "To crush under His feet . . . Adonai purposed not " (Gen. xx. 10; Psalm Ixvi. 18). Verse 39, 'n (Gen. v. 5; or n-n Neh. ix. 29) is the necessary second verb: " Why doth a mortal complain?" (or " What . . . lament? "). " Doth a man live by his sins? ": Man " lives by " righteousness (Ezek. xxxiii. 19). For the wording, cf. Psalm Ixxxix. 49. Verse 430: " Thou didst encompass with " (rg. nniao; Hos. xii. i) "anger and pursue us." Syntax as verse 66a. Verse 49, rd. n;?sn (cf. ii. 18 also). Verse 51 : " Mine eye did hurt to herself " (nrr R^r DTB); cf. Pro. xxiv. 22. Verse ?d: "Their body" (rd. ornj) " was a sapphire: " see Ct. v. 14; Dn. x. 6. Verse 9: "Happier were the slain of the sword Than the slain of famine! For they " (Septuagint om.), "they passed away" (ID^I Septuagint; Psalm xxxix. 14) "with a stab " (Ju. ix. 54; Is. xiii. 15; Jer. Ii. 4), " Suddenly, in the field " ('ea DNHD; Jer. xiv. 18). Verse 13, add N-.T after n'tt'iu; cf. Ju. xiv. 4; Jer. xxii. 16. Verse Ijc. : "While we watched" (Septuagint) "continually:" iss uniBsi. Verse 18: "Our steps were curbed" (™ MSS.; see Pro. iv. 12; Job xviii. 7) " from walking In our open places " (before the city gates: Neh. viii. I, 3); " The completion of our days drew nigh " (ys- niNto nr mp; cf. Lev. viii. 33; Job xx. 22), "For our end was come " (Ezek. vii. 2, 6, &c.). Verse 21, Septuagint om. Uz (dittogr. ?); " Settler in the Land! " (i.e. of Judah; cf. Ezek. xxxv. 10, xxxvi. 5. Perhaps 'K.I TOTT " Seizer of the Land "). Chapter v. — A sorrowful supplication, in which the speakers deplore, not the fall of Jerusalem, but their own state of galling dependence and hopeless poverty. They are still suffering for the sins of their fathers, who perished in the catastrophe (verse 7). They are at the mercy of " servants " (verse 8; cf. 2 Kings xxv. 24; Neh. v. 15: " Yea, even their ' boys ' lorded it over the people "), under a tyranny of pashas of the worst type (verses n f.). The soil is owned by aliens; and the Jews have to buy their water and firewood (verses 2, 4; cf. Neh. ix. 36 f.). While busy harvesting, they are exposed to the raids of the Bedouins (verse 9). Jackals prowl among the ruins of Zion (verse 18; cf. Neh. iv. 3). And this condition of things has already lasted a very long time (verse 20). Verses 5 f. transpose and read: "To adversaries" (mx1?) "we submitted, Saying" (iiCKS), "'We shall be satisfied with bread ' " (cf. Jer. xlii. 14) ; " The yoke of our neck they made heavy" (Neh. v. 15: oyn ty rraa.i) ; "We toil, and no rest is allowed us." Verse 13: " Nobles endured to grind, And princes staggered under logs " (omn for a'-iin:!, which belongs to verse 14; D'-ii? for D"iy:. Eccl. x. 7; Is. xxxiv. 12; .Neh. iv. 14; 128 LAMENTATIONS v. 7 ; vi. 17). Verse 19, " But Thou ..." Psalm cii. 13 (i fell out after precedingi, verse 18). Verse 22, omit DN; dittogr. of following ND. Authorship and date. — The tradition of Jeremiah's authorship cannot be traced higher than the Septuagint version. The prefatory note there may come from a Hebrew MS., but perhaps refers to chapter i. only ("Jeremiah sang this dirge"). The idea that Lamentations was originally appended to Jeremiah in the Hebrew Canon, as it is in the old versions, and was after- wards separated from it and added to the other Megilloth for the liturgical convenience of the Synagogue, rests on the fact that Josephus (Ap. i. I, 8) and, following him, Jerome and Origen reckon 22 books, taking Ruth with Judges and Lamenta- tions with Jeremiah; whereas the ordinary Jewish reckoning gives 24 books, as in our Hebrew Bibles. There is no evidence that this artificial reckoning according to the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet was ever much more than a fanciful suggestion. Even in the Septuagint the existing order may not be original. It appears likely that Lamentations was not translated by the same hand as Jeremiah (Noldeke). Unlike the latter, the Septuagint Lamentations sticks closely to the Massoretic text. The two books can hardly have been united from the first. On the strength of 2 Chron. xxxv. 25, some ancient writers (e.g. Jerome ad Zech. xii. n) held that Jeremiah composed Lamentations. When, however, Josephus (Ant. x. 5, i) states that Jeremiah wrote an elegy on Josiah still extant in his day, he may be merely quoting a little too much of Chron. loc. cit.; and it is obvious that he need not mean our book (see Whiston's note) . It is urged, indeed, that the author of Chronicles could not have imagined a prophet to have sympathized with such a king as Zedekiah so warmly as is implied by Lamentations iv. 20; and, therefore, he must have connected the passage with Josiah, the last of the good kings. However that may have been, the Chronicler neither says that Jeremiah wrote all the elegies comprised in The Qinoth, nor does he imply that the entire collection consisted of only five pieces. Rather, the contrary; for he implies that The Qinoth contained not only Jeremiah's single dirge on Josiah, but also the elegies of " all the singing men and singing women," from the time of Josiah's death (608) down to his own day (3rd century). The untimely fate of Josiah became a stock allusion in dirges. It is not meant that for three centuries the dirge-writers had nothing else to sing of; much less, that they sang of the fall of Jerusalem (pre- supposed by our book) before its occurrence. Upon the whole, it does not seem probable, either that the Chronicler mistook Lamentations iv. for Jeremiah's dirge on Josiah, or that the book he calls The Qinoth was identical with our Qinoth. Later writers misunderstood him, because — on the ground of certain obtrusive similarities between Jeremiah and Lamentations (see Driver, L.O.T. p. 433 f.), and the supposed reference in Lamentations iii. 53 ff. to Jeremiah xxxviii. 6 ff., as well as the fact that Jeremiah was the one well-known inspired writer who had lived through the siege of Jerusalem — they naturally enough ascribed this little book to the prophet. It is certainly true that the same emotional temperament, dissolving in tears at the spectacle of the country's woes, and expressing itself to a great extent in the same or similar language, is noticeable in the author(s) of Lamentations i.-iv. and in Jeremiah. And both refer these woes to the same cause, viz. the sins of the nation, and particularly of its prophets and priests. This, however, is not enough to prove identity of authorship; and the following considerations militate strongly against the tradition, (i.) The language and style of Lamentations are in general very unlike those of Jeremiah (see the details in Nagelsbach and Lohr); whatever allowance may be made for conventional differences in the phraseology of elegiac poetry and prophetic prose, even of a more or less lyrical cast, (ii.) Lamentations i.-iv. show a knowledge of Ezekiel (cf . Lamentations ii. 40; Ez. xx. 8, 21; Lam. ii. 14; Ez. xii. 24; xiii. 10, 14; Lam. ii. 15; Ez. xxvii. 3; xxviii. 12; Lam. iv. 20; Ez. xix. 4, 8) and of Is. xl.-lxvi. (Lam. i. 10, oriono; Is. Ixiv. 10; Lam. i. 15; Is. Ixiii. 2; Lam. ii. i; Is. Ixvi. i; Lam. ii. 20; Is. xliii. 28; Lam. ii. 13 the 3 verbs; Is. xl. 18, 25; Lam. ii. i$c; Is. Ix. 156; Lam. iii. 26 con; Is. xlvii. 5; Lam. iii. 30; Is. i. 6; Lam. iv. 14; Is. lix. 3, 10; Lam. iv. 15; Is. Iii. n; Lam. iv. i"]C; Is. xlv. 20; Lam. iv. 22; Is. xl. 2). Jeremiah does not quote Ezekiel; and he could hardly have quoted writings of the age of Cyrus, (iii.) The coincidences of language between Lamentations and certain late Psalms, such as Psalms Ixix., Ixxiv., Ixxx., Ixxxviii., Ixxxix., cxix., are numerous and signifi- cant, at least as a general indication of date, (iv.) The point of view of Lamentations sometimes differs from that of the prophet. This need not be the case in i. 21 f. where the context shows that the " enemies " are not the Chaldeans, but Judah's ill neighbours, Edom, Ammon, Moab and the rest (cf. iv. 21 f.; iii. 59-66 may refer to the same foes). Ch. ii. gc may refer to popular prophecy (" her prophets "; cf. verse 14), which would naturally be silenced by the overwhelming falsification of its comfortable predictions (iv. 14 ff. ; cf. Jer. xiv. 13; Ezek. vii. 26 f. ; Psalm Ixxiv. 9). But though Jeremiah was by no means disloyal (Jer. xxxiv. 4 f.), he would hardly have spoken of Zedekiah in the terms of Lam. iv. 20; and the prophet never looked to Egypt for help, as the poet of iv. 17 appears to have done. It must be admitted that Lamentations exhibits, upon the whole, " a poet (more) in sympathy with the old life of the nation, whose attitude towards the temple and the king is far more popular than Jeremiah's" (W. Robertson Smith); cf. i. 4, 10, 19, ii. 6, 7, 2oc. (v.) While we find in Lamentations some things that we should not have expected from Jeremiah, we miss other things characteristic of the prophet. There is no trace of his confident faith in the restoration of both Israel and Judah (Jer. iii. 14-18, xxiii. 3-8, xxx.-xxxiii.), nor of his unique doctrine of the New Covenant (Jer. xxxi. 31-34), as a ground of hope and consolation for Zion. The only hope ex- pressed in Lamentations i. is the hope of Divine vengeance on Judah's malicious rivals (i. 21 f.); and even this is wanting from ch. ii. Chapter iii. finds comfort in the thought of Yahweh's unfailing mercy; but ends with a louder cry for vengeance. Chapter iv. suggests neither hope nor consolation, until the end, where we have an assurance that Zion's punishment is complete, and she will not again be exiled (iv. 21 f.). The last word is woe for Edom. In chapter v. we have a prayer for restoration: " Make us return, O Yahweh, and we shall return!" (i.e. to our pristine state). Had Jeremiah been the author, we should have expected something more positive and definitely prophetic in tone and spirit. (The author of chapter iii. seems to have felt this. It was apparently written in view of chapter ii. as a kind of religious counterpoise to its burden of despair, which it first takes up, verses 1-20. and then dissipates, verses 21 ff.). (vi.) It seems almost superfluous to add that, in the brief and troubled story of the prophet's life after the fall of the city Jer. xxxix.-xliv.), it is difficult to specify an occasion when he may be supposed to have enjoyed the necessary leisure and quiet for the composition of these elaborate and carefully con- structed pieces, in a style so remote from his ordinary freedom and spontaneity of utterance. And if at the very end of his stormy career he really found time and inclination to write any- thing of this nature, we may wonder why it was not included in the considerable and somewhat miscellaneous volume of his works, or at least mentioned in the chapters which relate to his public activity after the catastrophe. Budde's date, 550 B.C., might not be too early for chapter v., if it stood alone. But it was evidently written as the close of the book, and perhaps to complete the number of five divisions, after the model of the Pentateuch; which would bring it below the date of Ezra (457 B.C.). And this date is supported by internal indications. The Divine forgetfulness has already lasted a very long time since the catastrophe (" for ever," verse 20); which seems to imply the lapse of much more than thirty-six years (cf. Zech. i. 12). The hill of Zion is still a deserted site haunted by jackals, as it was when Nehemiah arrived, 445 B.C. (Neh. i. 3, ii. 3, 13, 17, iv. 3). And the condi- tions, political and economic, seem to agree with what is told us by Nehemiah of the state of things which he found, and which pre- vailed before his coming: cf. esp. Neh. v. 2-5 with Lamentations LAMETH— LAMETTRIE 129 v. 2, to, and Neh. v. 15 with Lamentations v. 5, 8. There is nothing in chapter i. which Nehemiah himself might not have written, had he been a poet (cf. Neh. i. 4). The narrative of Neh. xiii. throws light on verse 10; and there are many coin- cidences of language, e.g. "The Province " (of Judea), Neh. i. 3, cf. verse i; "adversaries" (onx), of Judah's hostile neigh- bours, verse 7, Neh. iv. n; "made my strength stumble," verse 14, cf. Neh. iv. 4 (Heb.); the prayers, verses 21 f., Neh. iv. 4 f. (Heb. iii. 36 f.), are similar. The memory of what is told in Neh. iv. 5 (i i), Ezra iv. 23 f., v. 5, may perhaps have suggested the peculiar term roe*, stoppage, arrest, verse 7. With verse 3 " Judah migrated from oppression; From greatness of servitude; She settled among the nations, Without finding a resting-place," cf. Neh. v. 18 end, Jer. xl. n f. The "remnant of the captivity" (Neh. i. 2 f.) became much attenuated (cf. verse 4), because all who could escape from the galling tyranny of the foreigner left the country (cf. verse 6). Verses n, 19 (dearth of food), 20 (danger in the field, starvation in the house) agree curiously with Neh. v. 6, 9 f. Chapters ii. and iv. can hardly be dated earlier than the beginning of the Persian period. They might then have been written by one who, as a young man of sixteen or twenty, had witnessed the terrible scenes of fifty years before. If, however, as is generally recognized, these poems are not the spontaneous and unstudied outpourings of passionate grief, but compositions of calculated art and studied effects, written for a purpose, it is obvious that they need not be contemporary. A poet of a later generation might have sung of the great drama in this fashion. The chief incidents and episodes would be deeply graven in the popular memory; and it is the poet's function to make the past live again. There is much metaphor (i. 13- 15, ii. 1-4, iii. 1-18, iv. i ff.), and little detail beyond the horrors usual in long sieges (see Deut. xxviii. 52 ff.; 2 Kings vi. 28 f.) Acquaintance with the existing literature and the popular reminiscences of the last days of Jerusalem would supply an ample foundation for all that we find in these poems. LITERATURE. — The older literature is fully given by Nagelsbach in Lange's Bibelwerk A.T. xv. (1868, Eng. trans., 1871, p. 17). Among commentaries may be noticed those of Kalkar (in Latin) (1836); O. Thenius in Kurzgefasstes Exeg. Handbuch (1855), who ascribes chapters ii. and iv. tc Jeremiah (comp. K. Budde in Z.A.T.W., 1882, p. 45); Vaihinger (1857); Neumann (1858); H. Ewald in his Dichter, vol. i. pt. ii. (2nd ed., 1866); Engelhardt (1867); Nagels- bach, op. cit. (1868); E.. Gerlach, Die Klagelied. Jer. (1868); A. Kamphausen in Bunsen's Bibelwerk iii. (1868) ; C. F. Keil (1872) (Eng. trans., 1874); Payne Smith in The Speaker's Commentary; Reuss, La Bible: poesie lyrique (1879) ; T. K. Cheyne, at end of " Jeremiah," Pulpit Commentary (1883-1885); E. H. Plumptre, in Ellicott's O.T. for English Readers (1884); S. Oettli in Strack-Zockler's Kurzgef. Komm. A.T. vii. (1889); M. Lohr (1891) and again Hand- kommentar zum A.T. (1893); F. Baethgen ap. Kautzsch, Die Heilige Schrift d. A.T. (1894); W. F. Adeney, Expositor's Bible (1895) ; S. Mmocchi, Le Lamentazioni di Geremia (Rome, 1897) ; and K. Budde, " Fiinf Megillot," in Kurzer Hd.-Comm. zum A.T. (1898). For textual and literary criticism see also Houbigant, Notae Criticae, ii. 477-483 (1777); E. H. Rodhe, Num. Jeremias Threnos scripserit quaestiones (Lundae, 1871); F. Montet, Etude sur le lime des Lamentations (Geneva, 1875); G. Bickell, Carmina V. T. metrice, 112-120 (1882), and Wiener Zeitschrift fur Kunde des Morgenlandes, viii. 101 ff. (1894) (cf. also his Dichtungen der Hebrder, i. 87-108, 1882); Merkel, Uber das A.T. Buck der Klagelieder (Halle, 1889); J. Dyserinck, Theologisch Tijdschrift, xxvi. 359 ff. (1892) ; S. A. Fries, " Parallele zwischen Thr. iy., v. und der MakkabaerzeuV'.Z./l.r.H'., xiii. no ff. (1893) (chaps, iv. v. Maccabean; i.-iii. Jeremiah's); and on the other side Lohr, Z.A.T.W. xiv. 51 ff. (1894) ; id. ib., p. 31 ff., Der Sprachgebrauch des Buches der Klagelieder; and Lohr, " Threni iii. und die jeremianische Autorschaft des Buches der Klagelieder," Z.A.T.W., xxiv. i ff. (1904). On the prosody, see (besides the works of Bickell and Dyserinck) K. Budde, " Das hebraische Klagelied," Z.A.T.W., ii. I ff. (1882), iii. 299 ff. (1883), xi. 234 ff. (1891), xii. 31 ff. 261 ff. (1892); Preussische Jahrbucher, Ixxiii. 461 ff. (1893); and C. J. Ball, "The Metrical Structure of Qinpth," P.S.B.A. (March 1887). (The writer was then unacquainted with Budde's previous labours.) The following may also be consulted, Noldeke, Die A.T. Literatur, pp. 142-148 (1868) ; Seinecke, Gesch. des Volkes Israel, ii. 29 ff. (1884) ; Stade, Gesch. p. 701, n. I (1887); Smend in Z.A.T.W. (1888), p. 62 f . ; Steinthal, "Die Klagelieder Jer." in Bibel und Rel.-philosophie, '6-33 (1890) ; Driver, L.O.T. (1891), p. 428, "The Lamentations" ; and Cheyne's article " Lamentations (Book)," in Enc. Bibl. iii. (C. J.B.*) XVI. 5 LAMETH, ALEXANDRE THEODORE VICTOR, COMTE DE (1760-1829), French soldier and politician, was born in Paris on the 2oth of October 1760. He served in the American War of Independence under Rochambeau, and in 1789 was sent as deputy to the States General by the nobles of the bailliage of Peronne. In the Constituent Assembly he formed with Barnave and Adrien Duport a sort of association called the " Triumvirate," which controlled a group of about forty deputies forming the advanced left of the Assembly. He presented a famous report in the Constituent Assembly on the organization of the army, but is better known by his eloquent speech on the 28th of February 1791, at the Jacobin Club, against Mirabeau, whose relations with the court were beginning to be suspected, and who was a personal enemy of Lameth. However, after the flight of the king to Varennes, Lameth became reconciled with the court. He served in the army as marechal-de-camp under Luckner and Lafayette, but was accused of treason on the i5th of August 1792, fled the country, and was imprisoned by the Austrians. After his release he engaged in commerce at Hamburg with his brother Charles and the due d'Aiguillon, and did not return to France until the Consulate. Under the Empire he was made prefect successively in several departments, and in 1810 was created a baron. In 1814 he attached himself to the Bourbons, and under the Restoration was appointed prefect of Somme, deputy for Seine-Inferieure and finally deputy for Seine-et-Oise, in which capacity he was a leader of the Liberal opposition. He died in Paris on the i8th of March 1829. He was the author of an important History of the Constituent Assembly (Paris. 2 vols., 1828-1829). Of his two brothers, THEODORE LAMETH (1756-1854) served in the American war, sat in the Legislative Assembly as deputy from the department of Jura, and became marechal-de-camp; and CHARLES MALO FRANCOIS LAMETH (1757-1832), who also served in America, was deputy to the States General of 1789, but emigrated early in the Revolution, returned to France under the Consulate, and was appointed governor of Wurzburg under the Empire. Like Alexandre, Charles joined the Bourbons, succeeding Alexandre as deputy in 1829. See F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de I'Assemblee Constituante (Paris, 1905); also M. Tourneux, Bibliog. de I'histoire de Paris (vol. iv., 1906, s.v. " Lameth "). LAMETTRIE, JULIEN OFFRAY DE (1700-1751), French physician and philosopher, the earliest of the materialistic writers of the Illumination, was born at St Malo on the 25th of December 1709. After studying theology in the Jansenist schools for some years, he suddenly decided to adopt the profession of medicine. In 1 733 he went to Leiden to study under Boerhaave, and in 1742 returned to Paris, where he obtained the appointment of surgeon to the guards. During an attack of fever he made observations on himself with reference to the action of quickened circulation upon thought, which led him to the conclusion that psychical phenomena were to be accounted for as the effects of organic changes in the brain and nervous system. This conclusion he worked out in his earliest philo- sophical work, the Histoire naturelle de I'dme, which appeared about 1745. So great was the outcry caused by its publication that Lamettrie was forced to take refuge in Leiden, where he developed his doctrines still more boldly and completely, and with great originality, in L'Homme machine (Eng. trans., London, 1750; ed. with introd. and notes, J. Assezat, 1865), and L'Homme plante, treatises based upon principles of the most consistently materialistic character. The ethics of these principles were worked out in Discours sur le bonheur, La Volupte, and L' Art de jouir, in which the end of life is found in the pleasures of the senses, and virtue is reduced to self-love. Atheism is the only means of ensuring the happiness of the world, which has been rendered impossible by the wars brought about by theologians. The soul is only the thinking part of the body, and with the body it passes away. When death comes, the farce is over (la farce est joufe), therefore let us take our pleasure while we can. Lamettrie has been called " the Aristippus of modern materialism." So strong was the feeling against him 130 LAMIA— LAMMERGEYER that in 1748 he was compelled to quit Holland for Berlin, where Frederick the Great not only allowed him to practise as a physician, but appointed him court reader. He died on the nth of November 1751. His collected (Euvres philosophiques appeared after his death in several editions, published in London, Berlin and Amsterdam respectively. The chief authority for his life is the £loge written by Frederick the Great (printed in Ass6zat's ed. of Homme machine). In modern times Lamettrie has been judged less severely; see F. A. Lange, Geschichle des Materialismus (Eng. trans, by E. C. Thomas, ii. 1880) ; Neree Qufipat (i.e. Ren6 Paquet), La Mettrie, sa vie^ et ses ceumes (1873, with complete history of his works); J. E. Poritzky, /. 0. de Lamettrie, Sein Leben und seine Werke (1900); F. Picavet, "La Mettrie et la critique allemande," in Compte rendu des seances de I'Acad. des Sciences morales et politiques, xxxii. (1889), a reply to German re- habilitations of Lamettrie. LAMIA, in Greek mythology, queen of Libya. She was beloved by Zeus, and when Hera robbed her of her. children out of jealousy, she killed every child she could get into her power (Diod. Sic. xx. 41; Schol. Aristophanes, Pax, 757). Hence Lamia came to mean a female bogey or demon, whose name was used by Greek mothers to frighten their children; from the Greek she passed into Roman demonology. She was repre- sented with a woman's face and a serpent's tail. She was also known as a sort of fiend, the prototype of the modern vampire, who in the form of a beautiful woman enticed young men to her embraces, in order that she might feed on their life and heart's blood. In this form she appears in Goethe's Die Braut von Corinth, and Keats's Lamia. The name Lamia is clearly the feminine form of Lamus, king of the Laestrygones (q.v.). At some early period, or in some districts, Lamus and Lamia (both, according to some accounts, children of Poseidon) were worshipped as gods; but the names did not attain general currency. Their history is remarkably like that of the malignant class of demons in Germanic and Celtic folk-lore. Both names occur in the geographical nomenclature of Greece and Asia Minor; and it is probable that the deities belong to that religion which spread from Asia Minor over Thrace into Greece. LAMMAS (O. Eng. hlammaesse, hlafmaesse, from hlaf, loaf, and maesse, mass, " loaf -mass "), originally in England the festival of the wheat harvest celebrated on the ist of August, O.S. It was one of the old quarter-days, being equivalent to midsummer, the others being Martinmas, equivalent to Michaelmas, Candle- mas (Christmas) and Whitsuntide (Easter). Some rents are still payable in England at Lammastide, and in Scotland it is generally observed, but on the i2th of August, since the altera- tion of the calendar in George II. 's reign. Its name was in allusion to the custom that each worshipper should present in the church a loaf made of the new wheat as an offering of the first-fruits. A relic of the old " open-field " system of agriculture survives in the so-called " Lammas Lands." These were lands enclosed and held in severally during the growing of corn and grass and thrown open to pasturage during the rest of the year for those who had common rights. These commoners might be the several owners, the inhabitants of a parish, freemen of a borough, tenants of a manor, &c. The opening of the fields by throwing down the fences took place on Lammas Day (i2th of August) for corn-lands and on Old Midsummer Day (6th of July) for grass. They remained open until the following Lady Day. Thus, in law, " lammas lands " belong to the several owners in fee-simple subject for half the year to the rights of pasturage of other people (Baylis v. Tyssen-Amherst, 1877, 6 Ch. D., 50). See further F. Seebohm, The English Village Community ; C. I. Elton, Commons and Waste Lands; P. Vinogradoff, Villainage in England. LAMMERGEYER (Ger. Lammergeier, Lamm, lamb, and Geier, vulture), or bearded vulture, the Falco barbatus of Linnaeus and the Gypaetus barbatus of modern ornithologists, one of the grandest birds-of-prey of the Palaearctic region — inhabiting lofty mountain chains from Portugal to the borders of China, though within historic times it has been exterminated in several of its ancient haunts. Its northern range in Europe does not seem to have extended farther than the southern frontier of Bavaria, or the neighbourhood of Salzburg; ' but in Asia it formerly reached a higher latitude, having been found even so lately as 1830 in the Amur region where, according to G. F. Radde (Beitr. Kenntn. Russ. Reichs, xxiii. p. 467), it has now left but its name. It is not uncommon on many parts of the Himalayas, where it breeds; and on the mountains of Kumaon and the Punjab, and is the " golden eagle " of most Anglo- Indians. It is found also in Persia, Palestine, Crete and Greece, the Italian Alps, Sicily, Sardinia and Mauritania. In some external characters the lammergeyer is intermediate between the families Vulturidae and Falconidae, and the opinion of systematists has from time to time varied as to its proper position. It is now generally agreed, however, that it is more closely allied with the eagles than with the vultures, and the sub-family Gypaetinae of the Falconidae has been formed to contain ii, The whole length of the bird is from 43 to 46 in., of which, however, about 20 are due to the long cuneiform tail, while the pointed wings measure more than 30 in. from the carpal joint to the tip. The top of the head is white, bounded by black, which, beginning in stiff bristly feathers turned forwards over the base of the beak, proceeds on either side of the face in a well-defined band to the eye, where it bifurcates into two narrow stripes, of which the upper one passes above and beyond that feature till just in front of the scalp it suddenly turns upwards across the head and meets the corresponding stripe from the opposite side, enclosing the white forehead already mentioned, while the lower stripe extends beneath the eye about as far backwards and then suddenly stops. A tuft of black, bristly feathers projects beardlike from the base of the mandible, and gives the bird one of its commonest epithets in many languages. The rest of the head, the neck, throat and lower parts generally are clothed with lanceolate feathers of a pale tawny colour — sometimes so pale as to be nearly white beneath; while the scapulars, back and wing-coverts generally, are of a glossy greyish-black, most of the feathers having a white shaft and a median tawny line. The quill-feathers, both of the wings and tail, are of a dark blackish-grey. The irides are of a light orange, and the sclerotic tunics — equivalent to the " white of the eye " in most animals— which in few birds are visible, are in this very conspicuous and of a bright scarlet, giving it an air of great ferocity. In the young of the year the whole head, neck and throat are clothed in dull black, and mos.t of the feathers of the mantle and wing-coverts are broadly tipped and mesially streaked with tawny or lightish-grey. The lammergeyer breeds early in the year. The nest is of large size, built of sticks, lined with soft material and placed on a ledge of rock — a spot being chosen, and often occupied for many years, which is nearly always difficult of access. Here in the month of February a single egg is usually laid. This is more than 3 in. in length by nearly 25 in breadth, of a pale but lively brownish-orange. The young when in the nest are clad in down of a dirty white, varied with grey on the head and neck, and with ochraceous in the iliac region. There is much discrepancy as to the ordinary food of the lammergeyer, some observers maintaining that it lives almost entirely on carrion, offal and even ordure; but there is no question of its frequently taking living prey, and it is reasonable to suppose that this bird, like so many others, is not everywhere uniform in its habits. Its name shows it to be the reputed enemy of shepherds, and it is in some measure owing to their hostility that it has been exterminated in so many parts of its European range. But the lammergeyer has also a great partiality for bones, which when small enough it swallows. When they are too large, it is said to soar with them to a great height and drop them on a rock or stone that they may be broken into pieces of convenient size. Hence its name ossifrage,2 by which the 'See a paper by Dr Girtanner on this bird in Switzerland (Ver- handl. St-Gall. naturw. Gesellschaft, 1869-1870, pp. 147-244). 2 Among other crimes attributed to the species is that, according to Pliny (Hist. Nat. x. cap. 3), of having caused the death of the poet Aeschylus, by dropping a tortoise on his bald head! In the LAMOIGNON— LA MOTTE Hebrew Peres is rightly translated in the Authorized Version of the Bible (Lev. xi. 13; Deut. xiv. 12) — a word corrupted into osprey, and applied to a bird which has no habit of the kind. The lammergeyer of north-eastern and south Africa is specific- ally distinct, and is known as Gypaetus meridionalis or G. nudipes. In habits it resembles the northern bird, from which it differs in little more than wanting the black stripe below the eye and having the lower part of the tarsus bare of feathers. It is the " golden eagle " of Bruce's Travels, and has been beautifully figured by Joseph Wolf in E. Riippell's Syst. Ubers. der Vogel Nord-Ost-Afrika's (Taf. i). (A. N.) LAMOIGNON, a French family, which takes its name from Lamoignon, a place said to have been in its possession since the i3th century. One of its several branches is that of Lamoignon de Malesherbes. Several of the Lamoignons have played important parts in the history of France and the family has been specially distinguished in the legal profession. GUILLAUME DE LAMOIGNON (1617-1677), attained eminence as a lawyer and became president of the parlement of Paris in 1658. First on the popular, and later on the royalist side during the Fronde, he presided at the earlier sittings of the trial of Fouquet, whom he regarded as innocent, and he was associated with Colbert, whom he was able more than once to thwart. Lamoignon tried to simplify the laws of France and sought the society of men of letters like Boileau and Racine. Having received rich rewards for his public services, he died in Paris on the loth of December 1677. Guillaume's second son, NICOLAS DE LAMOIGNON (1648-1724), took the surname of Basville. Following his hereditary calling he filled many public offices, serving as intend- ant of Montauban, of Pau, of Poitiers and of Languedoc before his retirement in 1718. His administration of Languedoc was chiefly remarkable for vigorous measures against the Camisards and other Protestants, but in other directions his work in the south of France was more beneficent, as, following the example of Colbert, he encouraged agriculture and industry generally and did something towards improving the means of communica- tion. He wrote a Memoire, which contains much interesting information about his public work. This was published at Amsterdam in 1724. Lamoignon, who is called by Saint Simon, " the king and tyrant of Languedoc," died in Paris on the I7th of May 1724. CHRETIEN FRANCOIS DE LAMOIGNON (1735-1789) entered public life at an early age and was an actor in the troubles which heralded the Revolution. First on the side of the parle- ment and later on that of the king he was one of the assistants of Lomenie de Brienne, whose unpopularity and fall he shared. He committed suicide on the i5th of May 1789. LAMONT, JOHANN VON (1805-1879), Scottish-German astronomer and magnetician, was born at Braemar, Aberdeen- shire, on the 1 3th of December 1805. He was sent at the age of twelve to be educated at the Scottish monastery in Regensburg, and apparently never afterwards returned to his native country. His strong bent for scientific studies was recognized by the head of the monastery, P. Deasson, on whose recommendation he was admitted in 1827 to the then new observatory of Bogen- hausen (near Munich), where he worked under J. Soldner. After the death of his chief in 1835 he was, on H. C. Schumacher's recommendation, appointed to succeed him as director of the observatory. In 1852 he became professor of astronomy at the university of Munich, and held both these posts till his death, which took place on the 6th of August 1879. Lament was a member of the academies of Brussels, Upsala and Prague, of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, of the Cambridge Philosophical Society and of many other learned corporations. Among his contributions to astronomy may be noted his eleven zone- catalogues of 34,674 stars, his measurements, in 1836-1837, of nebulae and clusters, and his determination of the mass of Uranus from observations of its satellites (Mem. Astron. Soc. xi. 51, 1838). A magnetic observatory was equipped at Bogen- Atlas range the food of this bird is said to consist chiefly of the Testudo mauritanica, which " it carries to some height in the air, and lets fall on a stone to break the shell " (Ibis, 1859, p. 177). It was the SPTTT; and iivri of Greek classical writers. hausen in 1840 through his initiative; he executed compre- hensive magnetic surveys 1849-1858; announced the magnetic decennial period in 1850, and his discovery of earth-currents in 1862. His Handbuch des Erdmagnetismus (Berlin, 1849) is a standard work on the subject. See Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic (S. Giinther); V. J. Schrift, Astr. Gesellschaft, xv. 60; Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Society, xl. 203; Nature, xx. 425 ; Quart. Journal Meteor. Society, vi. 72 ; Proceedings Roy. Society of Edinburgh, x. 358; The Times (12 Aug., 1879); Sir F. Ronalds's Cat. of Books relating to Electricity and Magnetism, pp. 281-283; Royal Society's Cat. of Scientific Papers, vols. iii. vii. LAMORICIERE, CHRISTOPHE LEON LOUIS JUCHAULT DE (1806-1865), French general, was born at Nantes on the nth of September 1806, and entered the Engineers in 1828. He served in the Algerian campaigns from 1830 onwards, and by 1840 he had risen to the grade of marechal-de-camp (major- general). Three years later he was made a general of division. He was one of the most distinguished and efficient of Bugeaud's generals, rendered special service at Isly (August 14, 1844), acted temporarily as governor-general of Algeria, and finally effected the capture of Abd el-Kader in 1847. Lamoriciere took some part in the political events of 1848, both as a member of the Chamber of Deputies and as a military commander. Under the regime of General Cavaignac he was for a time minister of war. From 1848 to 1851 Lamoriciere was one of the most conspicuous opponents of the policy of Louis Napoleon, and at the coup d'etat of the 2nd of December 1851 he was arrested and exiled. He refused to give in his allegiance to the emperor Napoleon III., and in 1860 accepted the command of the papal army, which he led in the Italian campaign of 1860. On the 1 8th of September of that year he was severely defeated by the Italian army at Castelfidardo. His last years were spent in complete retirement in France (he had been allowed to return in 1857), and he died at Prouzel (Somme) on the nth of September 1865. See E. Keller, Le General de Lamoriciere (Paris, 1873). LA MOTHE LE VAYER, FRANCOIS DE (1588-1672), French writer, was born in Paris of a noble family of Maine. His father was an avocat at the parlement of Paris and author of a curious treatise on the functions of ambassadors, entitled Legatus, seu De legatorum priiiilegiis, officio et munere libellus (1579) and illustrated mainly from ancient history. Francois succeeded his father at the parlement, but gave up his post about 1647 and devoted himself to travel and belles lettres. His Considerations sur V eloquence franqaise (1638) procured him admission to the Academy, and his De I'instruction de Mgr. le Dauphin (1640) attracted the attention of Richelieu. In 1649 Anne of Austria entrusted him with the education of her second son and subsequently with the completion of Louis XIV.'s education, which had been very much neglected. The outcome of his pedagogic labours was a series of books comprising the Geographic, Rhetorique, Morale, Economique, Polilique, Logique, and Physique du prince (1651-1658). The king rewarded his tutor by appointing him historiographer of France and councillor of state. La Mothe Le Vayer died in Paris. Modest, sceptical, and occasionally obscene in his Latin pieces and in his verses, he made himself a persona grata at the French court, where libertinism in ideas and morals was hailed with relish. Besides his educational works, he wrote Jugement sur les anciens el principaux historiens grecs el latins (1646); a treatise entitled Du peu de certitude qu'il y a en histoire (1668), which in a sense marks the beginning of historical criticism in France; and sceptical Dialogues, published posthumously under the pseudo- nym of Orosius Tubero. An incomplete edition of his works was published at Dresden in 1756-1759. See Bayle, Dictionnaire critique, article " Vayer " ; L. Etienne, Essai sur La Mothe Le Vayer (Paris, 1849). LA MOTTE, ANTOINE HOUDAR DE (1672-1731), French author, was born in Paris on the i8th of January 1672. In 1693 his comedy Les Originaux proved a complete failure, which so depressed the author that he contemplated joining the Trappists, but four years later he again began writing operas and ballets, e.g. L'Europe galanle (1697), and tragedies, one of 132 LAMOUREUX— LAMP which, Ines de Castro (1723), was produced with immense success at the Theatre Francais. He was a champion of the moderns in the revived controversy of the ancients and moderns. Madame Dacier had published (1699) a translation of the Iliad, and La Motte, who knew no Greek, made a translation (1714) in verse founded on her work. The nature of his work may be judged from his own expression: " I have taken the liberty to change what I thought disagreeable in it." He defended the moderns in the Discours sur Homere prefixed to his translation, and in his Reflexions sur la critique (1716). Apart from the merits of the controversy, it was conducted on La Motte's side with a wit and politeness which compared very favourably with his opponent's methods. He was elected to the Academy in 1710, and soon after became blind. La Motte carried on a correspondence with the duchesse du Maine, and was the friend of Fontenelle. He had the same freedom from prejudice, the same inquiring mind as the latter, and it is on the excellent prose in which his views are expressed that his reputation rests. He died in Paris on the 26th of December 1731. His (Eumes du theatre (2 vols.) appeared in 1730, and his (Euvres (10 vols.) in 1754. See A. H. Rigault, Histoire de la querelle des anciens et des modernes (1859). LAMOUREUX, CHARLES (1834-1899), French conductor and violinist, was born at Bordeaux on the 28th of September 1834. He studied at the Pau Conservatoire, was engaged as violinist at the Opera, and in 1864 organized a series of concerts devoted to chamber music. Having journeyed to England and assisted at a Handel festival, he thought he would attempt something similar in Paris. At his own expense he founded the " Societe de 1'Harmonie Sacree," and in 1873 conducted the first performance in Paris of Handel's Messiah. He also gave performances of Bach's St Matthew Passion, Handel's Judas Maccabaeus, Gounod's Gallia, and Massenet's Eve. In 1875 he conducted the festival given at Rouen to celebrate the centenary of Bo'ieldieu. The following year he became chef d'orchestre at the Opera Comique. In 1881 he founded the famous concerts associated with his name, which contributed so much to popularize Wagner's music in Paris. The perform- ances of detached pieces taken from the German master's works did not, however, satisfy him, and he matured the project to produce Lohengrin, which at that time had not been heard in Paris. For this purpose he took the Eden Theatre, and on the 3rd of May 1887 he conducted the first performance of Wagner's opera in the French capital. Owing to the opposition of the Chauvinists, the performance was not repeated; but it doubtless prepared the. way for the production of the same masterpiece at the Paris Opera a few years later. Lamoureux was successively second chef d'orchestre at the Conservatoire, first chef d'orchestre at the Opera Comique, and twice first chef d'orchestre at the Opera. He visited London on several occasions, and gave successful concerts at the Queen's Hall. Lamoureux died at Paris on the 2ist of December 1899. Tristan und Isolde had been at last heard in Paris, owing to his initiative and under his direction. After conducting one of the performances of this masterpiece he was taken ill and succumbed in a few days; having had the consolation before his death of witnessing the triumph of the cause he had so courageously championed. LAMP (from Gr. Xa/wrdj, a torch, Xo^tTreti', to shine), the general term for an apparatus in which some combustible substance, generally for illuminating purposes, is held. Lamps are usually associated with lighting, though the term is also employed in connexion with heating (e.g. spirit-lamp); and as now employed for oil, gas and electric light, they are dealt with in the article on LIGHTING. From the artistic point of view, in modern times, their variety precludes detailed reference here; but their archaeo- logical history deserves a fuller account. Ancient Lamps. — Though Athenaeus states (xv. 700) that the lamp (\irxvos) was not an ancient invention in Greece, it had come into general use there for domestic purposes by the 4th century B.C., and no doubt had long before been employed for temples or other places where a permanent light was required in room of the torch of Homeric times. Herodotus (ii. 62) sees nothing strange in the " festival of lamps," Lychnokaie, which was held at Sais in Egypt, except in the vast number of them. Each was filled with oil so as to burn the whole night. Again he speaks of evening as the time of lamps (irtpi MXVCW, vii. 215). Still, the scarcity of lamps in a style anything like that of an early period, compared with the immense number of them from the late Greek and Roman age, seems to justify the remark of Athenaeus. The commonest sort of domestic lamps were of terra-cotta and of the shape seen in figs, i and 2 with a spout or nozzle (jjMKrrip) in which the wick (0pi;aXXij) burned, a round hole on the top to pour in oil by, and a handle to carry the lamp with. A lamp with two or more spouts was dinv^os, Tpi/j.v!;os, &c., but these terms would not apply strictly to the large class of lamps with numerous holes for wicks but without nozzles. Decoration was con- fined to the front of the handle, or more commonly to the circular space on the top of the lamp, and it consisted almost always of a design in relief, taken from mythology or legend, from objects of daily life or scenes such as displays of gladiators or chariot races, from animals and the chase. A lamp in the British Museum has a view of the interior of a Roman circus with spectators looking on at a chariot race. In other cases the lamp is made altogether of a fantastic shape, as in the form of an animal, a bull's head, or a human foot. Naturally colour was excluded from the ornamenta- tion except in the form of a red or black glaze, which would resist the heat. The typical form of hand lamp (figs, i, 2) is a combination of the flatness necessary for carrying steady and remaining steady when set dcwn, with the roundness evolved from the working in clay and characteristic of vessels in that material. In the bronze lamps this same type is retained, though the roundness was less in keeping with metal. Fanciful shapes are equally common in bronze. The standard form of handle consists of a ring for the forefinger and above it a kind FIG. 2. FIG. 3. of palmette for the thumb. Instead of the palmette is sometimes a crescent, no doubt in allusion to the moon. It would only be with bronze lamps that the cover protecting the flame from the wind could be used, as was the case out of doors in Athens. Such a lamp was in fact a lantern. Apparently it was to the lantern that the Greek word lampas, a torch, was first transferred, probably from a custom of having guards to protect the torches also. Afterwards it came to be employed for the lamp itself (\V\VB>/("'1^0' -^|p^i^^-f ' -ft A^*f ^^/f^^fe^^iS^ ^P?|^^-^&* ((^ggM?=ffi»^^E ?'T-vt1QWhill«yjy fO&T^ y ""•^BfeSSeP / X ^s^^KiS^™^^ Longitude Wesl 3 of Greenwich Communications. — Apart from the Manchester Ship Canal, canal- traffic plays an important part in the industrial region. In 1760 the Sankey canal, 10 m. long, the first canal opened in Britain (apart from very early works) , was constructed to carry coal from St Helens to Liverpool. Shortly afterwards the duke of Bridgewater projected the great canal from Manchester across the Irwell to Worsley, com- pleted in 1761 and bearing the name of its originator. The Leeds and Liverpool canal, begun in 1770, connects Liverpool and other important towns with Leeds by a circuitous route of 130 m. The other principal canals are the Rochdale, the Manchester (to Hudders- field) and the Lancaster, connecting Preston and Kendal. A short carnal connects Ulverston with Morecambe Bay. A network of rail- ways covers the industrial region. The main line of the London and North Western railway enters the county at Warrington, and runs north through Wigan, Preston, Lancaster and Carnforth. It also serves Liverpool and Manchester, providing the shortest route to each of these cities from London, and shares with the Lancashire and Yorkshire company joint lines to Southport, to Blackpool and to Fleetwood, whence there is regular steamship communication with Belfast. The Lancashire and Yorkshire line serves practically all the important centres as far north as Preston and Fleetwood. All the northern trunk lines from London have services to Manchester and Liverpool. The Cheshire Lines system, worked by a committee of the Great Northern, Great Central and Midland companies, links their systems with the South Lancashire district generally, and maintains lines between Liverpool and Manchester, both these cities with Southport, and numerous branches. Branches of the Midland railway from its main line in Yorkshire serve Lancaster, Morecambe, and Heysham and Carnforth, where connexion is made with the Furness railway to Ulverston, Barrow, Lake Side, Coniston, &c. Population and Administration. — The area of the ancient county is 1,203,365 acres. Its population in 1801 was 673,486; in 1891, 3,926,760; and in 1901, 4,406,409. The area' of the administrative county is 1,196,753 acres. The distribution of the industrial population may be best appreciated by showing the parliamentary divisions, parliamentary, county and muni- cipal boroughs and urban districts as placed among the four divisions of the ancient county. In the case of urban districts the name of the great town to which each is near or adjacent 140 LANCASHIRE follows where necessary. The figures show population in 1901. NORTHERN DIVISION. — This embraces almost all the county N. of the Kibble, including Furness, and a small area S. of the Kibble estuary. It is considerably the largest of the divisions. Parlia- mentary divisions, from N. to S. — North Lonsdalc, Lancaster, Blackpool, Chorley. Parliamentary, county and municipal boroughs — Barrow-in-Furness (57,586; one member); Preston (112,989; two members). Municipal boroughs — Blackpool (county borough; 47. 348). Chorley (26,852), Lancaster (40,329; county town), More- cambe (11,798). Urban districts — Adhngton (4523; Chorley), Bispham-with-Norbreck (Blackpool), Carnforth (3040; Lancaster), Croston (2102; Chorley), Dalton-in-Furness (13,020), Fleetwood (12,082), Fulwood (5238; Preston), Grange (1993), Heysham (3381; Morecambe), Kirkham (3693; Preston), Leyfand (6865; Chorley), Longridge (4304; Preston), Lytham (7185), Poulon-le-Fylde (2223; Blackpool), Preesall-with-Hackinsall (1423; Fleetwood), St Anne's- pn-the-Sea (6838, a watering-place between Blackpool and Lytham), Thornton (3108 ; Fleetwood), Ulverston (10,064, 'n Furness), Withnell (3349 ; Chorley). NORTH-EASTERN-DIVISION. — This lies E. of Preston, and is the smallest of the four. Parliamentary divisions — Accrington, Clitheroe, Darwen, Rossendale. Parliamentary, county and municipal boroughs — Blackburn (127,626; two members); Burnley (97,043; one member). Municipal boroughs — Accrington (43,122), Bacup (22,505), Clitheroe (11,414), Colne (23,000), Darwen (38,212), Haslingden (18,543, extending into South-Eastern division), Nelson (32,816), Rawtenstall (31,053). Urban districts — Barrowford (4959; Colne), Brierfield (7288; Burnley), Church (6463; Accrington), Clayton-le- Moors (8153; Accrington), Great Harwood (12,015; Blackburn), Oswaldtwistle (14,192; Blackburn), Padiham (12,205; Burnley), Rishton (7031; Blackburn), Trawden (2641; Colne), Walton-le- Dale (11,271; Preston). SOUTH-WESTERN DIVISION. — This division represents roughly a quadrant with radius of 20 m. drawn from Liverpool. Parliamentary divisions — Bootle, Ince, Leigh, Newton, Ormskirk, Southport, Widnes. Parliamentary boroughs — the city iand county and municipal borough of Liverpool (684,958 ; nine members) ; the county and municipal boroughs of St Helens (84,410; one member); Wigan (60,764; one member), Warrington (64,242; a part only of the parliamentary borough is in this county). Municipal boroughs — Bootle (58,566), Leigh (40,001), Southport (county borough; 48,083), Widnes (28,580). Urban districts — Abram (6306; Wigan), Allerton (i 101 ; Liverpool), Ashton-in-Makerfield (18,687), Atherton (16,211), Billinge (4232; Wigan), Birkdale (14,197; Southport), Childwall (219; Liverpool), Formby (6060), Golborne (6789; St Helens), Great Crosby (7555; Liverpool), Haydock (8575; St Helens), Hindley (23,504; Wigan), Huyton-with-Roby (4661; St Helens), Ince-in-Makerfield (21,262), Lathom-and-Burscough (7113; Orms- kirk), Litherland (10,592; Liverpool), Little Crosby (563; Liver- pool), Little Woolton (1091; Liverpool), Much Woolton (4731; Liverpool), Newton-in-Makerfield (16,699), Ormskirk (6857), Orrell (5436; Wigan), Prescot (7855; St Helens), Rainford (3359; St Helens), Skelmersdale (5699; Ormskirk), Standish-with-Langtrec (6303; Wigan), Tyldesley-with-Shakerley (14,843), Upholland (4773; Wigan), Waterloo-with-Seaforth (23,102; Liverpool). SOUTH-EASTERN DIVISION.— This is of about the same area as the South-Western division, and it constitutes the heart of the industrial region. Parliamentary divisions— Eccles, Gorton, Hey wood, Middle- ton, Prestwich, Radcliffe-cum-Farnworth, Stretford, Westhoughton. Parliamentary boroughs — the city and county of a city of Manchester (543.872; six members); with which should be correlated the ad- joining county and municipal borough of Salford (220,957; three members), also the county and municipal boroughs of Bolton (168,215; two members), Bury (58,029; one member), Rochdale (83,114; one member), Oldham (137,246; two members), and the municipal borough of Ashton-under-Lyne (43,890). Part only of the last parliamentary borough is within the county, and this division also contains part of the parliamentary boroughs of Staly- bridge and Stockport. Municipal boroughs — Eccles (34,369), Hey- wood (25,458), Middleton (25,178), Mossley (13,452). Urban districts — Aspull (8388; Wigan), Audenshaw (7216; Ashton-under-Lyne), Blackrod (3875; Wigan), Chadderton (24,892; Oldham), Cromp- ton (13,427; Oldham), Denton (14,934; Ashton-under-Lyne), Droylsden (11,087; Manchester), Failsworth (14,152; Manchester), Farnworth (25,925; Bolton), Gorton (26,564; Manchester), Heaton Norris (9474! Stockport). Horwich (15,084; Bolton), Hurst (7145; Ashton-under-Lyne), Irlam (4335; Eccles), Kearsley (9218; Bolton), Lees (3621; Oldham), Levenshulme (11,485; Manchester), Little- borough (11,166; Rochda|e), Little Hulton (7294; Bolton), Little Lever (5119; Bolton), Milnrow (8241; Rochdale), Norden (3907; Rochdale), Prestwich (12,839; Manchester), Radcliffe (25,368; Bury), Ramsbottom (15,920; Bury), Royton (14,881; Oldham), Stretford (30,436; Manchester), Swinton-and-Pendlebury (27,005; Manchester), Tottington (6118; Bury), Turton (12,355; Bolton), Urmston (6594; Manchester), Wardle (4427; Rochdale), " houghton (14,377; Bolton), Whitefield or Stand (6588; Whitworth (9578; Rochdale), Worsley (12,462; Eccles). West- Bury), Lancashire is one of the counties palatine. It is attached to the duchy of Lancaster, a crown office, and retains the chancery court for the county palatine. The chancery of the duchy of Lancaster was once a court of appeal for the chancery of the county palatine, but now even its jurisdiction in regard to the estates of the duchy is merely nominal. The chancery of the county palatine has concurrent jurisdiction with the High Court of Chancery in all matters of equity within the county palatine, and independent jurisdiction in regard to a variety of other matters. The county palatine comprises six hundreds. Lancashire is in the northern circuit, and assizes are held at Lancaster for the north, and at Liverpool and Manchester for the south of the county. There is one court of quarter sessions, and the county is divided into 33 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Blackburn, Bolton, Burnley, Liverpool, Manchester, Oldham, Salford and Wigan have separate commissions of the peace and courts of quarter sessions; and those of Accrington, Ashton-under- Lyne, Barrow-in-Furness, Blackpool, Bolton, Bury, Clitheroe, Colne, Darwen, Eccles, Heywood, Lancaster, Middleton, Mossley, Nelson, Preston, Rochdale, St Helens, Southport and Warrington have separate commissions of the peace only. There are 430 civil parishes. Lancashire is mainly in the diocese of Manchester, but parts are in those of Liverpool, Carlisle, Ripon, Chester and Wakefield. There are 787 ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the county. Manchester and Liverpool are each scats of a university and of other important educational institutions. Within the bounds of the county there are many denominational colleges, and near Clitheroe is the famous Roman Catholic college of Stonyhurst. There is a day training college for schoolmasters in connexion with University College, Liverpool, and a day training college for both schoolmasters and schoolmistresses in connexion with Owens College, Manchester. At Edgehill, Liverpool, there is a residential training college for schoolmistresses which takes day pupils, at Liverpool a residential Roman Catholic training college for schoolmasters, and at Warrington a residential training college (Chester, Manchester and Liverpool diocesan) for schoolmistresses. History. — The district afterwards known as Lancashire was after the departure of the Romans for many years apparently little better than a waste. It was not until the victory of .(Ethel- frith, king of Deira, near Chester in 613 cut off the Britons of Wales from those of Lancashire and Cumberland that even Lancashire south of the Ribble was conquered. The part north of the Ribble was not absorbed in the Northumbrian kingdom till the reign of Ecgfrith (670-685). Of the details of this long struggle we know nothing, but to the stubborn resistance made by the British leaders are due the legends of Arthur; and of the twelve great battles he is supposed to have fought against the English, four are traditionally, though probably erroneously, said to have taken place on the river Douglas near Wigan. In the long struggle for supremacy between Mercia and Northumbria, the country between the Mersey and Ribble was sometimes under one, sometimes under the other kingdom. During the gth century Lancashire was constantly invaded by the Danes, and after the peace of Wedmore (878) it was included in the Danish kingdom of Northumbria'. The A.S. Chronicle records the reconquest of the district between the Ribble and Mersey in 923 by the,English king, when it appears to have been severed from the kingdom of Northumbria and united to Mercia, but the districts north of the Ribble now comprised in the county belonged to Northumbria until its incorporation with the kingdom of England. The names on the Lancashire coast ending in by, such as Crosby, Formby, Roby, Kirkby, Derby, show where the Danish settlements were thickest. William the Conqueror gave the lands between the Ribble and Mersey, and Amounderness to Roger de Poictou, but at the time of Domesday Book these had passed out of his hand and belonged to the king. The name Lancashire doe's not appear in Domesday; the lands between the Ribble and Mersey were included in Cheshire and those north of the Ribble in Yorkshire. Roger de Poictou soon regained his lands, and Rufus added to his possessions the rest of Lonsdale south of the Sands, of which he already held a part; and as he had the Furness fells as well, he owned all that is now known as Lancashire. In 1 102 he finally forfeited all his lands, which Henry I. held till, in 1118, he created the honour of Lancaster by incorporating with Roger's forfeited LANCASHIRE 141 lands certain escheated manors in the counties of Nottingham, Derby and Lincoln, and certain royal manors, and bestowed it upon his nephew Stephen, afterwards king. During Stephen's reign the history of the honour presents certain difficulties, for David of Scotland held the lands north of the Ribble for a time, and in 1147 the earl of Chester held the district between the Ribble and Mersey. Henry II. gave the whole honour to William, Stephen's son, but in 1164 it came again into the king's hands until 1189, when Richard I. granted it to his brother John. In 1194, owing to John's rebellion, it was confiscated and the honour remained with the crown till 1267. In 1229, however, all the crown demesne between the Ribble and Mersey was granted to Ranulf, earl of Chester, and on his death in 1232 came to William Ferrers, earl of Derby, in right of his wife . Agnes, sister and co-heir of Ranulf. The Ferrers held it till 1266, when it was confiscated o'wing to the earl's rebellion. In 1267 Henry III. granted the honour and county and all the royal demesne therein to his son Edmund, who was created earl of Lancaster. His son, Earl Thomas, married the heiress of Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, and thus obtained the great estates belonging to the de Lacys in Lancashire. On the death of Henry, -the first duke of Lancaster, in 1361, the estates, title and honour fell to John of Gaunt in right of his wife Blanche, the duke's elder daughter, and by the accession of Henry IV., John of Gaunt's only son, to the throne, the duchy and honour became merged in the crown. The county of Lancaster is first mentioned in 1 169 as contribut- ing 100 marks to the Royal Exchequer for defaults and fines. The creation of the honour decided the boundaries, throwing into it Furness and Cartmel, which geographically belong to Westmorland ; Lonsdale and Amounderness, which in Domesday had been surveyed under Yorkshire; and the land between the Ribble and Mersey. In Domesday this district south of the Ribble was divided into the six hundreds of West Derby, Newton, Warrington, Blackburn, Salford and Leyland, but before Henry II. 's reign the hundreds of Warrington and Newton were absorbed in that of West Derby. Neither Amounderness nor Lonsdale was called a hundred in Domesday, but soon after that time the former was treated as a hundred. Ecclesiastically the whole of the county originally belonged to the diocese of York, but after the reconquest of the district between the Ribble and Mersey in 923 this part was placed under the bishop of Lich- field in the archdeaconry of Chester, which was subdivided into the rural deaneries of Manchester, Warrington and Leyland. Up to 1541 the district north of the Ribble belonged to the archdeaconry of Richmond in the diocese of York, and was subdivided into the rural deaneries of Amounderness, Lonsdale and Coupland. In 1541 the diocese of Chester was created, including all Lancashire, which was divided into two arch- deaconries: Chester, comprising the rural deaneries of Man- chester, Warrington and Blackburn, and Richmond, comprising the deaneries of Amounderness, Furness, Lonsdale and Kendal. In 1847 the diocese of Manchester was created, which included all Lancashire except parts of West Derby, which still belonged to the diocese of Chester, and Furness and Cartmel, which were added to Carlisle in 1856. In 1878 by the creation of the diocese of Liverpool the south-eastern part of the county was subtracted from the Manchester diocese. No shire court was ever held for the county, but as a duchy and county palatine it has its own special courts. It may have enjoyed palatine jurisdiction under Earl Morcar before the Conquest, but these privileges, if ever exercised, remained in. abeyance till 1351, when Henry, duke of Lancaster, received power to have a chancery in the county of Lancaster and to issue writs therefrom under his own seal, as well touching pleas of the crown as any other relating to the common laws, and to have all Jura Regalia belonging to a county palatine. In 1377 the county was erected into a palatinate for John of Gaunt's life, and in 1396 these rights of jurisdiction were extended and settled in perpetuity on the dukes of Lancaster. The county palatine courts consist of a chancery which dates back at least to 1376, a court of common pleas, the jurisdiction of which was transferred in 1873 by the Judicature Act to the high court ol justice, and a court of criminal jurisdiction which in no way differs from the king's ordinary court. In 1407 the duchy court of Lancaster was created, in which all questions of revenue and dignities affecting the duchy possessions are settled. The chancery of the duchy has been for years practically obsolete. The duchy and county palatine each has its own seal. The office of chancellor of the duchy and county palatine dates back to 1351. Lancashire is famed for the number of old and important county families living within its borders. The most intimately connected with the history of the county are the Stanleys, whose chief seat is Knowsley Hall. Sir John Stanley early in the I5th century married the heiress of Lathom and thus obtained possession of Lathom and Knowsley. In 1456 the head of the family was created a peer by the title of Baron Stanley and in 1485 raised to the earldom of Derby. The Molyneuxes of Sephton and Croxteth are probably descended from William de Molines, who came to England with William the Conqueror, and is on the roll of Battle Abbey. Roger de Poictou gave him the manor of Sephton, and Richard de Molyneuxwho held the estate under Henry II. is undoubtedly an ancestor of the family. In 1628 Sir Richard Molyneux was advanced to the peerage of Ireland by the title of Viscount Maryborough, and in 1771 Charles, Lord Maryborough, became earl of Sefton in the peerage of Ireland. His son was created a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Sefton of Croxteth. The Bootle Wilbrahams, earls of Lathom, are, it is said, descended from John Botyll of Melling, who was alive in 1421, and from the Wilbrahams of Cheshire, who date back at least to Henry III.'s reign. In 1755 the two families intermarried. In 1828 the title of Baron Skelmcrsdale was bestowed on the head of the family and in 1880 that of earl of Lathom. The Gerards of Bryn are said to be descended from an old Tuscan family, one of whom came to England in Edward the Confessor's time, and whose son is mentioned in Domesday. Bryn came into this family by marriage early in the I4th century'. Sir Thomas Gerard was created a baronet by James I. in l6n,and in 1 876 a peerage was conferred on Sir Robert Gerard. The Gerards of I nee were a collateral branch. The Lindsays, earls of Crawford and Balcarres, are representative on the female side of the Bradshaighs of Haigh Hall, who are said to be of Saxon origin. Other great Lancashire families are the Hoghtons of Hoghton Tower, dating back to the I2th century, the Blundells of Ince Blundell, who are said to have held the manor since the I2th century, now repre- sented by the Weld-Blundells, the Tyldesleys of Tyldesley, now extinct, and the Butlers of Bewsey, barons of Warrington, of whom the last male heir died in 1586. At the close of the i2th and during the ijth century there was a considerable advance in the importance of the towns; in 1199 Lancaster became a borough, in 1207 Liverpool, in 1230 Salford, in 1246 Wigan, and in 1301 Manchester. The Scottish wars were a great drain to the county, not only because the north part was subject to frequent invasions, as in 1322, but because some of the best blood was taken for these wars. In 1297 Lancashire raised 1000 men, and at the battle of Falkirk (1298) 1000 Lancashire soldiers were in the vanguard, led by Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln. In 1349 the county was visited by the Black Death and a record exists of its ravages in Amounder- ness. In ten parishes between September 1349 and January 1350, 13,180 persons perished. At Preston 3000 died, at Lancaster 3000, at Garstang 2000 and at Kirkham 3000. From the effects of this plague Lancashire was apparently slow to recover; its boroughs ceased to return members early in the i4th century and trade had not yet made any great advance. The drain of the Wars of the Roses on the county must also have been heavy, although none of the battles was fought within its borders; Lord Stanley's force of 5000 raised in Lancashire and Cheshire virtually decided the battle of Bosworth Field. The poverty of the county is shown by the fact that out of £40,000 granted in 1504 by parliament to the king, Lancashire's share was only £318. At the battle of Flodden (1513) the Lancashire archers led by Sir Edward Stanley almost totally destroyed the High- landers on the right Scottish wing and greatly contributed to the victory. Under the Tudors the county prospered; the parliamentary boroughs once more began to return members, the towns increased in size, many halls were built by the gentry and trade increased. In 1617 James I. visited Lancashire, and in consequence of a petition presented to him at Hoghton, complaining of the restrictions imposed upon Sunday amusements, he issued in 1618 the famous Book of Sports. Another of James's works, the Ddemonologie, is 142 LANCASHIRE closely connected with the gross superstitions concerning witches which were specially prevalent in Lancashire. The great centre of this witchcraft was Pendle Forest, in the parish of Whalley, and in 1612 twelve persons from Pendle and eight from Samlesbury were tried for witchcraft, nine of whom were hanged. In 1633 another batch of seventeen witches from Pendle were tried and all sentenced to be executed, but the king pardoned 'them. This was the last important case of witchcraft in Lancashire. In the assessment of ship money in 1636 the county was put down for £1000, towards which Wigan was to raise £50, Preston £40, Lancaster £30, and Liverpool £25, and these figures com- pared with the assessments of £140 on Hull and £200 on Leeds show the comparative unimportance of the Lancashire boroughs. On the eve of the Great Rebellion in 1641 parliament resolved to take command of the militia, and Lord Strange, Lord Derby's eldest son, was removed from the lord lieutenancy. On the whole, the county was Royalist, and the moving spirit among the Royalists was Lord Strange, who became Lord Derby in 1642. Manchester was the headquarters of the Parliamentarians, and was besieged by Lord Derby in September 1642 for seven days, but not taken. Lord Derby himself took up his head- quarters at Warrington and garrisoned Wigan. At the opening of 1643 Sir Thomas Fairfax made Manchester his headquarters. Early in February the Parliamentarians from Manchester successfully assaulted Preston, which was strongly Royalist; thence the Parliamentarians marched to Hoghton Tower, which they took, and within a few days captured Lancaster. On the Royalist side Lord Derby made an unsuccessful attack on Bolton from Wigan. In March a large Spanish ship, laden with ammunition for the use of parliament, was driven by a storm on Rossall Point and seized by the Royalists; Lord Derby ordered the ship to be burned, but the parliament forces from Preston succeeded in carrying off some of the guns to Lancaster castle. In March Lord Derby captured the town of Lancaster but not the castle, and marching to Preston regained it for the king, but was repulsed in an attack on Bolton. In April Wigan, one of the chief Royalist strongholds in the county, was taken by the parliament forces, who also again captured Lancaster, and the guns from the Spanish ship were moved for use against Warrington, which was obliged to surrender in May after a week's siege. Lord Derby also failed in an attempt on Liverpool, and the tide of war had clearly turned against the Royalists in Lancashire. In June Lord Derby went to the Isle of Man, which was threatened by the king's enemies. Soon after, the Parliamentarians captured Hornby castle, and only two strong- holds, Thurland castle and Lathom house, remained in Royalist hands. In the summer,- after a seven weeks' siege by Colonel Alexander Rigby, Thurland castle surrendered and was demo- lished. In February 1644 the Parliamentarians, under Colonel Rigby, Colonel Ashton and Colonel Moore, besieged Lathom house, the one refuge left to the Royalists, which was bravely defended by Lord Derby's heroic wife, Charlotte de la Tremoille. The siege lasted nearly four months and was raised on the approach of Prince Rupert, who marched to Bolton and was joined on his arrival outside the town by Lord Derby. Bolton was carried by storm; Rupert ordered that no quarter should be given, and it is usually said at least 1500 of the garrison were slain. Prince Rupert advanced without delay to Liverpool, which was defended by Colonel Moore, and took it after a siege of three weeks. After the battle of Marston Moor Prince Rupert again appeared in Lancashire and small engagements took place at Ormskirk, Upholland and Preston; in November Liverpool surrendered to the Parliamentarians. Lathom house was again the only strong place in Lancashire left to the Royalists, and in December 1645 alter a five months' siege it was compelled to surrender through lack of provisions, and was almost entirely destroyed. For the moment the war in Lancashire was over. In 1648, however, the Royalist forces under the duke of Hamilton and Sir Marmaduke Langdale marched through Lancaster to Preston, hoping to reach Manchester; but near Preston were defeated by Cromwell in person. The remnant retreated through Wigan towards Warrington, and after being again defeated at Winwick surrendered at Warrington. In 1651 Charles II. advanced through Lancaster, Preston and Chorley on his south- ward march, and Lord Derby after gathering forces was on his way to meet him when he was defeated at Wigan. In 1658, after Cromwell's death, a Royalist rebellion was raised in which Lancashire took a prominent part, but it was quickly suppressed. During the Rebellion of 1715 Manchester was the chief centre of Roman Catholic and High Church Toryism. On the 7th of November the Scottish army entered Lancaster, where the Pretender was proclaimed king, and advanced to Preston, at which place a considerable body of Roman Catholics joined it. The rebels remained at Preston a few days, apparently unaware of the advance of the government troops, until General Wills from Manchester and General Carpenter from Lancaster surrounded the town, and on the i3th of November the town and the rebel garrison surrendered. Several of the rebels were hanged at Preston, Wigan, Lancaster and other places. In 1745 Prince Charles Edward passed through the county and was joined by about 200 adherents, called the Manchester regiment and placed under the command of Colonel Townley, who was afterwards executed. The first industry established in Lancashire was that of wool, and with the founding of Furness abbey in 1127 wool farming on a large scale began here, but the bulk of the wool grown was exported, not worked up in England. In 1282, however, there was a mill for fulling or bleaching wool in Man- chester, and by the middle of the i6th century there was quite a flourishing trade in worsted goods. In an act of 1552 Manchester " rugs and frizes " are specially mentioned, and in 1566 another act regulated the fees of the aulnager who was to have his deputies at Manchester, Rochdale, Bolton, Blackburn and Bury; the duty of the aulnagers was to prevent " cottons frizes and rugs " from being sold unsealed, but it must be noted that by cottons is not meant what we now understand by the word, but woollen goods. The i7th century saw the birth of the class of clothiers, who purchased the wool in large quantities or kept their own sheep, and delivered it to weavers who worked it up into cloth in their houses and returned it to the employers. The earliest mention of the manufacture of real cotton goods is in 1641, when Manchester made fustians, vermilions and dimities, but the industry did not develop to any extent until after the invention of the fly shuttle by John Kay in 1733, of the spinning jenny by James Hargreaves of Blackburn in 1765, of the water frame throstle by Richard Arkwright of Bolton in 1769, and of the mule by Samuel Crompton of Hall-in-the-Wood near Bolton in 1779. So rapid was the development of the cotton manufacture that in 1787 there were over forty cotton mills in Lancashire, all worked by water power. In 1789, however, steam was applied to the industry in Manchester, and in 1790 in Bolton a cotton mill was worked by steam. The increase in the import of raw cotton from 3,870,000 Ib in 1769 to 1,083, 600,000 in 1860 shows the growth of the industry. The rapid growth was accompanied with intermittent periods of depression, which in 1819 in particular led to the formation of various political societies and to the Blanketeers' Meeting and the Peterloo Massacre. During the American Civil War the five years' cotton famine caused untold misery in the county, but public and private relief mitigated the evils, and one good result was the introduction of machinery capable of dealing with the shorter staple of Indian cotton, thus rendering the trade less dependent for its supplies on America. During the i8th century the only town where maritime trade .increased was Liverpool, where in the last decade about 4500 ships arrived annually of a tonnage about one-fifth that of the London shipping. The prosperity of Liverpool was closely bound up with the slave trade, and about one-fourth of its ships were employed in this business. With the increase of trade the means of communication improved. In 1758 the duke of Bridgewater began the Bridgewater canal from Worsley to Salford and across the Irwell to Manchester, and before the end of the century the county was intersected by canals. In 1830 the first railway in England was opened between Manchester and Liverpool, and other railways rapidly followed. LANCASTER, HOUSE OF The first recorded instance of parliamentary representation in Lancashire was in 1295, when two knights were returned for the county and two burgesses each for the boroughs of Lancaster, Preston, Wigan and Liverpool. The sheriff added to this return " There is no city in the county of Lancaster." The boroughs were, however, excused one after another from parliamentary repre- sentation, which was felt as a burden owing to the compulsory payment of the members' wages. Lancaster ceased to send members in 1331 after making nineteen returns, but renewed its privileges in 1529; from 1529 to 1547 there are no parliamentary returns, but from 1547 to 1867 Lancaster continued to return two members. Preston similarly was excused after 1331, after making eleven returns, but in 1529 and from 1547 onwards returned two members. Liverpool and Wigan sent members in 1295 and 1307, but not again till 1547. To the writ issued in 1362 the sheriff in his return says: " There is not any City or Borough in this County from which citizens or burgesses ought or are accustomed to come as this Writ requires." In 1559 Clitheroe and Newton-le-Willows first sent two members. Thus in all Lancashire returned fourteen members, and, with a brief exception during the' Commonwealth, this continued to be the parliamentary representation till 1832. By the Reform Act of 1832 Lancashire was assigned four members, two for the northern and two for the southern division. Lancaster, Preston, Wigan and Liverpool continued to send two members, Clitheroe returned one and Newton was disfranchised. The following new boroughs were created: Manchester, Bolton, Blackburn, Oldham, returning two members each; Ashton-under-Lyne, Bury, Rochdale, Salford and Warrington, one each. In 1861 a third member was given to South Lancashire and in 1867 the county was divided into four con- stituencies, to each of which four members were assigned; since 1885 the county returns twenty-three members. The boroughs returned from 1867 to 1885 twenty-five members, and since 1885 thirty-four. Antiquities. — The Cistercian abbey of Furness (q.v.) is one of the finest and most extensive ecclesiastical ruins in England. Whalley abbey, first founded at Stanlawe in Cheshire in 1178, and removed in 1296, belonged to the same order. There was a priory of Black Canons at Burscough, founded in the time of Richard I., one at Conishead dating from Henry II. 's reign, and one at Lancaster. A convent of Augustinian friars was founded at Cartmel in 1 1 88, and one at Warrington about 1280. There are some remains of the Benedictine priory of Upholland, changed from a college of secular priests in 1318; and the same order had a priory at Lancaster founded in 1094, a cell at Lytham, of the reign of Richard I., and a priory at Penwortham, founded shortly after the time of the Con- queror. The Prcmonstratensians had Cockersand abbey, changed in 1190 from a hospital founded in the reign of Henry II., of which the chapter-house remains. At Kersal, near Manchester, there was a cell of Cluniac monks founded in the reign of John, while at Lan- caster there were convents of Dominicans and Franciscans, and at Preston a priory of Grey Friars built by Edmund, earl of Lancaster, son of Henry III. Besides the churches mentioned under the several towns, the more interesting are those of Aldingham, Norman doorway; Aughton ; Cartmel priory church (see FURNESS) ; Hawkshead ; Heysham, Norman with traces of earlier date; Hoole; Huyton; Kirkby, rebuilt, with very ancient font; Kirkby Ireleth, late Perpendicular, with Norman doorway; Leyland; Melling (in Lonsdale), Perpendicular, with stained-glass windows; Middleton, rebuilt in 1524, but containing part of the Norman church and several monuments; Ormskirk, Perpendicular with traces of Norman, having two towers, one of which is detached and surmounted by a spire; Overton, with Norman doorway; Radcliffe, Norman; Sefton, Perpendicular, with fine brass and recumbent figures of the Molyneux family, also a screen exquisitely carved; Stidd, near Ribchester, Norman arch and old monuments; Tunstall, late Perpendicular; Upholland priory church, Early English, with low massy tower; Urswick, Norman, with embattled tower and several old monuments; Walton-on-the-hill, anciently the parish church of Liverpool; Walton-le-Dale; Warton, with old font; Whalley abbey church, Decorated and Perpendicular, with Runic stone monuments. The principal old castles are those of Lancaster; Dalton, a small rude tower occupying the site of an older building; two towers of Gleaston castle, built by the lords of Aldingham in the I4th century; the ruins of Greenhalgh castle, built by the first earl of Derby, and demolished after a siege by order of parliament in 1649; the ruins of Fouldrey in Piel Island near the entrance to Barrow harbour, erected in the reign of Edward III., now most dilapidated. There are many old timber houses and mansions of interest, as well as numerous modern seats. See Victoria History of Lancashire (1906-1907); E. Baines, The History of the County Palatine and Duchy of Lancaster (1888); H. Fishwick, A History of Lancashire (1894); ™. D. Pink and A. B. Beavan, The Parliamentary Representation of Lancashire (1889). LANCASTER, HOUSE OF. The name House of Lancaster is commonly used to designate the line of English kings immediately descended from John of Gaunt, the fourth son of Edward III. But the history of the family and of the title goes back to the reign of Henry III., who created his second son. Edmund, earl of Lancaster in 1267. This Edmund received in his own day the surname of Crouchback, not, as was afterwards supposed, from a personal deformity, but from having worn a cross upon his back in token of a crusading vow. He is not a person of much importance in history except in relation to a strange theory raised in a later age about his birth, which we shall notice presently. His son Thomas, who inherited the title, took the lead among the nobles of Edward II. 's time in opposition to Piers Gaveston and the Despensers, and was beheaded for treason at Pontefract. At the commencement of the following reign his attainder was reversed and his brother Henry restored to the earldom; and Henry being appointed guardian to the young king Edward III., assisted him to throw off the yoke of Mortimer. On this Henry's death in 1345 he was succeeded by a son of the same name, sometimes known as Henry Tort-Col or Wryneck, a very valiant commander in the French wars, whom the king advanced to the dignity of a duke. Only one duke had been created in England before, and that was fourteen years previously, when the king's son Edward, the Black Prince, was made duke of Cornwall. This Henry Wryneck died in 1361 without heir male. His second daughter, Blanche, became the wife of John of Gaunt, who thus succeeded to the duke's inheritance in her right; and on the i3th of November 1362, when King Edward attained the age of fifty, John was created duke of Lancaster, his elder brother, Lionel, being at the same time created duke of Clarence. It was from these two dukes that the rival houses of Lancaster and York derived their respective claims to the crown. As Clarence was King Edward's third son, while John of Gaunt was his fourth, in ordinary course on the failure of the elder line the issue of Clarence should have taken precedence of that of Lancaster in the succession. But the rights of Clarence were conveyed in the first instance to an only daughter, and the ambition and policy of the house of Lancaster, profiting by advantageous circumstances, enabled them not only to gain possession of the throne but to maintain themselves in it for three generations before they were dispossessed by the repre- sentatives of the elder brother. As for John of Gaunt himself, it can hardly be said that this sort of politic wisdom is very conspicuous in him. His ambition was generally more manifest than his discretion; but fortune favoured his ambition, even as to himself, somewhat beyond expectation, and still more in his posterity. Before the death of his father he had become the greatest subject in England, his three elder brothers having all died before him. He had even added to his other dignities the title of king of Castile, having married, after his first wife's death, the daughter of Peter the Cruel. The title, however, was an empty one, the throne of Castile being actually in the possession of Henry of Trastamara, whom the English had vainly endeavoured to set aside. His military and naval enterprises were for the most part disastrous failures, and in England he was exceedingly unpopular. Never- theless, during the later years of his father's reign the weakness of the king and the declining health of the Black Prince threw the government very much into his hands. He even aimed, or was suspected of aiming, at the succession to the crown; but in this hope he was disappointed by the action of the Good Parliament a year before Edward's death, in which it was settled that Richard the son of the Black Prince should be king after his grandfather. Nevertheless the suspicion with which he was regarded was not altogether quieted when Richard came to the throne, a boy in the eleventh year of his age. The duke himself complained in parliament of the way he was spoken of out of doors, and at the outbreak of Wat Tyler's insurrection the peasants stopped pilgrims on the road to Canterbury and made them swear never to accept a king of the name of John. On gaining possession of London they burnt his magnificent palace of the Savoy. Richard found a convenient way to get rid of John of Gaunt by sending him to Castile to make good his barren title, and on this expedition he was away three years. He succeeded so far as to make a treaty with his rival, King John, son of Henry of Trastamara, for the succession, by virtue 144 of which his daughter Catherine became the wife of Henry III. of Castile some years later. After his return the king seems to have regarded him with greater favour, created him duke of Aquitaine, and employed him in repeated embassies to France, which at length resulted in a treaty of peace, and Richard's marriage to the French king's daughter. Another marked incident of his public life was the support which he gave on one occasion to the Reformer Wycliffe. How far this was due to religious and how far to political considerations may be a question; but not only John of Gaunt but his immediate descendants, the three kings of the house of Lancaster, all took deep interest in the religious movements of the times. A re- action against Lollardy, however, had already begun in the days of Henry IV., and both he and his son felt obliged to dis- countenance opinions which were believed to be politically and theologically dangerous. Accusations had been made against John of Gaunt more than once during the earlier part of Richard II. 's reign of entertaining designs to supplant his nephew on the throne. But these Richard never seems to have wholly credited, and during his three years' absence his younger brother, Thomas of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, showed himself a far more dangerous intriguer. Five confederate lords with Gloucester at their head took up arms against the king's favourite ministers, and the Wonderful Parliament put to death without remorse almost every agent of his former administration who had not fled the country. Gloucester even contemplated the dethronement of the king, but found that in this matter he could not rely on the support of his associates, one of whom was Henry, earl of Derby, the duke of Lancaster's son. Richard soon afterwards, by declaring himself of age, shook off his uncle's control, and within ten years the acts of the Wonderful Parliament were reversed by a parlia- ment no less arbitrary. Gloucester and his allies were then brought to account; but the earl of Derby and Thomas Mowbray, earl of Nottingham, were taken into favour as having opposed the more violent proceedings of their associates. As if to show his entire confidence in both these noblemen, the king created the former duke of Hereford and the latter duke of Norfolk. But within three months from this time the one duke accused the other of treason, and the truth of the charge, after much consideration, was referred to trial by battle according to the laws of chivalry. But when the combat was about to commence it was interrupted by the king, who, to preserve the peace of the kingdom, decreed by his own mere authority that the duke of Hereford should be banished for ten years — a term immediately afterwards reduced to five — and the duke of Norfolk for life. This arbitrary sentence was obeyed in the first instance by both parties, and Norfolk never returned. But Henry, duke of Hereford, whose milder sentence was doubtless owing to the fact that he was the popular favourite, came back within a year, having been furnished with a very fair pretext for doing so by a new act of injustice on the part of Richard. His father, John of Gaunt, had died in the interval, and the king, troubled with a rebellion in Ireland, and sorely in want of money, had seized the duchy of Lancaster as forfeited property. Henry at once sailed for England, and landing in Yorkshire while King Richard was in Ireland, gave out that he came only to recover his in- heritance. He at once received the support of the northern lords, and as he marched southwards the whole kingdom was soon practically at his command. Richard, by the time he had recrossed the channel to Wales, discovered that his cause was lost. He was conveyed from Chester to London, and forced to execute a deed by which he resigned his crown. This was recited in parliament, and he was formally deposed. The duke of Lancaster then claimed the kingdom as due to himself by virtue of his descent from Henry III. The claim which he put forward involved, to all appearance, a strange falsification of history, for it seemed to rest upon the supposition that Edmund of Lancaster, and not Edward I., was the eldest son of Henry III. A story had gone about, even in the days of John of Gaunt, who, if we may trust the rhymer John Hardyng (Chronicle, pp. 290, 291), had got it LANCASTER, EARL OF inserted in chronicles deposited in various monasteries, that this Edmund, surnamed Crouchback, was really hump-backed, and that he was set aside in favour of his younger brother Edward on account of his deformity. No chronicle, however, is known to exist which actually states that Edmund Crouchback was thus set aside; and in point of fact he had no deformity at all, while Edward was six years his senior. Hardyng's testimony is, moreover, suspicious as reflecting the prejudices of the Percys after they had turned against Henry IV., for Hardyng himself expressly says that the earl of Northumberland was the source of his information (see note, p. 353 of his Chronicle). But a statement in the continuation of the chronicle called the Eulogium (vol. iii. pp. 369, 370) corroborates Hardyng to some extent ; for we are told that John of Gaunt had once desired in parlia- ment that his son should |be recognized on this flimsy plea as heir to the crown; and when Roger Mortimer, earl of March, denied the story and insisted on his own claim as descended from Lionel, duke of Clarence, Richard imposed silence on both parties. However this may be, it is certain that this story, though not directly asserted to be true, was indirectly pointed at by Henry when he put forward his claim, and no one was then bold enough to challenge it. This was partly due, no doubt, to the fact that the true lineal heir after Richard was then a child, Edmund, who had just succeeded his father as earl of March. Another circumstance was unfavourable to the house of Mortimer — that it derived its title through a woman. No case precisely similar had as yet arisen, and, notwithstanding the precedent of Henry II., it might be doubted whether succession through a female was favoured by the constitution. If not, Henry could say with truth that he was the direct heir of his grandfather, Edward III. If, on the other hand, succession through females was valid, he could trace his descent through his mother from Henry III. by a very illustrious line of ancestors. And, in the words by which he formally made his claim, he ventured to say no more than that he was descended from the king last mentioned " by right line of the blood." In what particular way that " right line " was to be traced he did not venture to indicate. A brief epitome of the reigns of the three successive kings belonging to the house of Lancaster (Henry IV., V. and VI.) will be found elsewhere. With the death of Henry VI. the direct male line of John of Gaunt became extinct. But by his daughters he became the ancestor of more than one line of foreign kings, while his descendants by his third wife, Catherine Swynford, conveyed the crown of England to the house of Tudor. It is true that his children by this lady were born before he married her; but they were made legitimate by act of parliament, and, though Henry IV. in confirming the privilege thus granted to them endeavoured to debar them from the succession to the crown, it is now ascertained that there was no such reservation in the original act, and the title claimed by Henry VII. was probably better than he himself supposed. We show on the following page a pedigree of the royal and illustrious houses that traced their descent from John of Gaunt. (J. GA.) LANCASTER, HENRY, EARL OF (c. 1281-1345), was the second son of Edmund, earl of Lancaster (d. 1296), and con- sequently a grandson of Henry III. During his early days he took part in campaigns in Flanders, Scotland and Wales, but was quite overshadowed by his elder brother Thomas (see below). In 1324, two years after Thomas had lost his life for opposing the king, Henry was made earl of Leicester by his cousin, Edward II., but he was not able to secure the titles and estates of Lancaster to which he was heir, and he showed openly that his sympathies were with his dead brother. When Queen Isabella took up arms against her husband in 1326 she was joined at once by the earl, who took a leading part in the pro- ceedings against the king and his favourites, th'e Despensers, being Edward's gaoler at Kenilworth castle. Edward III. being now on the throne, Leicester secured the earldom of Lancaster and his brother's lands, becoming also steward of England; he knighted the young king and was the foremost O ffi o i < z w u C^3 § W !-) LANCASTER dflWr Siz'sSias C c a O OJ-T- « £ o bo o il 11 O 3 ^ O [Sl-StS 33 8 S M 3 = 3 ° 0 3- 03 t. v a l-c.-S 2 c'-S.S S.S ^ rt o -^ « ," ca >>t»-C g 3 '-53 g llsllli "o"? I >> o! •O C r nj — 1 - tO 4-1 E-o S!. S " n) §^ 3 cr a I s >S -5 E a 'C 5. -3 •OS . --2. 5 "3 fill* 3 >— ' ^ « . a -s t;— "ct 146 LANCASTER, SIR J.— LANCASTER, DUKE OF member of the royal council, but he was soon at variance with Isabella and her paramour, Roger Mortimer, and was practically deprived of his power. In 1328 his attempt to overthrow Mortimer failed, and he quietly made his peace with the king; a second essay against Mortimer was more successful. About this time Lancaster became blind; he retired from public life and died on the 22nd of September 1345. His son and successor, HENRY, ist duke of Lancaster (c. 1300-1361), was a soldier of unusual distinction. Probably from his birthplace in Monmouthshire he was called Henry of Grosmont. He fought in the naval fight off Sluys and in the one off Winchelsea in 1350; he led armies into Scotland, Gascony and Normandy, his exploits in Gascony in 1345 and 1346 being especially successful; he served frequently under Edward III. himself; and he may be fairly described as one of the most brilliant and capable of the English warriors during the earlier part of the Hundred Years' War. During a brief respite from the king's service he led a force into Prussia and he was often employed on diplomatic business. In 1354 he was at Avignon negotiating with Pope Innocent VI., who wished to make peace between England and France, and one of his last acts was to assist in arranging the details of the treaty of Bretigny in 1360. In 1337 he was made earl of Derby; in 1345 he succeeded to his father's earldoms of Lancaster and Leicester; in 1349 he was created earl of Lincoln, and in 1351 he was made duke of Lancaster. He was steward of England and one of the original knights of the order of the garter. He died at Leicester on the I3th of March 1361. He left no sons; one of his daughters, Maud (d. 1362), married William V., count of Holland, a son of the emperor Louis the Bavarian, and the other, Blanche (d. 1369), married Edward III.'s son, John of Gaunt, who obtained his father-in-law's titles and estates. LANCASTER, SIR JAMES (fl. 1591-1618), English navigator and statesman, one of the foremost pioneers of the British Indian trade and empire. In early life he fought and traded in Portugal. On the loth of April 1591 he started from Plymouth, with Raymond and Foxcroft, on his first great voyage to the East Indies; this fleet of three ships is the earliest of English oversea Indian expeditions. Reaching Table Bay (ist of August 1591), and losing one ship off Cape Corrientes on the i2th of September, the squadron rested and refitted at Zanzibar (February 1592), rounded Cape Comorin in May following, and was off the Malay Peninsula in June. Crossing later to Ceylon, the crews insisted on returning home; the voyage back was disastrous; only twenty-five officers and men reappeared in England in 1594. Lancaster himself reached Rye on the 24th of May 1594; in the same year he led a military expedition against Pernambuco, without much success; but his Indian voyage, like Ralph Fitch's overland explorations and trading, was an important factor in the foundation of the East India Company. In 1600 he was given command of the company's first fleet (which sailed from Torbay towards the end of April 1601); he was also accredited as Queen Elizabeth's special envoy to various Eastern potentates. Going by the Cape of Good Hope (ist of November 1601) Lancaster visited the Nicobars (from the 9th of April 1602), Achin and other parts of Sumatra (from the 5th of June 1602), and Bantam in Java; an alliance was con- cluded with Achin, a factory established at Bantam and a commercial mission despatched to the Moluccas. The return voyage (2oth of February to nth of September 1603) was speedy and prosperous, and Lancaster (whose success both in trade and in diplomacy had been brilliant) was rewarded with knighthood (October 1603). He continued to be one of the chief directors of the East India Company till his death in May 1618; most of the voyages of the early Stuart time both to India and in search of the North-West passage were undertaken under his advice and direction; Lancaster Sound, on the north-west ol Baffin's Bay (in 74°2o'N.), was named by William Baffin after Sir James (July 1616). See Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, vol. ii. pt. ii. pp. 102-110 vol. iii. pp. 708-715 (1599); Purchas, Pilgrims, vol. i. pt. ii, pp. 147-164; also The Voyages of Sir James Lancaster . . . to the last Indies . . . , ed. Sir Clements Markham, Hakluyt Soc. (1877), Calendars of State Papers, East Indies. The original journals of ^ancaster's voyage of 1601-1603 have disappeared, and here we lave only Purchas to go on. LANCASTER, JOHN OF GAUNT, DUKE OF (1340-1399), burth son of Edward III. and Queen Philippa, was born in March 1340 at Ghent, whence his name. On the 29th of September 1342 he was made earl of Richmond; as a child he was present at the sea fight with the Spaniards in August 1350, )ut his first military service was in 1355, when he was knighted. 3n the igth of May 1359 he married his cousin Blanche, daughter and ultimately sole heiress of Henry, duke of Lancaster. In her right he became earl of Lancaster in 1361, and next year was created duke. His marriage made him the greatest lord in England, but for some time he took no prominent part in public affairs. In 1366 he joined his eldest brother, Edward the Black Prince, in Aquitaine, and in the year after led a strong contingent ;o share in the campaign in support of Pedro the Cruel of Castile. With this began the connexion with Spain, which was to have so great an influence on his after-life. John fought in the van at S[ajera on the 3rd of April 1367, when the English victory restored Pedro to his throne. He returned home at the end of the year. Pedro proved false to his English allies, and was finally over- grown and killed by his rival, Henry of Trastamara, in 1369. The disastrous Spanish enterprise led directly to renewed war between France and England. In August 1369 John had com- mand of an army which invaded northern France without success. In the following year he went again to Aquitaine, and was present with the Black Prince at the sack of Limoges. Edward's health was broken down, and he soon after went home, leaving John as his lieutenant. For a year John maintained the war at his own cost, but whilst in Aquitaine a greater prospect was opened to him. The duchess Blanche had died in the autumn of 1369 and now John married Constance (d. 1394), the elder daughter of Pedro the Cruel, and in her right assumed the title of king of Castile and Leon. For sixteen years the pursuit of his kingdom was the chief object of John's ambition. No doubt he hoped to achieve his end, when he commanded the great army which invaded France in 1373. But the French would not give battle, and though John marched from Calais right through Champagne, Burgundy and Auvergne, it was with disastrous results; only a shattered remnant of the host reached Bordeaux. The Spanish scheme had to wait, and when John got back to England he was soon absorbed in domestic politics. The king was prematurely old, the Black Prince's health was broken. John, in spite of the unpopularity of his ill-success, was forced into the foremost place. As head of the court party he had to bear the brunt of the attack on the administration made by the Good Parliament in 1376. It was not perhaps altogether just, and John was embittered by reflections on his loyalty. As soon as the parliament was dissolved he had its proceedings reversed, and next year secured a more subservient assembly. There came, however, a new development. The duke's politics were opposed by the chief ecclesiastics, and in resisting them he had made use of Wycliffe. With Wycliffe's religious opinions he had no sympathy. Nevertheless when the bishops arraigned the reformer for heresy John would not abandon him. The con- flict over the trial led to a violent quarrel with the Londoners, and a riot in the city during which John was in danger of his life from the angry citizens. The situation was entirely altered by the death of Edward III. on the zist of June. Though his enemies had accused him of aiming at the throne, John was without any taint of disloyalty. In his nephew's interests he accepted a compromise, disclaimed before parliament the truth of the malicious rumours against him, and was reconciled form- ally with his opponents. Though he took his proper place in the ceremonies at Richard's coronation, he showed a tactful modera- tion by withdrawing for a time from any share in the govern- ment. However, in the summer of 1378, he commanded in an attack on St Malo, which through no fault of his failed. To add to this misfortune, during. his absence some of, his supporters LANCASTER, J. violated the sanctuary at Westminster. He vindicated himself somewhat bitterly in a parliament at Gloucester, but still avoiding a prominent part in the government, accepted the command on the Scottish border. He was there engaged when his palace of the Savoy in London was burnt during the peasants' revolt in June 1381. Wild reports that even the government had declared him a traitor made him seek refuge in Scotland. Richard had, however, denounced the calumnies, and at once recalled his uncle. John's self-restraint had strengthened his position, and he began again to think of his Spanish scheme. He urged its undertaking in parliament in 1382, but nearer troubles were more urgent, and John himself was wanted on the Scottish border. There he sought to arrange peace, but against his will was forced into an unfortunate carnpaign in 1384. His ill-success renewed his unpopularity, and the court favourites of Richard II. intrigued against him. They were probably responsible for the allegation, made by a Carmelite, tailed Latemar, that John was conspiring against his nephew. Though Richard at first believed it, the matter was disposed of by the friar's death. However, the court party soon after concocted a fresh plot for the duke's destruction; John boldly denounced his traducers, and the quarrel was appeased by the intervention of the king's mother. The intrigue still continued, and broke out again during the Scottish campaign in 1385. John was not the man to be forced into treason to his family, but the impossibility of the position at home made his foreign ambitions more feasible. The victory of John of Portugal over the king of Castile at Aljubarrota, won with English help, offered an opportunity. In July 1386 John left England with a strong force to win his Spanish throne. He landed at Corunna, and during the autumn conquered Galicia. Juan, who had succeeded his father Henry as king of Castile, offered a compromise by marriage. John of Gaunt refused, hoping for greater success with the help of the king of Portugal, who now married the duke's eldest daughter Philippa. In the spring the allies invaded Castile. They could achieve no success, and sickness ruined the English army. The conquests of the previous year were lost, and when Juan renewed his offers, John of Gaunt agreed to surrender his claims to his daughter by Constance of Castile, who was to marry Juan's heir. After some delay the peace was concluded at Bayonne in 1388. The next eighteen months were spent by John as lieutenant of Aquitaine, and it was not till November 1389 that he returned to England. By his absence he had avoided implication in the troubles at home. Richard, still insecure of his own position, welcomed his uncle, and early in the following year marked his favour by creating him duke of Aquitaine. John on his part was glad to support the king's government; during four years he exercised his influence in favour of pacification at home, and abroad was chiefly responsible for the conclusion of a truce with France. Then in 1395 he went to take up the government of his duchy; thanks chiefly to his lavish expenditure his administra- tion was not unsuccessful, but the Gascons had from the first objected to government except by the crown, and secured his recall within less than a year. Almost immediately after his return John married as his third wife Catherine Swynford; Constance of Castile had died in 1394. Catherine had been his mistress for many years, and his children by her, who bore the name of Beaufort, were now legitimated. In this and in other matters Richard found it politk to conciliate him. But though John presided at the trial of the earl of Arundel in September 1397, he took no active part in affairs. The exile of his son Henry in 1398 was a blow from which he did not recover. He died on the 3rd of February 1399, and was buried at St Paul's near the high altar. John was neither a great soldier nor a statesman, but he was a chivalrous knight and loyal to what he believed were the interests of his family. In spite of opportunities and provocations he never lent himself to treason. He deserves credit for his protection of Wycliffe, though he had no sympathy with his religious or political opinions. He was also the patron of Chaucer, whose Bake of the Duchesse was a lament for Blanche of Lancaster. The chief original sources for John's life are Froissart, the H7 maliciously hostile Chronicon Angliae (1328-1388), and the eulogistic Chronicle of Henry Knighton (both the latter in the Rolls Series) But fuller information is to be found in the excellent biography by S. Armytage-Smith, published in 1904. For his descendants see the table under LANCASTER, HOUSE OF. (C. L. K.) LANCASTER, JOSEPH (1778-1838), English educationist, was born in Southwark in 1778, the son of a Chelsea pensioner. He had few opportunities of regular instruction, but he very early showed unusual seriousness and desire for learning. At sixteen he looked forward to the dissenting ministry; but soon after his religious views altered, and he attached himself to the Society of Friends, with which he remained associated for many years, until long afterwards he was disowned by that body. At the age of twenty he began to gather a few poor children under his father's roof, and to give them the rudiments of instruction, without a fee, except in cases in which the parent was willing to pay a trifle. Soon a thousand children were assembled in the Borough Road; and, the attention of the duke of Bedford, Mr Whitbread, and others having been directed to his efforts, he was provided with means for building a schoolroom and supplying needful materials. The main features of his plan were the employment of older scholars as monitors, and an elaborate system of mechanical drill, by means of which these young teachers were made to impart the rudiments of reading, writing and arithmetic to large numbers at the same time. The material appliances for teaching were very scanty — a few leaves torn out of spelling-books and pasted on boards, some slates and a desk spread with sand, on which the children wrote with their fingers. The order and cheerfulness of the school and the military precision of the children's movements began to attract much public observation at a time when the education of the poor was almost entirely neglected. Lancaster inspired his young monitors with fondness for their work and with pride in the institution of which they formed a part. As these youths became more trustworthy, he found himself at leisure to accept invitations to expound what he called " his system " by lectures in various towns. In this way many new schools were established, and placed under the care of young men whom he had trained. In a memorable interview with George III., Lancaster was encouraged by the expression of the king's wish that every poor child in his dominions should be taught to read the Bible. Royal patronage brought in its train resources, fame and public responsibility, which proved to be beyond Lancaster's own powers to sustain or control. He was vain, reckless and im- provident. In 1808 a few noblemen and gentlemen paid his debts, became his trustees and founded the society at first called the Royal Lancasterian Institution, but afterwards more widely known as the British and Foreign School Society. The trustees soon found that Lancaster was impatient of control, and that his wild impulses and heedless extravagance made it impossible to work with him. He quarrelled with the committee, set up a private school at Tooting, became bankrupt, and in 1818 emigrated to America. There he met at first a warm recep- tion, gave several courses of lectures which were well attended, and wrote to friends at home letters full of enthusiasm. But his fame was short-lived. The miseries of debt and disappointment were aggravated by sickness, and he settled for a time in the warmer climate of Caracas. He afterwards visited St Thomas and Santa Cruz, and at length returned to New York, the corporation of which city made him a public grant of 500 dollars in pity for the misfortunes which had by this time reduced him to lamentable poverty. He afterwards visited Canada, where he gave lectures at Montreal, and was encouraged to open a school which enjoyed an ephemeral success, but was soon abandoned. A small annuity provided by his friends in England was his only means of support. He formed a plan for returning home and giving a new impetus to his " system," by which he declared it would be possible " to teach ten thousand children in different schools, not knowing their letters, all to read fluently in three weeks to three months." But these visions were never realized. He was run over by a carriage in the streets of New York on the 24th of October 1838, and died in a few hours. LANCASTER, T.— LANCASTER As one of the two rival inventors of what was called the " moni- torial " or " mutual " method of instruction, Lancaster's name was prominent for many years in educational controversy. Dr Andrew Bell (g.f.) had in 1797 published an account of his experiments in teaching; and Lancaster in his first pamphlet, published in 1803, frankly acknowledges his debt to Bell for some useful hints. The two worked independently, but Lancaster was the first to apply the system of monitorial teaching on a large scale. As an economical experiment his school at the Borough Road was a signal success. He had one thousand scholars under discipline, and taught them to read, write and work simple sums at a yearly cost of less than 55. a head. His tract Improvements in Education described the gradation of ranks, the system of signals and orders, the functions of the monitors, the method of counting and of spelling and the curious devices he adopted for punishing offenders. Bell's educational aims were humbler, as he feared to " elevate above their station those who were doomed to the drudgery of daily labour," and therefore did not desire to teach even writing and ciphering to the lower classes. The main difference between them was that the system of the one was adopted by ecclesiastics and Conservatives, — the " National Society for the Education of the Poor in the principles of the Established Church" having been founded in 1811 for its propagation; while Lancaster's method was patronized by the Edinburgh Review, by Whig statesmen, by a few liberal Churchmen and by Nonconformists generally. It was the design of Lancaster and his friends to make national education Christian, but not sectarian, — to cause the Scriptures to be read, explained and reverenced in the schools, without seeking by catechisms or other- wise to attract the children to any particular church or sect. This principle was at first vehemently denounced as deistic and mis- chievous, and as especially hostile to the Established Church. To do them justice, it must be owned that the rival claims and merits of Bell and Lancaster were urged with more passion and unfairness by their friends than by themselves. Yet neither is entitled to hold a very high place among the world's teachers. Bell was cold, shrewd and self-seeking. Lancaster had more enthusiasm, a genuine and abounding love for children, and some ingenuity in devising plans both for teaching and governing. But he was shift- less, wayward and unmethodical, and incapable of sustained and high-principled personal effort. His writings were not numerous. They consist mainly of short pamphlets descriptive of the successes he attained at the Borough Road. His last publication, An Epitome of the Chief Events and Transactions of my Own Life, appeared in America in 1833, and is characterized, even more strongly than his former writings, by looseness and incoherency of style, by egotism and by a curious incapacity for judging fairly the motives either of his friends or his foes. We nave since come to believe that intelligent teaching requires skill and previous training, and that even the humblest rudiments 'are not to be well taught by those who have only just acquired them for themselves, or to be attained by mere mechanical drill. But in the early stages of national education the monitorial method served a valuable purpose. It brought large numbers of hitherto neglected children under discipline, and gave them elementary instruction at a very cheap rate. Moreover, the little monitors were often found to make up in brightness, tracta- bility and energy for their lack of experience, and to teach the arts of reading, writing and computing with surprising success. And one cardinal principle of Bell and Lancaster is of prime importance. They regarded a school, not merely as a place to which individual pupils should come for guidance from teachers, but as an organized community whose members have much to learn from each other. They sought to place their scholars from the first in helpful mutual relations, and to make them feel the need of common efforts towards the attainment of common ends. (J. G. F.) LANCASTER, THOMAS, EARL OF (c. 1277-1322), was the eldest son of Edmund, earl of Lancaster and titular king of Sicily, and a grandson of the English king, Henry III.; while he was related to the royal house of France both through his mother, Blanche, a granddaughter of Louis VIII., and his step-sister, Jeanne, queen of Navarre, the wife of Philip IV. A minor when Earl Edmund died in 1296, Thomas received his father's earldoms of Lancaster and Leicester in 1298, but did not become prominent in English affairs until after the accession of his cousin, Edward II., in July 1307. Having married Alice (d. 1348), daughter and heiress of Henry Lacy, earl of Lincoln, and added the earldom of Derby to those which he already held, he was marked out both by his wealth and position as the leader of the barons in their resistance to the new king. With his associates he produced the banishment of the royal favourite, Piers Gaveston, in 1308; compelled Edward in 1310 to surrender his power to a committee of " ordainers," among whom he himself was numbered; and took up arms when Gaveston returned to England in January 1312. Lancaster, who had just obtained the earldoms of Lincoln and Salisbury on the death of his father-in-law in 13 1 1 , drove the king and his favourite from Newcastle to Scarborough, and was present at the execu- tion of Gaveston in June 1312. After lengthy efforts at media- tion, he made his submission and received a full pardon from Edward in October 1313; but he refused to accompany the king on his march into Scotland, which ended at Bannockburn, and took advantage of the English disaster to wrest the control of affairs from the hands of Edward. In 1315 he took command of the forces raised to fight the Scots, and was soon appointed to the " chief place in the council," while his supporters filled the great offices of state, but his rule was as feeble as that of the monarch whom he had superseded. Quarrelling with some of the barons, he neglected both the government and the defence of the kingdom, and in 1317 began a private war with John, Earl Warrenne, who had assisted his countess to escape from her husband. The capture of Berwick by the Scots, however, in April 1318 led to a second reconciliation with Edward. A formal treaty, made in the following August, having been ratified by parliament, the king and earl opened the siege of Berwick; but there was no cohesion between their troops, and the under- taking was quickly abandoned. On several occasions Lancaster was suspected of intriguing with the Scots, and it is significant that his lands were spared when Robert Bruce ravaged the north of England. He refused to attend the councils or to take any part in the government until 1321, when the Despensers were banished, and war broke out again between himself and the king. Having conducted some military operations against Lancaster's friends on the Welsh marches, Edward led his troops against the earl, who gradually fell back from Burton-on-Trent to Pontefract. Continuing this movement, Lancaster reached Boroughbridge, where he was met by another body of royalists under Sir Andrew Harclay. After a skirmish he was deserted by his troops, and was obliged to surrender. Taken to his own castle at Pontefract, where the king was, he was condemned to death as a rebel and a traitor, and was beheaded near the town on the 22nd .of March 1322. He left no children. Although a coarse, selfish and violent man, without any of the attributes of a statesman, Lancaster won a great reputation for patriotism; and his memory was long cherished, especially in the north of England, as that of a defender of popular liberties. Over a hundred years after his death miracles were said to have been worked at his tomb at Pontefract; thousands visited his effigy in St Paul's Cathedral, London, and it was even proposed to make him a saint. See Chronicles of the Reigns of Edward 7. and Edward II., edited with introduction by W. Stubbs (London, 1882-1883); and W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1896). LANCASTER, a market town and municipal borough, river port, and the county town of Lancashire, England, in the Lancaster parliamentary division, 230 m. N.W. by N. from London by the London & North-Western railway (Castle Station) ; served also by a branch of the Midland railway (Green Ayre station). Pop. (1891) 33,256, (1901) 40,329- It lies at the head of the estuary of the river Lune, mainly on its south bank, 7 m. from the sea. The site slopes sharply up to an eminence crowned by the castle and the church of St Mary. Fine views over the rich valley and Morecambe Bay to the west are com- manded from the summit. St Mary's church was originally attached by Roger de Poictou to his Benedictine priory founded at the close of the nth century. It contains some fine Early English work in the nave arcade, but is of Perpendicular work- manship in general appearance, while the tower dates from 1759. There are some beautiful Decorated oak stalls in the chancel, brought probably from Cockersand or Furness Abbey. The castle occupies the site of a Roman castrum. The Saxon foundations of a yet older structure remain, and the tower at the south-west corner is supposed to have been erected during the reign of Hadrian. The Dungeon Tower, also supposed to be of Roman origin, was taken down in 1818. The greater part of the old portion of the present structure was built by Roger de Poictou, who utilized some of the Roman towers and the old walls. In 1322 much damage was done to the castle by Robert LANCASTER 149 Bruce, whose attack it successfully resisted, but it was restored and strengthened by John of Gaunt, who added the greater part of the Gateway Tower as well as a turret on the keep or Lungess Tower, which on that account has been named " John o' Gaunt's Chair." During the Civil War the castle was captured by Cromwell. Shortly after this it was put to publjc use, and now, largely modernized, contains the assize courts and gaol. Its appearance, with massive buildings surrounding a quadrangle, is picturesque and dignified. Without the walls is a pleasant terrace walk. Other buildings include several handsome modern churches and chapels (notably the Roman Catholic church) ; the Storey Institute with art gallery, technical and art schools, museum and library, presented to the borough by Sir Thomas Storey in 1887; Palatine Hall, Ripley hospital (an endowed school for the children of residents, in Lancaster and the neigh- bourhood), the asylum, the Royal Lancaster infirmary and an observatory in the Williamson Park. A new town hall, presented by Lord Ashton in 1909, is a handsome classical building from designs of E. W. Mountford. The Ashton Memorial in William- son Park, commemorating members of the Ashton family, is a lofty domed structure. The grammar school occupies modern buildings, but its foundation dates from the close of the isth century, and in its former Jacobean house near the church William Whewell and Sir Richard Owen were educated. A horseshoe inserted in the pavement at Horseshoe Corner in the town, and renewed from time to time, is said to mark the place where a shoe was cast by John of Gaunt's horse. The chief industries are cotton-spinning, cabinet-making, oil cloth-making, railway wagon-building and engineering. Glasson Dock, 5 m. down the Lune, with a graving dock, is accessible to vessels of 600 tons. The Kendal and Lancaster canal reaches the town by an aqueduct over the Lune, which is also crossed by a handsome bridge dated 1788. The town has further connexion by canal with Preston. The corporation consists of a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area, 3506 acres. History. — Lancaster (Lone-caster or Lunecastrum) was an important Roman station, and traces of the Roman fortification wall remain. The Danes left few memorials of their occupation, and the Runic Cross found here, once supposed to be Danish, is now conclusively proved to be Anglo-Saxon. At the Conquest, the place, reduced in size and with its Roman castrum almost in ruins, became a possession of Roger de Poictou, who founded or enlarged the present castle on the old site. The town and castle had a somewhat chequered ownership till in 1266 they were granted by Henry III. to his son Edmund, first earl of Lancaster, and continued to be a part of the duchy of Lancaster till the present time. A town gathered around the castle, and in 1193 John, earl of Mertoun, afterwards king, granted it a charter, and another in 1199 after his accession. Under these charters the burgesses claimed the right of electing a mayor, of holding a yearly fair at Michaelmas and a weekly market on Saturday. Henry III. in 1226 confirmed the charter of 1199; in 1291 the style of the corporation is first mentioned as Ballivus et communilas burgi, and Edward III.'s confirmation and exten- sion (1362) is issued to the mayor, bailiffs and commonalty. Edward III.'s charter was confirmed by Richard II. (1389), Henry IV. (1400), Henry V. (1421), Henry VII. (1488) and Elizabeth (1563). James I. (1604) and Charles II. (1665 and 1685) ratified, with certain additions, all previous charters, and again in 1819 a similar confirmation was issued. John of Gaunt . in 1362 obtained a charter for the exclusive right of holding the sessions of pleas for the county in Lancaster itself, and up to 1873 the duchy appointed a chief justice and a puisne justice for the court of common pleas at Lancaster. In 1322 the Scots burnt the town, the castle alone escaping; the town was rebuilt but removed from its original position on the hill to the slope and foot. Again in 1389, after the battle of Otterburn, it was destroyed by the same enemy. At the outbreak of the Great Rebellion the burgesses sided with the king, and the town and castle were captured in February 1643 by the Parliamentarians. In March 1643 Lord Derby assaulted and took the town with great slaughter, but the castle remained in the hands of the Parliamentarians. In May and June of the same year the castle was again besieged in vain, and in 1648 the Royalists under Sir Thomas Tyldesley once more fruitlessly besieged it. During the rebellion of 1715 the northern rebels occupied Lancaster for two days and several of them were later executed here. During the 1745 rebellion Prince Charles Edward's army passed through the town in its southward march and again in its retreat, but the inhabitants stood firm for the Hanoverians. Two chartered markets are held weekly on Wednesday and Saturday and three annual fairs in April, July and October. A merchant gild existed here, which was ratified by Edward III.'s charter (1362), and in 1688 six trade companies were incorporated. The chief manufactures used to be sailcloth, cabinet furniture, candles and cordage. The borough returned two members to parliament from 1295 to 1331 and again from some time in Henry VIII. 's reign before 1529 till 1867, when it was merged in the Lan- caster division of north Lancashire. A church existed here, probably on the site of the parish church of St Mary's, in Anglo-Saxon times, but the present church dates from the early 15th century. An act of parliament was passed in 1792 to make the canal from Kendal through Lancaster and Preston, which is carried over the Lune about a mile above Lancaster by a splendid aqueduct. See Fleury, Time-Honoured Lancaster (1891); E. Baines, History of Lancashire (1888). LANCASTER, a city and the county-seat of Fairfield county, Ohio, U.S.A., on the Hocking river (non-navigable), about 32 m. S.E. of Columbus. Pop. (1900) 8991, of whom 442 were foreign- born and 2j2 were negroes; (1910 census) 13,093. Lancaster is served by the Hocking Valley, the Columbus & Southern and the Cincinnati & Muskingum Valley (Pennsylvania Lines) railways, and by the electric line of the Scioto Valley Traction Company, which connects it with Columbus. Near the centre of the city is Mt. Pleasant, which rises nearly 200 ft. above the surrounding plain and about which cluster many Indian legends; with 70 acres of woodland and fields surrounding it, this has been given to the city for a park. On another hill is the county court house. Lancaster has a public library and a children's home; and 6 m. distant is the State Industrial School for Boys. The manufactures include boots and shoes, glass and agricultural implements. The total value of the city's factory product in 1905 was $4,159,410, being an increase of 118-3% over that of 1900. Lancaster is the trade centre of a fertile agricultural region, has good transportation facilities, and is near the Hocking Valley and Sunday Creek Valley coal-fields; its commercial and industrial importance increased greatly, after 1900, through the development of the neighbouring natural gas fields and, after 1907-1908, through the discovery of petroleum near the city. Good sandstone is quarried in the vicinity. The municipality owns and operates its waterworks and natural gas plant. Lancaster was founded in 1800 by Ebenezer Zane (1747-1811), who received a section of land here as part compensation for opening a road, known as " Zane's Trace," from Wheeling, West Virginia, to Limestone (now Maysville), Kentucky. Some of the early settlers were from Lancaster, Pennsylvania, whence the name. Lancaster was incorporated as a village in 1831 and twenty years later became a city of the third class. LANCASTER, a city and the county-seat of Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Conestoga river, 68 m. W. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1900) 41,459, of whom 3492 were foreign- born and 777 were negroes; (1910 census) 47,227. It is served by the Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia & Reading and the Lancaster, Oxford & Southern railways, and by tramways of the Conestoga Traction Company, which had in 1909 a mileage of 152 m. Lancaster has a fine county court house, a soldiers' monument about 43 ft. in height, two fine hospitals, the Thaddeus Stevens Industrial School (for orphans), a children's home, the Mechanics' Library, and the Library of the Lancaster Historical Society. It is the seat of Franklin and Marshall College (Reformed Church), of the affiliated Franklin and Marshall Academy, and of the Theological Seminary of the Reformed Church, conducted in connexion with the college. The college was founded in 1852 by the consolidation of Franklin College, founded at Lancaster in 1787, and Marshall College, founded at Mercersburg in 1836, both of which had LANCE earned a high standing among the educational institutions of Pennsylvania. Franklin College was named in honour of Benjamin Franklin, an early patron; Marshall College was founded by the Reformed Church and was named in honour of John Marshall. The Theological Seminary was opened in 1825 at Carlisle, Pa., and was removed to York, Pa., in 1829, to Mercersburg, Pa., in 1837 and to Lancaster in 1871; in 1831 it was chartered by the Pennsylvania legislature. Among its teachers have been John W. Nevin and Philip Schaff, whose names, and that of the seminary, are associated with the so- called " Mercersburg Theology." At Millersville, 4 m. S.W. of Lancaster, is the Second Pennsylvania State Normal School. At Lancaster are the graves of General John F. Reynolds, who was born here; Thaddeus Stevens, who lived here after 1842; and President James Buchanan, who lived for many years on an estate, " Wheatland," near the city and is buried in the Woodward Hill Cemetery. The city is in a productive tobacco and grain region, and has a large tobacco trade and important manufactures. The value of the city's factory products increased from $12,750,429 in 1900 to $14,647,681 in 1905, or 14-9 %. In 1905 the principal products were umbrellas and canes (valued at $2,782,879), cigars and cigarettes ($1,951,971), and foundry and machine-shop products ($1,036,526). Lancaster county has long been one of the richest agricultural counties in the United States, its annual products being valued at about $10,000,000; in 1906 the value of the tobacco crop was about $3,225,000, and there were 824 manufactories of cigars in the county. Lancaster was settled about 1717 by English Quakers and Germans, was laid out as a town in 1730, incorporated as a borough in 1742, and chartered as a city in 1818. An important treaty with the Iroquois Indians was negotiated here by the governor of Pennsylvania and by commissioners from Maryland and Virginia in June 1744. Some of General Burgoyne's troops, surrendered at Saratoga, were confined here after the autumn of 1780. The Continental Congress sat here on the 27th of September 1777 after being driven from Philadelphia by the British; and subsequently, after the organization of the Federal government, Lancaster was one of the places seriously considered when a national capital was to be chosen. From 1799 to 1812 Lancaster was the capital of Pennsylvania. LANCE, a form of spear used by cavalry (see SPEAR). The use of the lance, dying away on the decay of chivalry and the introduction of pistol-armed cavalry, was revived by the Polish and Cossack cavalry who fought against Charles XII. and Frederick the Great. It was not until Napoleon's time, how- ever, that lancer regiments appeared in any great numbers on European battlefields. The effective use of the weapon — long before called by Montecucculi the " queen of weapons " — by Napoleon's lancers at Waterloo led to its introduction into the British service, and except for a short period after the South African War, in which it was condemned as an anachronism, it has shared, or rather contested, with the sword the premier place amongst cavalry arms. In Great Britain and other countries lances are carried by the front rank of cavalry, except light cavalry, regiments, as well as by lancer regiments. In Germany, since 1889, the whole of the cavalry has been armed with the lance. In Russia, on the other hand, line cavalry being, until recently, considered as a sort of mounted infantry or dragoons, the lance was restricted to the Cossacks, and in Austria it enjoys less favour than in Germany. Altogether there are few. questions of armament or military detail more freely disputed, in the present day as in the past, than this of sword versus lance. The lances used in the British service are of two kinds, those with ash and those with bamboo staves. The latter are much pre- ferred and are generally used, the " male " bamboo being peculiarly tough and elastic. The lance is provided with a sling, through which the trooper passes his right arm when the lance is carried slung, the point of the steel shoe fitting into a bucket attached to the right stirrup. A small " dee " loop is also provided, by which the lance can be attached to the saddle when the trooper dismounts. The small flag is removed on service. The head is of the best steel. The Germans, doubtless owing to difficulty in obtaining bamboos, or ash in large quantity straight enough in the grain over a consider- able length, for lance staves, have adopted a stave of steel tubing as well as one of pine (figs. 2, 3 and 4). As to the question of the relative efficiency of the lance and the sword as the principal arm for cavalry, it is alleged that the former is heavy and fatiguing to carry, conspicuous, and much in the way when reconnoitring in close country, working through woods and the like; that, when unslung ready for the charge, it is awkward to handle, and may be positively dangerous if a horse becomes restive and the rider has to use both hands on the reins; that unless the thrust be delivered at full speed, it is easily parried ; and, lastly, that in the melee, when the trooper has not room to use his lance, he will be helpless until he either throws it away or slings it, and can draw his sword. While admitting the last-mentioned objection, those who favour the lance contend that success in the first shock of contact is all-important, and that this success the lancer will certainly obtain, owing Fig.3. fig.4. to his long reach en- abling him to deliver a blow before the swords- man can retaliate, while, when the melee com- mences, the rear rank will come to the assist- ance of i.he front rank. Further, it is claimed that the power of de- livering the first blow gives confidence to the young soldier; that the appearance of a lancer regiment, preceded as it were by a hedge of steel, has an immense moral effect; that in single combat a lancer, with room to turn, can always defeat an oppo- nent armed with a sword; and, lastly, that in pursuit a lancer is terrible to an enemy, whether the latter be mounted or on foot. As in the case of the peren- nial argument whether a sword should be de- signed mainly for cut- ting or thrusting, it is unlikely that the dis- pute as to the merits of the lance over the sword will ever be definitely settled, since so many other factors — horse- manship, the training of the horse, the skill and courage of the adver- sary— determine the trooper's success quite as much as the weapon he Fig. I. Fig.2. l5l.no \J happens to wield. n8s- 2 a"d 3 the German steel tubular The following passage lance, and fig. 4 the German pine-wood TYPES OF BRITISH AND GERMAN LANCES. FIG. I is the British bamboo lance; fi3 *' from Cavalry": itTlJis- lance. The full length of the German lory and\ Tactics (Lon- lance is 11 ft. 9 in., that of the Cossacks don, 1853), by Captain 9 ft- 10 in., that of the Austrian lancers Nolan, explains how the 8 ft. 8 in and the French lance II ft. lance gained popularity The British lance is 9 ft. long. The weight in Austria: — " In the °' a lance varies but slightly. The steel- last Hungarian war staved lance weighs 4 Ib, the bamboo 4J. (1848-49) the Hungarian Hussars were . . . generally successful against the Austrian heavy cavalry — cuirassiers and uragoons; but when they met the Polish Lancers, the finest regiments of light horse in the Austrian service, distinguished for their discipline, good riding, and, above all, for their esprit de corps and gallantry in action, against those the Hungarians were not successful, and at once attributed this to the lances of their opponents. The Austrians then extolled the lance above the sword, and armed all their light cavalry regiments with it." The lancer regiments in the British service are the 5th, the gth, the I2th, the l6th, the I7th and the 2lst. All these were converted at different dates from hussars and light dragoons, the last-named in 1896. The typical lancer uniform is a light-fitting short-skirted tunic with a double-breasted front, called the plastron, of a different colour, a girdle, and a flat-topped lancer " cap," adapted from the Polish czapka (see UNIFORMS: Naval and Military). The British lancers, with the exception of the i6th, who wear scarlet with blue facings, are clad in blue, the 5th, gth and 1 2th having scarlet facings and green, black and red plumes respectively, the 1 7th (famous as the " death or glory boys " and wearing a skull and crossbones badge) white facings and white plume, and the 2 1st light-blue facings and plume. LANCELOT LANCELOT (Lancelot du Lac, or Lancelot of the Lake), a famous figure in the Arthurian cycle of romances. To the great majority of English readers the name of no knight of King Arthur's court is so familiar as is that of Sir Lancelot. The mention of Arthur and the Round Table at once brings him to mind as the most valiant member of that brotherhood and the secret lover of the Queen. Lancelot, however, is not an original member of the cycle, and the development of his story is still a source of considerable perplexity to the critic. Briefly summarized, the outline of his career, as given in the German Lanzelet and the French prose Lancelot, is as follows: Lancelot was the only child of King Ban of Benoic and his queen Helaine. While yet an infant, his father was driven from his kingdom, either by a revolt of his subjects, caused by his own harshness (Lanzelet), or by the action of his enemy Claudas de la Deserte (Lancelot). King and queen fly, carrying the child with them, and while the wife is tending her husband, who dies of a broken heart on his flight, the infant is carried off by a friendly water-fairy, the Lady of the Lake, who brings the boy up in her mysterious kingdom. In the German poem this is a veritable " Isle of Maidens," where no man ever enters, and where it is perpetual spring. In the prose Lancelot, on the other hand, the Lake is but a mirage, and the Lady's court does not lack its complement of gallant knights; moreover the boy has the companionship of his cousins, Lionel and Bohort, who, like himself, have been driven from their kingdom by Claudas. When he reaches the customary age (which appears to be fifteen), the young Lancelot, suitably equipped, is sent out into the world. In both versions his name and parentage are concealed, in the Lanzelet he is genuinely ignorant of both; here too his lack of all knightly accomplishments (not unnatural when we remember he has here been brought up entirely by women) and his in- ability to handle a steed are insisted upon. Here he rides forth in search of what adventure may bring. In the prose Lancelot his education is complete, he knows his name and parentage, though for some unexplained reason he keeps both secret, and he goes with a fitting escort and equipment to Arthur's court to demand knighthood. The subsequent adventures differ widely: in the Lanzelel he ultimately re- conquers his kingdom, and, with his wife Iblis, reigns over it in peace, both living to see their children's children, and dying on the same day, in good old fairy-tale fashion. In fact, the whole of the Lanzelet has much more the character of a fairy or folk-tale than that of a knightly romance. In the prose version, Lancelot, from his first appearance at court, conceives a passion for the queen, who is very considerably his senior, his birth taking place some time after her marriage to Arthur. This infatuation colours all his later career. He frees her from imprisonment in the castle of Meleagant, who has carried her off against her will — (a similar adventure is related in Lanzelet, where the abductor is Valerin, and Lanzelet is not the rescuer) — and, although he recovers his kingdom from Claudas, he prefers to remain a simple knight of Arthur's court, bestowing the lands on his cousins and half-brother Hector. Tricked into a liaison with the Fisher King's daughter Elaine, he becomes the father of Galahad, the Grail winner, and, as a result of the queen's jealous anger at his relations with the lady, goes mad, and remains an exile from the court for some years. He takes part, fruitlessly, in the Grail quest, only being vouch- safed a fleeting glimpse of the sacred Vessel, which, however, is sufficient to cast him into unconsciousness, in which he remains for as many days as he has spent years in sin. Finally, his relations with Guenevere are revealed to Arthur by the sons of King Lot, Gawain, however, taking no part in the disclosure. Surprised together, Lancelot escapes, and the queen is condemned to be burnt alive. As the sentence is about to be carried into execution Lancelot and his kinsmen come to her rescue, but in the fight that ensues many of Arthur's knights, including three of Gawain's brothers, are slain. Thus converted into an enemy, Gawain urges his uncle to make war on Lancelot, and there follows a desperate struggle between Arthur and the race of Ban. This is interrupted by the tidings of Mordred's treachery, and Lancelot, taking no part in the last fatal conflict, outlives both king and queen, and th& downfall of the Round Table. Finally, retiring to a hermitage, he ends his days in the odour of sanctity. The process whereby the independent hero of the Lanzelet (who, though his mother is Arthur's sister, has but the slightest connexion with the British king), the faithful husband of Iblis, became converted into the principal ornament of Arthur's court, and the devoted lover of the queen, is by no means easy to follow, nor do other works of the cycle explain the trans- formation. In the pseudo-chronicles, the Historia of Geoffrey and the translations by Wace and Layamon, Lancelot does not appear at all; the queen's lover, whose guilty passion is fully returned, is Mordred. Chretien de Troves' treatment of him is contradictory; in the Erec, his earliest extant poem, Lancelot's name appears as third on the list of the knights of Arthur's court. (It is well, however, to bear in mind the possibility of later addition on alteration in such lists.) In Cliges he again ranks as third, being overthrown by the hero of the poem. In Le Chevalier de la Charrette, however, which followed Cligis, we find Lancelot alike as leading knight of the court and lover of the queen, in fact, precisely in the position he occupies in the prose romance, where, indeed, the section dealing with this adventure is, as Gaston Paris clearly proved, an almost literal adaptation of Chretien's poem. The subject of the poem is the rescue of the queen from her abductor Meleagant; and what makes the matter more perplexing is that Chretien handles the situation as one with which his hearers are already familiar; it is Lancelot, and not Arthur or another, to whom the office of rescuer naturally belongs. After this it is surprising to find that in his next poem, Le Chevalier au Lion, Lancelot is once, and only once, casually referred to, and that in a passing refer- ence to his rescue of the queen. In the Perceval, Chretien's last work, he does not appear at all, and yet much of the action passes at Arthur's court. In the continuations added at various times to Chretien's unfinished work the r61e assigned to Lancelot is equally modest. Among the fifteen knights selected by Arthur to accompany him to Chastel Orguellous he only ranks ninth. In the version of the Luite Trislran inserted by Gerbert in his Perceval, he is publicly overthrown and shamed by Tristan. Nowhere is he treated with anything approaching the importance assigned to him in the prose versions. Welsh tradition does not know him; early Italian records, which have preserved the names of Arthur and Gawain, have no reference to Lancelot; among the group of Arthurian knights figured on the architrave of the north doorway of Modena cathedral (a work of the izth century) he finds no place; the real cause for his apparently sudden and triumphant rise to popularity is extremely difficult to determine. What appears the most probable solution is that which regards Lancelot as the hero of an independent and widely diffused folk-tale, which, owing to certain special circumstances, was brought into contact with, and incorporated in, the Arthurian tradition. This much has been proved certain of the adventures recounted in the Lanzelet; the theft of an infant by a water-fairy; the appearance of the hero three consecutive days, in three different disguises, at a tournament; the rescue of a queen, or princess, from an Other-World prison, all belong to one well- known and widely-spread folk-tale, variants of which are found in almost every land, and of which numerous examples have been collected alike by M. Cosquin in his Conies Lorrains, and by Mr J. F. Campbell in his Tales of the West Highlands. The story of the loves of Lancelot and Guenevere, as related by Chretien, has about it nothing spontaneous and genuine; in no way can it be compared with the story of Tristan and Iseult. It is the exposition of a relation governed by artificial and arbitrary rules, to which the principal actors in the drama must perforce conform. Chretien states that he composed the poem (which he left to be completed by Godefroi de Leigni) at the request of the countess Marie of Champagne, who provided him with matiere et san. Marie was the daughter of Louis VII. of France and of Eleanor of Aquitaine, subsequently wife of 152 LANCET— LANCIANO Henry II. of Anjou and England. It is a matter of history that both mother and daughter were, active agents in fostering that view of the social relations of the sexes which found its most famous expression in the "Courts of Love," and which was responsible for the dictum that love between husband and wife was impossible. The logical conclusion appears to be that the Charrette poem is a " Tendenz-Schrifl," composed under certain special conditions, in response to a special demand. The story of Tristan and Iseull, immensely popular as it was, was too genuine — (shall we say too crude?) — to satisfy the taste of the court for which Chretien was writing. Moreover, the Arthurian story was the popular story of the day, and Tristan did not belong to the magic circle, though he was ultimately introduced, somewhat clumsily, it must be admitted, within its bounds. The Arthurian cycle must have its own love-tale; Guenevere, the leading lady of that cycle, could not be behind the courtly ladies of the day and lack a lover; one had to be found for her. Lancelot, already popular hero of a tale in which an adventure parallel to that of the Charrette figured prominently, was pressed into the service, Modred, Guenevere's earlier lover, being too unsympathetic a character; moreover, Modred was required for the final r61e of traitor. But to whom is the story to be assigned? Here we must distinguish between the Lancelot proper and the Lancelot- Guenevere versions; so far as the latter are concerned, we cannot get behind the version of Chretien, — nowhere, prior to the composition of the Chevalier de la Charrette is there any evidence of the existence of such a story. Yet Chretien does not claim to have invented the situation. Did it spring from the fertile brain of some court lady, Marie, or another? The authorship of the Lancelot proper, on the other hand, is invariably ascribed to Walter Map (see MAP), the chancellor of Henry II., but so also are the majority of the Arthurian prose Romances. The trend of modern critical opinion is towards accepting Map as the author of a Lancelot romance, which formed the basis for later developments, and there is a growing tendency to identify this hypothetical original Lancelot with the source of the German Lanzelet. The author, Ulrich von Zatzikhoven, tells us that he translated his poem from a French (welsches) book in the posses- sion of Hugo de Morville, one of the English hostages, who, in 1194, replaced Richard Cceur de Lion in the prison of Leopold of Austria. Further evidence on the point is, unfortunately, not at present forthcoming. To the student of the original texts Lancelot is an infinitely less interesting hero than Gawain, Perceval or Tristan, each of whom possesses a well-marked personality, and is the centre of what we may call individual adventures. Saving and excepting the incident of his being stolen and brought up by a water-fairy (from a Lai relating which adventure the whole story probably started), there is absolutely nothing in Lancelot's character or career to distin- guish him from any other romantic hero of the period. The language of the prose Lancelot is good, easy and graceful, but the adventures lack originality and interest, and the situations repeat themselves in a most wearisome manner. English readers, who know the story only through the medium of Malory's noble prose and Tennyson's melodious verse, carry away an impression entirely foreign to that produced by a study of the original literature. The Lancelot story, in its rise and development, belongs exclusively to the later stage of Arthurian romance; it was a story for the court, not for the folk, and it lacks alike the dramatic force and human appeal of the genuine "popular" tale. The prose Lancelot was frequently printed ; J. C. Brunet chronicles editions of 1488, 1494, 1513, 1520 and 1533 — of this last date there are two, one published by Jehan Petit, the other by Philippe Lenoire, this last by far the better, being printed from a much fuller manu- script. There is no critical edition, and the only version available for the general reader is the modernized and abridged text published by Paulin Paris in vols. iii. to v. of Romans de la Table Ronde. A Dutch verse translation of the I3th century was published by M. W.J. A. Jonckbloet in 1850, under the title of Roman van Lance- loet. This only begins with what Paulin Paris terms the Aeravain section, all the part previous to Guenevere's rescue from Meleagant having been lost ; but the text is an excellent one, agreeing closely with the Lenoire edition of 1533. The Books devoted by Malory to Lancelot are also drawn from this latter section of the romance; there is no sign that the English translator had any of the earlier part before him. Malory's version of the Charrette adventure differs in many respects from any other extant form, and the source of this special section of his work is still a question of debate among scholars. The text at his disposal, especially in the Queste section, must have been closely akin to that used by the Dutch translator and the compiler of Lenoire, 1533. Unfortunately, Dr Sommer, in his study on the Sources of Malory, omitted to consult these texts, with the result that the sections dealing with Lancelot and Queste urgently require revision. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Lanzelet (ed. Hahn, 1845, out of print and extremely difficult to obtain). Chretien's poem has been published by Professor Wendelin Foerster, in his edition of the works of that poet, Der Karrenritter (1899). A Dutch version of a short episodic poem, Lancelot et le cerf au pied blanc will be found in M. Jonckbloet's volume, and a discussion of this and other Lancelot poems, by Gaston Paris, is contained in vol. xxx. of Histoire litteraire de la France. For critical studies on the subject cf . Gaston Paris's articles in Romania, vols. x. and xii. ; Wechssler, Die verschiedenen Redak- tionen des Craal-Lancelot Cycklus; J. L. Weston, The Legend of Sir Lancelot du Lac (Grimm Library, vol. xii.); and The Three Days' Tournament (Grimm Library, vol. xv.) an appendix to the previous vol. (J. L. W.) LANCET (from Fr. lancelte, dim. of lance, lance), the name given to a surgical instrument, with a narrow two-edged blade and a lance-shaped point, used for opening abscesses, &c. The term is applied, in architecture, to a form of the pointed arch, and to a window of which the head is a lancet-arch. LANCEWOOD, a straight-grained, tough, light elastic wood obtained from the West Indies and Guiana. It is brought into commerce in the form of taper poles of about 20 ft. in length and from 6 to 8 in. in diameter at the thickest end. Lancewood is used by carriage-builders for shafts; but since the practice of employing curved shafts has come largely into use it is not in so great demand as formerly. The smaller wood is used for whip-handles, for the tops of fishing-rods, and for various minor purposes where even-grained elastic wood is a desideratum. The wood is obtained from two members of the natural order Anonaceae. The black lancewood or carisiri of Guiana (Guatteria virgata) grows to a height of 50 ft., is of remarkably slender form, and seldom yields wood more than 8 in. diameter. The yellow lancewood tree (Duguetia quitarensis, yari-yari, of Guiana) is of similar dimensions, found in tolerable abundance throughout Guiana, and used by the Indians for arrow-points, as well as for spars, beams, &c. LAN-CHOW-FU, the chief town of the Chinese province of Kan-suh, and one of the most important cities of the interior part of the empire, on the right bank of the Hwang-ho. The population is estimated at 175,000. The houses, with very few exceptions, are built of wood, but the streets are paved with blocks of granite and marble. Silks, wood-carvings, silver and jade ornaments, tin and copper wares, fruits and tobacco are the chief articles of the local trade. Tobacco is very extensively cultivated in the vicinity. LANCIANO (anc. Anxanum), a town and episcopal see of the Abruzzi, Italy, in the province of Chieti, situated on three hills, 984 ft. above sea-level, about 8 m. from the Adriatic coast and 12 m. S.E. of Chieti. Pop. (1901) 7642 (town), 18,316 (commune). It has a railway station on the coast railway, 19 m. S.E. of Castellammare Adriatico. It has broad, regular streets, and several fine buildings. The cathedral, an imposing structure with a fine clock-tower of 1619, is built upon bridges of brickwork, dating perhaps from the Roman period (though the inscription attributing the work to Diocletian is a forgery), that span the gorge of the Feltrino, and is dedicated to S. Maria del Ponte, Our Lady of the Bridge. The Gothic church of S. Maria Maggiore dates from 1227 and has a fine facade, with a portal of 1317 by a local sculptor. The processional cross by the silversmith Nicola di Guardiagrele (1422) is very beautiful. In S. Nicola is a fine reliquary of 1445 by Nicola di Francavilla. The church of the Annunziata has a good rose window of 1362. The industries of the town, famous in the middle ages, have declined. Anxanum belonged originally to the tribe of the Frentani and later became a municipium. It lay on the ancient highroad, LANCRET— LANDEN '53 which abandoned the coast at Ortona 10 m. to the N. and returned to it at Histonium (Vasto). Remains of a Roman theatre exist under the bishop's palace. SeeV. Bindi, Monumenti degli Abruzzi (Naples, 1889, 690 sqq.), and for discoveries in the neighbourhood see A. de Nino in Notizie degli scam (1884), 431. (T. As.) LANCRET, NICOLAS (1660-1743), French painter, was born in Paris on the 22nd of January 1660, and became a brilliant depicter of light comedy which reflected the tastes and manners of French society under the regent Orleans. His first master was Pierre d'Ulin, but his acquaintance with and admiration for Watteau induced him to leave d'Ulin for Gillot, whose pupil Watteau had been. Two pictures painted by Lancret and exhibited on the Place Dauphine had a great success, which laid the foundation of his fortune, and, it is said, estranged Watteau, who had been complimented as their author. Lancret's work cannot now, however, be taken for that of Watteau, for both in drawing and in painting his touch, although intelligent, is dry, hard and wanting in that quality which distinguished his great model; these characteristics are due possibly in part to the fact that he had been for some time in training under an engraver. The number of his paintings (of which over eighty have been engraved) is immense; he executed a few portraits and attempted historical composition, but his favourite subjects were balls, fairs, village weddings, &c. The British Museum possesses an admirable series of studies by Lancret in red chalk, and the National Gallery, London, shows four paintings — the " Four Ages of Man " (engraved by Desplaces and 1'Armessin), cited by d'Argenville amongst the principal works of Lancret. In 1719 he was received as Academician, and became councillor in 1735; in I74r he married a grandchild of Boursault, author of Aesop at Court. He died on the i4th of September 1743. See d'Argenville, Vies des peintres; and Ballot de Sovot, £loge de M. Lancret (1743, new ed. 1874). LAND, the general term for that part of the earth's surface which is solid and dry as opposed to sea or water. The word is common to Teutonic languages, mainly in the same form and with essentially the same meaning. The Celtic cognate forms are Irish lann, Welsh llan, an enclosure, also in the sense of " church," and so of constant occurrence in Welsh place-names, Cornish Ian and Breton lann, health, which has given the French lande, an expanse or tract of sandy waste ground. The ultimate root is unknown. From its primary meaning have developed naturally the various uses of the word, for a tract of ground or country viewed either as a political, geographical or ethno- graphical division of the earth, as property owned by the public or state or by a private individual, or as the rural as opposed to the urban or the cultivated as opposed to the built on part of the country; of particular meanings may be mentioned that of a building divided into tenements or flats, the divisions being known as " houses," a Scottish usage, and also that of a division of a ploughed field marked by the irrigating channels, hence transferred to the smooth parts of the bore of a rifle between the grooves of the rifling. For the physical geography of the land, as the solid portion of the earth's surface, see GEOGRAPHY. For land as the subject of cultivation see AGRICULTURE and SOIL, also.RECLAMATiONOF LAND. For the history of the holding or tenure of land see VILLAGE COM- MUNITIES and FEUDALISM; a particular form of land tenure is dealt with under METAYAGE. The article AGRARIAN LAWS deals with the disposal of the public land (Ager publicus) in Ancient Rome, and further information with regard to the part played by the land question in Roman history will be found under ROME: § History. The legal side of the private ownership of land is treated under REAL PROPERTY and CONVEYANCING (see also LANDLORD AND TENANT, and LAND REGISTRATION). LANDAU, a town in the Bavarian Palatinate, on the Queich, lying under the eastern slope of the Hardt Mountains, 32 m. by rail S.W. from Mannheim, at the junction of lines to Neustadt an der Hardt, Weissenburg and Saarbrucken. Pop. (1905) 17,165. Among its buildings are the Gothic Evangelical church dating from 1285; the chapel of St Catherine built in 1344 the church of the former Augustinian monastery, dating from 1405; and the Augustinian monastery itself, founded in 1276 and now converted into a brewery. There are manufactures of rigars, beer, hats, watches, furniture and machines, and a trade n wine, fruit and cereals. Large cattle-markets are held here. Landau was founded in 1224, becoming an imperial city fifty years later. This dignity was soon lost, as in 1317 it passed to .he bishopric of Spires and in 1331 to the Palatinate, recovering ts former position in 1511. Captured eight times during the Thirty Years' War the town was ceded to France by the treaty of Westphalia in 1648, although with certain ill-defined reserva- tions. In 1679 Louis XIV. definitely took possession of Landau. [ts fortifications were greatly strengthened; nevertheless it was twice taken by the Imperialists and twice recovered by the French during the Spanish Succession War. In 1815 it was given to Austria and in the following year to Bavaria. The 'ortifications were finally dismantled in 1 8 7 1 . The town is commonly supposed to have given its name to ;he four-wheeled carriage, with an adjustable divided top for use either open or closed, known as a " landau " (Ger. Landauer). But this derivation is doubtful, the origin of the name being also ascribed to that of an English carriage-builder, Landow, who introduced this form of equipage. See E. Heuser, Die Belagerungen von Landau in den Jahren 1702 und i/oj (Landau, 1894); Lehmann, Geschichte der ehemaligen freien Reichsstadt Landau (1851); and Jost, Interessante Daten aus der 6oojahrigen Geschichte der Stadt Landau (Landau, 1879). LANDECK, a town and spa in the Prussian province of Silesia, on the Biele, 73 m. by rail S. of Breslau and close to the Austrian frontier. Pop. (1905) 3,481. It is situated at an altitude of 1400 ft. It has manufactures of gloves. Landeck is visited by nearly 10,000 people annually on account of its warm sulphur baths, which have been known since the I3th century. In the neighbourhood are the ruins of the castle of Karpenstein. See Langner, Bad Landeck (Glatz, 1872); Schiitze, Die Thermen von Landeck (Berlin, 1895); Wehse, Bad Landeck (Breslau, 1886); Joseph, Die Thermen von Landeck (Berlin, 1887), and Patschovsky, Fuhrer durch Bad Landeck und Umgebung (Schweidnitz, 1902). LANDEN, JOHN (1719-1790), English mathematician, was born at Peakirk near Peterborough in Northamptonshire on the 23rd of January 1719, and died on the isth of January 1790 at Milton in the same county. He lived a very retired life, and saw little or nothing of society; when he did mingle in it, his dogmatism and pugnacity caused him to be generally shunned. In 1762 he was appointed agent to the Earl Fitz- william, and held that office to within two years of his death. He was first known as a mathematician by his essays in the Ladies' Diary for 1744. In 1766 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society. He was well acquainted with the works of the mathematicians of his own time, and has been called the " English d'Alembert." In his Discourse on the " Residual Analysis," he proposes to avoid the metaphysical difficulties of the method of fluxions by a purely algebraical method. The idea may be compared with that of Joseph Louis Lagrange's Calcul des Fonctions. His memoir (1775) on the rotatory motion of a body contains (as the author was aware) conclusions at variance with those arrived at by Jean le Rond, d'Alembert and Leonhard Euler in their researches on the same subject. He reproduces and further develops and defends his own views in his Mathematical Memoirs, and in his paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1785. But Landen's capital discovery is that of the theorem known by his name (obtained in its complete form in the memoir of 1775, and reproduced in the first volume of the Mathematical Memoirs) for the expression of the arc of an hyperbola in terms of two elliptic arcs. His researches on elliptic functions are of considerable elegance, but their great merit lies in the stimulating effect which they had on later mathematicians. He also showed that the roots of a cubic equation can be derived by means of the infinitesimal calculus. The list of his writings is as follows -.—Ladies' Diary, various com- munications (1744-1760); papers in the Phil. Trans. (i754. !76°' 1768, 1771, 1775, 1777, 1785); Mathematical Lucubrations U755); A Discourse concerning the Residual Analysis (1758); The Re"d" a( Analysis, book i. (1764); Animadversions on Dr Stewarts Method, of computing the Sun's Distance from the Earth (1771); Mathematical Memoirs (1780, 1789). LANDEN— LANDES LANDEN, a town in the province of Liege, Belgium, an im- portant junction for lines of railway from Limburg, Liege and Louvain. Pop. (1904) 2874. It is the birthplace of the first Pippin, distinguished as Pippin of Landen from his grandson Pippin of Herstal. In 1603 the French under Marshal Luxemburg defeated here the Anglo-Dutch army under William III. This battle is also called Neerwinden from a village 3 m. W. of Landen. Here in 1793 the Austrians under Frederick of Saxe-Coburg and Clerfayt defeated the French under Dumouriez. LANDER, RICHARD LEMON (1804-1834) and JOHN (1807- 1839), English explorers of the Niger, were natives of Cornwall, sons of an innkeeper at Truro. At the age of eleven Richard went to the West Indies in the service of a merchant. Returning to England after an absence of three years he took service with various wealthy families, with whom he travelled on the continent. In 1823-1824 he accompanied Major (afterwards General Sir) W. M. Colebrooke, on a tour through Cape Colony. In 1825 Richard offered his services to Hugh Clapperton, then preparing for his second expedition to West Africa. He was Clapperton's devoted servant and companion in this expedition, and on Clapperton's death near Sokoto in April 1827 Richard Lander, after visiting Kano and other parts of the Hausa states, returned to the Guinea coast through Yoruba bringing with him Clapper- ton's journal. To this on its publication (1829) was added The Journal of Richard Lander from Kano to the Coast, and in the next year Lander published another account of the expedi- tion entitled Records of Captain Clapperton's Last Expedition to Africa ... with the subsequent Adventures of the Author. To this narrative he prefixed an autobiographical note. Richard Lander, though without any scientific attainments, had ex- hibited such capacity for exploration that the British government decided to send him out to determine the course of the lower Niger. In the expedition he was accompanied by his brother John, by trade a printer, and better educated than Richard, who went as an unsalaried volunteer. Leaving England in January 1830, the brothers landed at Badagry on the Guinea coast on the 22nd of March. They then travelled by the route previously taken by Clapperton to Bussa on the right bank of the Niger, reached on the i7th of June. Thence they ascended the river for about 100 m. Going back to Bussa the travellers began, on the 20th of September, the descent of the river, not knowing whither it would lead them. They journeyed in canoes accom- panied by a few negroes, their only scientific instrument a common compass. They discovered the Benue river, ascertaining when passing its confluence, by paddling against its stream, that their course was not in that direction. At the beginning of the delta they were captured by the Ibos, from whom they were ransomed by "King Boy" of Brass Town; by him they were taken to the Nun mouth of the river, whence a passage was obtained to Fernando Po, reached on the ist of December. The Landers were thus able to lay down with approximate correctness the lower course of the Niger — a matter till then as much in dispute as was the question of the Nile sources. In the attack by the Ibos the Landers lost many of their records, but they published a narrative of their discoveries in 1832, in three small volumes — Journal of an Expedition to Explore the Course and Termination of the Niger. In recognition of his services the Royal Geographical Society — formed two years previously — granted Richard Lander in 1832 the royal medal, he being the first recipient of such an award. In the same year Richard went to Africa again as leader of an expedition organized by Macgregor Laird and other Liverpool merchants to open up trade on the Niger and to found a commercial settlement at the junction of the Benue with the main stream. The expedition encountered many difficulties, suffered great mortality from fever, and was not able to reach Bussa. Lander made several journeys up and down stream, and while going up the river in a canoe was attacked by the natives on the 2oth of January 1834 at a spot about 84 m. above the Nun mouth, and wounded by a musket ball in the thigh. He was removed to Fernando Po, where he died on the 6th of February. John Lander, who on his return to England in 1831 obtained a situation at the London customs house, died on the i6th of November 1839 of a disease contracted in Africa. See, besides the books mentioned, the Narrative of the Niger expedition of 1832-1834, published in 1837 by Macgregor Laird and R. A. K. Oldfield. LANDES, a department in the south-west of France, formed in 1790 of portions of the ancient provinces of Guyenne (Landes, Condomios Chalosse), Gascony and Beam, and bounded N. by Gironde, E. by Lot-et-Garonne and Gers, S. by Basses Pyrenees, and W. (for 68 m.) by the Bay of Biscay. Pop. (1906) 293,397. Its area, 3615 sq. m., is second only to that of the department of Gironde. The department takes its name from the Landes, which occupy three-quarters of its surface, or practically the whole region north of the Adour, the chief river of the depart- ment. They are separated from the sea by a belt of dunes fringed on the east by a chain of lakes. South of the Adour lies the Chalosse — a hilly region, intersected by the Gabas, Luy and Gave de Pau, left-hand tributaries of the Adour, which descend from the Pyrenees. On the right the Adour is joined by the Midouze, formed by the junction of the Douze and the Midou. The climate of Landes is the Girondine, which prevails from the Loire to the Pyrenees. Snow is almost unknown, the spring is rainy, the summer warm and stormy. The prevailing wind is the south-west, and the mean temperature of the year is 53° F., the thermometer hardly ever rising above 82° or falling below 14°. The annual rainfall in the south of the department in the neigh- bourhood of the sea reaches 55 in., but diminishes by more than half towards the north-east. The fertility of La Chalosse is counterbalanced by the com- parative poorness of the soil of the Landes, and small though the population is, the department does not produce wheat enough for its own consumption. The chief cereal is maize; next in importance are rye, wheat and millet. Of vegetables, the bean is most cultivated. The vine is grown in the Chalosse, sheep are numerous, and the " Landes " breed of horses is well known. Forests, chiefly composed of pines, occupy more than half the department, and their exploitation forms the chief industry. The resin of the maritime pine furnishes by distillation essence of turpentine, and from the residue are obtained various qualities of resin, which serve to make varnish, tapers, sealing-wax and lubricants. Tar, and an excellent charcoal for smelting purposes, are also obtained from the pine-wood. The depart- ment has several mineral springs, the most important being those of Dax, which were frequented in the time of the Romans, and of Eugenie-les-Bains and Prechacq. The cultivation of the cork tree is also important. There are salt-workings and stone quarries. There are several iron-works in the department; those at Le Boucau, at the mouth of the Adour, are the most important. There are also saw-mills, distilleries, flour-mills, brick and tile works and potteries. Exports include resinous products, pine-timber, metal, brandy; leading imports are grain, coal, iron, millinery and furniture. In its long extent of coast the department has no considerable port. Opposite Cape Breton, however, where the Adour formerly entered the sea, there is, close to land, a deep channel where there is safe anchorage. It was from this once important harbour of Capbreton that the discoverers of the Canadian island of that name set out. Landes includes three arrondissements (Mont-de-Marsan, Dax and St Sever), 28 cantons and 334 communes. Mont-de-Marsan is the capital of the department, which comes within the circumscription of the appeal court of Pau, the academic (educational division) of Bordeaux and the archbishopric of Auch, and forms part of the region of the i8th army corps. It is served by the Southern railway; there is some navigation on the Adour, but that upon the other rivers is of little importance. Mont-de-Marsan, Dax, St Sever and Aire-sur-1'Adour, the most noteworthy towns, receive separate notice. Hagetmau has a church built over a Romanesque crypt, the roof of which is supported on columns with elaborately-carved capitals. Sorde has an interesting abbey-church of the I3th and i4th centuries. LANDES, an extensive natural region of south-western France, known more strictly as the Landes de Gascogne. It has an area LANDESHUT— LANDLORD AND TENANT IS5 of 5400 sq. m., and occupies three-quarters of the department of Landes, half of that of Gironde, and some 175,000 acres of Lot-et- Garonne. The Landes, formerly a vast tract of moorland and marsh, now consist chiefly of fields and forests of pines. They form a plateau, shaped like a triangle, the base of which is the Atlantic coast while the apex is situated slightly west of Nerac (Lot-et-Garonne). Its limits are, on the S. the river Adour; on the E. the hills of Armagnac, Eauzan, Condomois, Agenais and Bazadais; and on the N.E. the Garonne, the hills of Medoc and the Gironde. The height of the plateau ranges in general from 130 to 260 ft.; the highest altitude (498 ft.) is found in the east near Baudignan (department of Landes), from which point there is a gradual slope towards north, south, east and west. The soil is naturally sterile. It is composed of fine sand resting on a subsoil of tufa (alias) impermeable by water; for three- quarters of the year, consequently, the waters, settling on the almost level surface and unable to filter through, used to trans- form the country into unwholesome swamps, which the Landesats could only traverse on stilts. About the middle of the i8th century an engineer, Francois Chambrelent, instituted a scheme of draining and planting to remedy these evils. As a result about 1600 m. of ditches have been dug which carry off superficial water either to streams or to the lakes which fringe the landes on the west, and over 1,600,000 acres have been planted with maritime pines and oaks. The coast, for a breadth of about 4 m., and over an area of about 225,000 acres, is bordered by dunes, in ranges parallel to the shore, and from 100 to 300 ft. in height. Driven by the west wind, which is most frequent in these parts, the dunes were slowly advancing year by year towards the east, burying the cultivated lands and even the houses. Nicolas Thomas Bremontier, towards the end of the i8th century, devised the plan of arresting this scourge by plant- ing the dunes with maritime pines. Upwards of 210,000 acres have been thus treated. In the south-west, cork trees take the place of the pines. To prevent the formation of fresh dunes, a "dune littorale" has been formed by means of a palisade. This barrier, from 20 to 30 ft. high, presents an obstacle which the sand cannot cross. On the eastern side of the dunes is a series of lakes (Hourtin et Carcans, Lacanau, Cazau or Sanguinet, Biscarrosse, Aureilhan, St Julien, Leon and Soustons) separated from the sea by the heaping up of the sand. The salt water has escaped by defiltration, and they are now quite fresh. The Basin of Arcachon, which lies midway between the lakes of Lacanau and Cazau, still communicates with the ocean, the current of the Leyre which flows into it having sufficient force to keep a passage open. LANDESHUT, a town in the Prussian province of Silesia, at the north foot of the Riesengebirge, and on the river Bober, 65 m. S.W. of Breslau by rail. Pop. (1905) 9000. Its main industries are flax-spinning, linen-weaving and manufactures of cloth, shoes and beer. The town dates from the i3th century, being originally a fortress built for protection against the Bohemians. There the Prussians defeated the Austrians in May 1745, and in June 1760 the Prussians were routed by a greatly superior force of Austrians. See Perschke, Beschreibung und Geschichte der Stadt Landeshut (Breslau, 1829). LANDGRAVE (Ger. Landgraf, from Land , " a country " and Graf, "count" ), a German title of nobility surviving from the times of the Holy Roman Empire. It originally signified a count of more than usual power or dignity, and in some cases implied sovereignty. The title is now rare; it is borne by the former sovereign of Hesse-Homburg, now incorporated in Prussia, the heads of the various branches of the house of Hesse, and by a branch of the family of Fiirstenberg. In other cases the title of landgrave is borne by German sovereigns as a subsidiary title; e.g. the grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar is landgrave of Thuringia. LANDLORD AND TENANT. In Roman Law, the relationship of landlord and tenant arose from the contract of letting and hiring (locatio conductio), and existed also with special incidents, under the forms of tenure known as emphyteusis — the long lease of Roman law — and precarium, or tenancy at will (see ROMAN LAW). Law of England. — The law of England — and the laws of Scotland and Ireland agree with it on this point — recognizes no absolute private ownership of land. The absolute and ultimate owner of all land is the crown, and the highest interest that a subject can hold therein — viz. an estate in fee simple — is only a tenancy. But this aspect of the law, under which the landlord, other than the crown, is himself always a tenant, falls beyond the scope of the present article, which is restricted to those holdings that arise from the hiring and leasing of land. The legal relationship of landlord and tenant is constituted by a lease, or an agreement for a lease, by assignment, by attorn- ment and by estoppel. And first of a lease and an ieases agreement for a lease. All kinds of interests and property, whether corporeal, such as lands or buildings, or incorporeal, such as rights of common or of way, may be let. The Benefices Act 1898, however, now prohibits the grant of a lease of an advowson. Titles of honour, offices of trust or relating to the administration of justice, and pensions granted by the crown for military services are also inalienable. Generally speaking, any person may grant or take a lease. But there are a number of common-law and statutory qualifications and exceptions. A lease by or to an infant is voidable at his option. But extensive powers of leasing the property of infants have been created by the Settled 'Estates Act 1877 and the Settled Land Act 1882. A person of unsound mind can grant or take a lease if he is capable of contracting. Leases may be made on behalf of lunatics subject to the jurisdiction in lunacy under the pro- visions of the Lunacy Act 1890 and the Settled Land Act 1882. A married woman can lease her "separate property" apart from or under the Married Women's Property Acts, as if she were a single woman (feme sole). As regards other property, the concurrence of her husband is generally necessary. An alien was, at common law, incapable of being either a lessor or a lessee. But this disqualification is removed by the Naturaliza- tion Act 1870. The right to deal with the property of a convict while he is undergoing sentence (but not while he is out of prison on leave) is, by the Forfeiture Act 1870, vested in his admini- strator. Leases by or to corporations must be by deed under their common seal, and the leasing powers of ecclesiastical corporations in particular are subject to complicated statutory restrictions which cannot here be examined (see Phillimcre, Eccl. Law, 2nd ed., p. 1281). Powers of granting building and other leases have been conferred by modern legislation on muni- cipal corporations and other local authorites. A person having an interest in land can, in general, create a valid interest only to the extent of that interest. Thus a tenant for years, or even from year to year only, may stand in his turn as landlord to another tenant. If he profess, however, to create a tenancy for a period longer than that to which his own interest extends, he does not thereby give to his tenant an interest available against the reversioner or remainder man. The subtenant's interest will expire with the interest of the person who created it. But as between the subtenant and his immediate lessor the subtenancy will be good, and should the interest of the lessor become greater than it was when the subtenancy was created the subtenant will have the benefit of it. On his side, again, the subtenant, by accepting that position, is estopped from denying that his lessor's title (whatever it be) is good. There are also special rules of law with reference to leases by persons having only a limited interest in the property leased, e.g. a tenant for life under the Settled Land Acts, or a mortgagor or mortgagee. The Letting. — To constitute the relationship of landlord and tenant in the mode under consideration, it is necessary not only that there should be parties capable of entering into the contract, but that there should be a letting, as distinct from a mere agreement to let, and that the right conveyed should be a right to the exclusive possession of the subject of the letting and not a simple licence to use it. Whether a particular instru- ment is a lease, or an agreement for a lease, or a bare licence, is a question the answer to which depends to a large extent on the circumstances of individual cases; and the only general rule i56 LANDLORD AND TENANT is that in a lease there must be an expression of intention on the part of the lessor to convey, and of the lessee to accept, the exclusive possession of the thing let for the prescribed term and on the prescribed conditions. The landlord must not part with the whole of his interest, since, if he does so, the instrument is not a lease but an assignment. Where a tenant enters under an agreement for a lease and pays rent, the agreement will be regarded as a lease from year to year; and if the agreement is . one of which specific performance would be decreed (i.e. if it contains a complete contract between the parties and satisfies the provisions — to be noted immediately — of the Statute of Frauds, and if, in all the circumstances, its enforcement is just and equitable), the lessee is treated as having a lease for the term fixed in the agreement from the time that he took possession under it, just as if a valid lease had been executed. At common la w a lease for a term of years (other than a lease by a corporation) might be made by parol. But under the Statute of Frauds (1677), ss., i, 2) leases, except those the term of which does not exceed three years, and in which the reserved rent is equal to two-thirds at least of the improved value of the premises, were required to be in writing signed by the parties or their lawfully authorized agents; and, under the Real Property Act 1845, a lease required by law to be in writing is void unless made by deed. The Statute of Frauds also prohibits an action from being brought upon any agreement for a lease, for any term, unless such agreement is in writing and signed by the party to be charged therewith or by some agent lawfully authorized by him. Forms of Tenancy. — The following are the principal forms of tenancy : (i.) Tenancy for Life. — A lease for life must be made by deed, and the term may be the life of the lessee and the life or lives of some other person or persons, and in the latter case either for their joint lives or for the life of the survivor; also for the lives of the lessee himself and of some pther person or persons, and this consti- tutes a single estate. A tenant for life under a settlement has extensive powers of leasing under the Settled Land Act 1882. He may lease the settled land, or any part of it, for any time not ex- ceeding (a) in the case of a building lease, 99 years; (6) in the case of a mining lease, 60 years, (c) in the case of any other lease, 21 years. He may also grant either a lease of the surface of settled land, re- serving the mines and minerals, or a lease of the minerals without the surface. A lease under the Settled Land Act 1882 must be by deed and must be made to take effect in possession not later than 12 months after its date; the best rent that can reasonably be obtained must be reserved and the lease must contain a covenant by the lessee for payment of the rent, and a condition of re-entry on non- payment within a specified time not exceeding 30 days, (ii.) Tenancy for Years, i.e. for a term of years. — This tenancy is created by an express contract between the parties and never by implication, as in the case of tenancy from year to year and tenancy at will. Here the tenancy ends on the expiry of the prescribed term, without notice to quit or any other formality, (iii.) Tenancy from Year to Year. — This tenancy may be created by express agreement between the parties, or by implication as, e.g. where a person enters and pays rent under a lease for years, void either by law or by statute, or without any actual lease or agreement, or holds over after the determination of a lease whether for years or otherwise. In the absence of express agreement or custom or statutory provision (such as is made by the Agricultural Holdings Act 1883), a tenancy from year to year is determinable on half a year's notice expiring at the end of some current year of the tenancy. Where there is no express stipulation creating a yearly tenancy, if the parties have contracted that the tenant may be dispossessed by a notice given at any time, effect will be given to this provision. The common law doctrine of a six months' notice being required to terminate a tenancy from year to year of a corporeal hereditament, does not apply to an incorporeal hereditament such as a right to shoot, (iv.) Tenancies for Shorter Periods. — Closely associated with tenancies from year to year are various other tenancies for shorter periods than a year — weekly, monthly or quarterly. Questions of considerable importance frequently arise as to the notice necessary to terminate tenancies of this character. The issue is one of fact; the date at which the rent is payable is a material circumstance, but it may be said generally that a week's notice should be given to determine a weekly tenancy, a month's to determine a monthly tenancy, and a quarter's to deter- mine a quarterly tenancy. It is chiefly in connexion with the letting of lodgings, flats, &c., that tenancies of this class arise (see FLATS, LODGER AND LODGINGS), (v.) Tenancy at Will. — A tenancy at will is one which endures at the will of the parties only, i.e. at the will of both, for if a demise be made to hold at the will of the lessor, the law implies that it is at the will of the lessee also and vice versa. Any signification of a desire to terminate the tenancy, whether expressed as " notice " or not, will bring it to an end. This form of tenancy, like tenancy from year to year, may be treated either by express contract or by implication, as where premises are occupied with the consent of the owner, but without Any express or implied agreement as to the duration of the tenancy, or where a house is lent rent free by one person to another. A tenancy at will is determined by either party alienating his interest as soon as such alienation comes to the knowledge of the other, (vi.) Tenancy at Sufferance. — A tenant who comes into possession by a lawful demise, but " holds over " or continues in possession after his estate is ended, is said to be a " tenant at sufferance." Properly speaking, tenancy at sufferance is not a tenancy at all, inasmuch as if the landlord acquiesces in it, it becomes a tenancy at will ; and it is to be regarded merely as a legal fiction which prevented the rightful owner from treating the tenant as a trespasser until he had himself made an actual entry on or had brought an action to recover the land. The Distress for Rent Act 1737, however, enables a landlord to recover double rent from a tenant who holds over after having himself given notice to quit; while another statute in the reign of George II. — the Land- lord and Tenant Act 1730 — makes a tenant who holds over after receiving a notice from his landlord liable to the extent of double the value of the premises. There is no tenancy by sufferance against the crown. Form of a Lease. — The component parts of a lease are the parties, the recitals (when necessary) setting out such matters as the title of the lessor; the demise or actual letting (the word " demise " is ordinarily used, but any term indicating an express intention to make a present letting is sufficient); the parcels in which the extent of the premises demised is stated; the habendum (which defines the commencement and the term of the lease), the reddendum or reservation of rent, and the covenants and conditions. The Conveyancing Act 1881 provides that, as regards conveyances subsequent to 1881, unless a contrary intention is expressed, a lease of " land " is to be deemed to include all buildings, fixtures, easements, &c., appertaining to it; and, if there are houses or other buildings on the land demised, all out-houses, erections, &c., are to pass with the lease of the land. Rights which the landlord desires to retain over the lands let are excepted or reserved. Sporting rights will pass to the lessee unless reserved (see GAME LAWS). A grant or reservation of mines in general terms confers, or reserves, a right to work the mines, subject to the obligation of leaving a reasonable support to the surface as it exists at the time of the grant or reservation. It is not necessary that a lease should be dated. In the absence of a date, it will take effect from the day of delivery. Covenants in Leases. — These may be roughly divided into four groups: (i.) Implied Covenants. — A covenant is said to be implied when it is raised by implication of law without any express provision being made for it in the lease. Thus a lessee is under an implied obligation to treat the premises demised in a tenant-like or " husband-like " manner, and again, where in a lease by deed the word " demise " is used, the lessor probably covenants impliedly for his own title and for the quiet enjoyment of the premises by the lessee, (ii.) " Usual " Covenants. — Where an agreement for a lease specifies only such essential conditions as the payment of rent, and either mentions no other terms, or provides that the lease shall contain the " usual " covenants, the parties are entitled to have inserted in the lease made in pursuance of the agreement such other provisions as are " usual " in leases of property of the same character, and in the same district, not being provisions tending to abridge or qualify the legal incidents of the estate intended to be granted to the lessee. The question what covenants are " usual " is a question of fact. A covenant by the lessor, limited to his own acts and those of persons claiming under or through him, for the "quiet enjoyment" by the lessee of the demised premises, and covenants by the lessee to pay rent, to pay taxes, except such as fall upon the landlord, to keep the premises in repair, and to allow the landlord to enter and view the condition of the premises may be taken as typical instances of " usual " covenants. Covenants by the lessee to build and repair, not to assign or underlet without license, or to insure, or not to carry on a particular trade on the premises leased, have been held not to be " usual." Where the agreement provides for the insertion in the lease of " proper " covenants, such covenants only are pointed at as are calculated to secure the full effect of the contract, and a covenant against assignment or under-letting would not ordinarily be included, (iii.) The Covenants running with the Land. — A covenant is said to " run with the land " when the rights and duties which it creates are not merely personal to the immediate parties (in which case a covenant is said to be " collateral "), but pass also to their assignees. At common law, it was said that covenants " ran with the land " but not with the reversion, the assignee of the reversion not having the rights of the original lessor. But the assignees of both parties were placed on the same footing by a statute of Henry VIII. (1540). A covenant " runs with the land " if it relates either to a thing in esse. LANDLORD AND TENANT 157 which is part and parcel of the demise, e.g. the payment of rent, the repair of houses or fixtures or machinery already built or set up, or to a thing not in esse at the time of the demise, but touching the land, provided that the word " assigns " is used in the covenant. All implied covenants run with the land. As instances of " collateral " covenants, we may take a covenant by a lessor to give the lessee a right of pre-emption over a piece of land adjoining the subject of the demise, or in the case of a lease of a beer-shop, not to keep any similar shop within a prescribed distance from the premises demised, or a covenant by a lessee to pay rates on premises not demised. A covenant not to assign without the lessor's assent runs with the land and applies to a re-assignment to the original lessee, (iv.) Restrictive Covenants. — -These may be subdivided into two classes — covenants not to assign or underlet without the lessor's consent (it may be noted that such consent must be applied for even if, under the covenant, it cannot be withheld) ; and covenants in restraint of trade, e.g. not to use the demised premises for certain trading purposes, and in the case of " tied houses " a covenant by the lessees to purchase all beer required from the lessors. In addition a lease frequently contains covenants for renewal of the lease at the option of the lessee, and for repairs or insurance against damage by fire by the lessee. Leases frequently contain a covenant by the lessee to bear and pay rates, taxes, assessments and other " impositions " or " charges," or " duties " or " outgoings," or " burdens " (except property tax) imposed upon the demised premises during the term. Considerable difficulty has arisen as to the scope of the terms " impositions," " charges," " duties," " outgoings," " burdens." The words, " rates, taxes, assessments " point to payments of a periodical or recurring character. Are the latter words in such covenants limited to payments of this kind, or do they include single and definite payments demanded, for example, by a local authority, acting under statutory powers, for improvements of a permanent kind affecting the premises demised? The decisions on the point are numerous and difficult to reconcile, but the main test is whether, on the true construction of the particular covenant, the lessee has undertaken to indemnify the landlord against payments of all kinds. The stronger current of modern authority is in favour of the landlords and not in favour of restricting the meaning of cove- nants of this class. It may be added that, if a lessee covenants to pay rates and taxes, no demand by the collector apparently is necessary to constitute a breach of the covenant; where a rate is duly made and published it is the duty of the parties assessed to seek out the collector and pay it. Mutual Rights and Liabilities of Landlord and Tenant. — These are to a large extent regulated by the covenants of the lease, (i.) The landlord generally covenants — and, in the absence of such a proviso, a covenant will be implied from the fact of letting — that the tenant shall have quiet enjoyment of the premises for the time agreed upon. This obligation makes the landlord responsible for any lawful eviction of the tenant during the term, but not for wrongful eviction unless he is himself the wrong- doer or has expressly made himself responsible for evictions of all kinds. It may be noted here that at common law no lease for years is complete till actual entry has been made by the lessee. Till then, he has only a right of entry or interesse termini, (ii.) The tenant, on his part, is presumed to under- take to use the property in a reasonable manner, according to the purposes for which it was let, and to do reasonable repairs. Repairs ^ landlord is not presumed to have undertaken to put the premises in repair, nor to execute repairs. But the respective obligations of parties where repairs are, as they always are in leases for years, the subject of express covenant, may vary indefinitely. The obligation is generally imposed upon the tenant to keep the premises in " good condition " or " tenantable repair." The amount and quality of the repairs necessary to fulfil the covenant are always relative to the age, class and condition of the premises at the time of the lease. A tenant is not responsible, under such a covenant, for deterioration due to diminution in value caused by lapse of time or by the elements. Where there is an unqualified covenant to repair, and the premises during the tenancy are burnt down, or destroyed by some other inevitable calamity, the tenant is bound to rebuild and restore them at his own expense, even although the landlord has taken out a policy on his own account and been paid by the insurance company in respect of it. A covenant to keep in repair requires the tenant to put the premises in repair if they are out of it, and to maintain them in that condition up to and at the end of the tenancy. A breach of the covenant to repair gives the landlord an action for damages which will be measured by the estimated injury to the reversion if the action be brought during the tenancy, and by the sum necessary to execute the repairs, if the action be brought later, (iii.) The improper user of the premises to the injury of the reversioner is waste (q.v.). (iv.) Covenants by the tenants to insure the premises and keep them insured are also common; and if the premises are left uninsured for the smallest portion of the term, though there is no damage by fire, the covenant is broken, (v.) Covenants to bear and pay rates and taxes have been discussed above, (vi.) As to the tenant's obligation to pay rent, see RENT. Assignment, Attornment, Estoppel. — The relationship of land- lord and tenant may be altered either voluntarily, by the act of the parties, or involuntarily, by the operation of law, and may also be dissolved. The principal mode of voluntary altera- tion is an assignment either by the tenant of his term or by the landlord of his reversion. An assignment which creates the relationship of landlord and tenant between the lessor or lessee and the assignee, must be by deed, but the acceptance by a landlord of rent from a tenant under an invalid assignment may create an implied tenancy from year to year; and similarly payment of rent by a tenant may amount to an acknowledgment of his landlord's title. This is one form of tenancy by estoppel. The principle of all tenancies of this kind is that something has been done by the party estopped, amounting to an admission which he cannot be allowed to contradict. " Attornment," or the agreement by a tenant to become tenant to a new land- lord, is a term now often used to indicate an acknowledgment of the existence of the relationship of landlord and tenant. It may be noted that it is still common to insert in mortgage deeds what is called an " attornment clause," by which the mortgagor "attorns" tenant to the mortgagee, and the latter thereupon acquires a power of distress as an additional security. If the lands assigned are situated in Middlesex or Yorkshire, the assign- ment should be registered under the Middlesex Registry or Yorkshire Registries Acts, as the case may be; and similar provision is now made for the registration by an assignee of his title under the Land Transfer Acts 1875 and 1897. Underlease. — Another form of alteration in a contract of tenancy is an under-lease, which differs from assignment in this — that the lessor parts with a portion of his. estate instead of, as in assignment, with the whole of it. There is no privity of contract between an underlessee and the superior landlord, but the latter can enforce against the former restrictive covenants of which he had notice; it is the duty of the underlessee to inform himself as to the covenants of the original lease, and, if he enters and takes possession, he will be considered to have had full notice of, and will be bound by, these covenants. Bankruptcy, Death. — The contract of tenancy may also be altered by operation of law. If a tenant become bankrupt, his interest passes to his trustee in bankruptcy — unless, as is frequently the case, the lease makes the occurrence of that . contingency determine the lease. So, on the death of a tenant, his interest passes to his legal representatives. Dissolution oj Tenancy. — Tenancy is dissolved by the expiry of the term for which it was created, or by forfeiture of the tenant's interest on the ground of the breach of some condition by the tenant and re-entry by the landlord. A breach of condition may, however, be waived by the landlord, and the legislature has made provision for the relief of the tenant from the conse- quences of such breaches in certain cases. Relief from forfeiture and rights of re-entry are now regulated chiefly by the Convey- ancing Acts 1881 and 1882. Under these acts a right of re- entry or forfeiture is not to be enforceable unless and until the lessor has served on the lessee a written notice specifying the breach of covenant or condition complained of, and requiring him to remedy it or make compensation, and this demand has not within a reasonable time been complied with; and when a lessor is proceeding to enforce such a right the court may, if it think fit, grant relief to the lessee. A forfeiture is also waived if the landlord elects not to take advantage of it — and shows his election either expressly or impliedly by some act, which acknowledges the continuance of the tenancy, e.g. by the accept- ance of, or even by an absolute and unqualified demand for, iS8 LANDLORD AND TENANT rent, which has accrued due since the forfeiture, by bringing an action for such rent, or by distraining for rent whether due before or after the forfeiture. A tenancy may also be determined by merger, i.e. where a greater and a less estate coincide and meet in one and the same person, without any intermediate estate, as, for instance, when a tenant for years obtains the fee simple. There may also be a surrender, either voluntary or by operation of law, which will determine a tenancy, as, for example, when a tenant is party to some act, the validity of which he is legally estopped from denying and which would not have been valid had the tenancy continued to exist. The land, on the expiration of the tenancy, becomes at common law the absolute property of the landlord, no matter how it may have been altered or improved during the occupation. In certain cases, however, the law has discriminated between the contending claims of landlord and tenant, (i) In respect of fixtures (which may be shortly denned as movables so affixed to the soil as to become part thereof), the tenant may sometimes remove them, e.g. when they have been brought on the premises for the purpose of being used in business (see FIXTURES). (2) In respect of emblements, i.e. the profits of sown land, a tenant may be entitled to these whose term comes to an end by the happening of an uncertain contingency (see EMBLEMENTS). (3) A similar right is very generally recognized by custom in tenants whose term expires in the crdinary way. The custom of the district, in the absence of stipulations between the parties, would be imported into their contract — the tenant going out on the same conditions as he came in. Such customary tenant right only arises at the expiration of the lease, and on the sub- stantial performance of the covenants; and is forfeited if the tenant abandons his tenancy during the term. Tenant right is assignable, and will pass under an assignment of "all the estate and interest" of the outgoing tenant in the farm. But, with the exceptions noted, the land in its improved condition passes over at common law to the landlord. The tenant may have added to its value by buildings, by labour applied to the land, or by the use of fertilizing manures, but, whatever be the amount of the additional value, he is not entitled to any compensation whatever. This again is a matter which the parties may, if they please, regulate for themselves. The law as to Ejectment is dealt with under that heading. Statutory Provisions. — Reference may bo made, in conclusion, to a few modern statutes which have affected the law of landlord and tenant. The Agricultural Holdings Act 1008 (which repeals the Agricultural Holdings Acts of 1883, 1900 and 1906) gives to the agri- cultural tenant a right to compensation for (i.) certain specified improvements made by him with the landlord's previous consent in writing; and (ii.) certain other classes of improvements although the landlord's consent has not been obtained. As examples of class (i.) may be mentioned — erection or enlargement of buildings, laying down of permanent pasture, making of gardens or fences, planting of hops, embankments and sluices; as examples of (ii.) — chalking of land, clay burning, application to land of purchased artificial or purchased manure, except they have been made for the purpose of making provision to protect the holding from injury or deterioration. In the case of proposed drainage improvements, notice in writing must be given to the landlord, who may then execute the improve- ments himself and charge the tenant with interest not exceeding 5 % per annum on the outlay, or such annual instalments, payable for a period of twenty-five years, and recoverable as rent, as will repay the outlay, with interest at the rate of 3 % a year. Under s. 1 1 of the act a tenant is entitled to compensation for disturbance, when he is compelled to quit without good and sufficient cause, and for reasons inconsistent with good estate management. An agri- cultural tenant may not contract himself out of his statutory right to compensation, but " contracting out " is apparently not pro- hibited with regard to the right given him by the acts of 1883 and 1900 to remove fixtures which he has erected and for which he is not otherwise entitled to compensation, after reasonable notice to the landlord, unless the latter elects to purchase such fixtures at a valuation. The Agricultural Holdings Act 1906 conferred upon every tenant (with slight exceptions) entire freedom of cropping and of disposal of produce, notwithstanding any custom of the county or explicit agreement to the contrary. (See further the articles EJECTMENT, FIXTURES, RENT.) The Small Holdings and Allotments Act 1908, which repealed previous acts of 1887, 1890 and 1907, deals, on terms similar to those of the Agricultural Holdings Act 1908, with small holdings and allotments (the expression " small holding " meaning an agricultural holding which exceeds one acre, and either does not exceed fifty acres, or, if exceeding fifty acres, is at the date of sale or letting of an annual value for the purposes of income tax not exceeding fifty pounds; the expression " allotment " includes a field garden). Section 47 of the act gives the tenant the same rights to compensation as if his holding had been a holding under the Agricultural Holdings Act 1908 (vide supra). Compensa- tion was given to market gardeners for unexhausted improvements by the Market Gardeners' Compensation Act 1895 and by the Agricultural Holdings Act 1906 for improvements effected before the commencement of that act on a holding cultivated to the know- ledge of the landlord as a market garden, if the landlord had not dissented in writing to the improvements. The important sections of these acts were incorporated in the Agricultural Holdings Act 1908, s. 42. Scots Law. — The original lease in Scots law took the form of a grant by the proprietor or lessor. But, with advancing civiliza- tion and the consequent increase in the number of the conditions to be imposed on both parties, leases became mutual contracts, bilateral in form. The law of Scotland as to landlord and tenant may be considered under two main heads: — I. Ordinary Leases, Common Law and Statutory; II. Building or Long Leases. I. Ordinary Leases, Common Law ana Statutory. — A verbal lease for a year is good. Such a lease for more than a year is not effectual even for a year, except where the lessee has taken possession. At common law, while a lease was binding on the grantor and his heirs, it was not good against " singular successors," i.e. persons acquiring by purchase or adjudication, and the lessee was liable to be ejected by such persons, unless (a precaution usua .'v taken) sasine of the subjects demised was expressly conferred on h'm by the lease. To obviate this difficulty, the Scots Act 1449, c. 18. made possession of the subjects of the lease equivalent to sasine. This enactment applies to leases of agricultural subjects, houses, mills, fisheries and whatever is fundo annexum ; provided that (a) the lease, when for more than one year, must be in writing, (6) it must be definite as to subject, rent (which may consist of money, grain or services, if the reddendum is not illusory) and term of duration, (c) possession must follow on the lease. Special powers of granting leases are conferred by statute on trustees. (Trusts [Scotland] Act 1867, s. 2), curatores bonis (Judicial Factors [Scotland] Act 1889) and heirs of entail (cf. Entail Act 1882, ss. 5, 6, 8, 9). The requisites of the statutory leases, last mentioned, are similar to those imposed in England upon tenants for life by the Settled Land Acts (v. sup. p. 3). The rent stipulated for must not be illusory, and must fairly represent the value of the subjects leased, and the term of the lease must not be excessive (as to rent generally, see RENT). A life-renter can only grant a lease that is effectual during the subsistence of the life-rent. There is practically no limitation, but the will of the parties, as to the persons to whom a lease may be granted. A lease granted to a tenant by name will pass, on his death during the subsistence of the term to his heir-at-law, even if the lease contains no destination to heirs. The rights and obligations of the lessor and the tenant (e.g. as to the use of the produce, the payment of rent, the quiet possession of the subjects demised, and as to the payment of rates and taxes) rre similar to those existing under English law. An agricultural lease does not, apart from stipulation, confer any right to kill game, other than hares and rabbits (as to which, see the Ground Game Act 1880, and GAME LAWS) or any right of fishing. A tenant is not entitled, without the landlord's consent, to change the character of the subjects demised, and, except under an agricultural lease, he is bound to quit the premises on the expiration of the lease. In the case of urban leases, however, ejectment (q.v.) — called in Scots Law " removing " — will not be authorized unless the tenant received 40 days' warning before the term of removal. In the absence of such notice, the parties are held, if there be nothing in their conduct or in the lease inconsistent with this presumption, to renew their agree- ment in all its terms, and so on from year to year till due notice is given. This is called " tacit relocation." A lease may be trans- mitted (i.) by " assignation," intimated to the landlord, and followed by possession on the part of the assignee; (ii.) by sub-lease — the effect of which is equivalent to that of under-lease in English law ; (iii.) by succession, as of the heir of a tenant; (iv.) in the case of agricultural holdings, by bequest (Agricultural Holdings [Scotland] Act 1883, s. 29). A lease terminates (i.) by the expiration of its term or by advantage being taken by the party in whose favour it is stipulated, of a " break " in the term; (ii.) by the occurrence of an " irritancy " of ground of forfeiture, either conventional, or statutory, e.g. where a tenant's rent is in arrear, or he fails to remove on the expiry of his lease (Act of Sederunt, I4th of Dec. 1756: Agricultural Holdings Act 1883, s. 27); (iii.) by the bankruptcy or insolvency of the tenant, at the landlord's option, if it is so stipulated in the lease; (iv.) by the destruction, e.g. by fire, of the subject leased, unless the landlord is bound to restore it. Complete destruction of the subject leased, e.g. where a house is burnt down, or a farm is reduced to " sterility " by flood or hurricane, discharges the tenant from the obligation to pay rent. The effect of partial destruction has given rise to some uncertainty. " The distinction seems to be that if the LANDLORD AND TENANT destruction be permanent, though partial, the failure of the subject let will give relief by entitling the tenant to renounce the lease, unless a deduction shall be allowed, but that if it be merely temporary or occasional, it will not entitle the tenant to relief ' (Bell's Prin. s. 1208). Agricultural leases usually contain special provisions as to the order of cropping, the proper stocking of the farm, and the rights of the incoming and outgoing tenant with regard to the way- going crop. Where the rent is in money, it is generally payable at Whitsunday and Martinmas — the two " legal terms." Sometimes the term of payment is before the crop is reaped, sometimes after. " The terms thus stipulated are called ' the conventional terms ' ; the rent payable by anticipation being called ' forehand rent,' that which is payable after the crop is reaped, ' back rent.' Where the rent is in grain, or otherwise payable in produce, it is to be satisfied from the produce of the farm, if there be any. If there be none the tenant is bound and entitled to deliver fair marketable grain of the same kind." (Bell's Principles, ss. 1204, 1205). The general rule with regard to " waygoing crops " on arable farms is that the tenant is entitled to reap the crop sown before the term of removal (whether or not that be the natural termination of the lease), the right of exclusive possession being his during seed time. But he is not en- titled to the use of the barns in threshing, &c., the corn. The Agricultural Holdings (Scotland) Acts 1883 and 1900, already referred to incidentally, contain provisions — similar to those of the English acts — as to a tenant's right to compensation for unexhausted improvements, removal for non-payment of rent, notice to quit at the termination of a tenancy, and a tenant's property in fixtures. The Crofters' Holdings (Scotland) Acts 1886, 1887 and 1888, confer on " crofters " special rights. A crofter is defined as " a tenant of a holding " — being arable or pasture land, or partly arable and partly pasture land — " from year to year who resides on his holding, the annual rent of which does not exceed £30 in money, and which is situated in a ' crofting parish.' ": Nearly all the parishes in Argyll, Inverness, Ross, Cromarty, Sutherland, Caithness and Orkney and Shetland answer to this description. The crofter enjoys a perpetual tenure subject to the fulfilment of certain conditions as to payment of rent, non-assignment of tenancy, &c., and to defeasance at his own option on giving one year's notice to the landlord. A Crofters' Commission constituted under the acts has power to fix fair rents, and the crofter on renunciation of his tenancy or removal from his holding is entitled to compensation for permanent improvements. The Small Holdings Act 1892 applies to Scotland. Under the law of Scotland down to 1880, a landlord had as security for rent due on an agricultural lease a " hypothec "—^i.e. a prefer- ential right over ordinary creditors, and extending, subject to certain limitations, over the whole stock and crop of the tenant. This right was enforceable by sequestration and sale. It was abolished in 1880 as regards all leases entered into after the nth of November 1881, where the land demised exceeded two acres in extent, and the land- lord was left to remedies akin to ejectment (Hypothec Abolition, Scotland, Act 1880). II. Building or Long Leases. — Under these leases, the term of which is usually 99 and sometimes 999 years, the tenant is to a certain extent in the position of a fee simple proprietor, except that his right is terminable, and that he can only exercise such rights of ownership as are conferred on him either by statute or by the terms of his lease. Extensive powers of entering into such leases have been given by statute to trustees subject to the authority of the Court (Trusts [Scotland] Act 1867, s. 3) and to heirs of entail (Entail Acts 1840, 1849, 1882). Where long leases are " probative," i.e. holograph or duly tested, do not exceed 31 years, or, except as regards leases of mines and minerals, and of lands held by burgage tenure, relate to an extent of land exceeding 50 acres, and contain provisions for renewal, they may be recorded for publication in the Register of Sasines, and such publication has the effect of possession (Registra- tion of Leases [Scotland] Act 1857). Ireland. — The law of landlord and tenant was originally substanti- ally the same as that described for England is. But the modern Land Acts have readjusted the relation between landlords and tenants, while the Land Purchase Acts have aimed at abolishing those relations by enabling the tenant to become the owner of his holding. The way was paved for these changes by the existence in Ulster of a local custom having virtually the fcrce of law, which had two main features — fixity of tenure, and free right of sale by the tenant of his interest. These principles, with the addition of that of fair rents settled by judicial means, were gradually established by the Land Acts of 1870 and subsequent years, and the whole system was re- modelled by the Land Purchase Acts (see IRELAND). United States. — The law of landlord and tenant in the United States is in its principles similar to those of English law. It is only possible to indicate, by way of example, some of the points of similarity. The relationship of landlord and tenant is created, altered and dissolved in the same way, and the rights and duties of parties are substantially identical. A lease must contain, either in itself or by clear reference, all the terms of a complete contract — the names of the parties, description of the property let, the rent (see RENT) and the conditions. The date is not essential. That is a matter of identification as to time only. In Pennsylvania, parol evidence of the date is allowed. The general American doctrine is that where the contract is contained in separate writings they must connect themselves by reference, and that parol evidence is not admissible to connect them. The English doctrine that a verbal lease may be specific- ally enforced if there has been part performance by the person seeking the remedy has been fully adopted in nearly all the American states. The law as to the rights and obligations of assignees and sub-lessees and as to surrender is the same as in England. Forfeiture only renders a lease void as regards the lessee; it may be waived by the lessor, and acceptance by the landlord of rent due after forfeiture, with notice of such forfeiture, amounts to waiver. Where there is a lease for a certain period, no notice to quit is necessary. In uncertain tenancies there must be reasonable notice — i.e. at common law six months generally. The notice necessary to determine a monthly or weekly tenancy is generally a month or a week (see further under LODGER; LODGINGS). In the United States, as in England, the covenant for quiet enjoyment only extends, so far as relates to the acts of third parties, to lawful acts of disturbance in the enjoyment of the subject agreed to be let. Laws of other Countries. — It is impossible here to deal with the systems of land tenure in force in other countries. Only the question of the legal relations between landlord and tenant can be touched upon. In France, the Code Civil recognizes two such relationships, the letting to hire of houses (bail a layer) and the letting to farm of rural properties (bail aferme). To a certain extent, both forms of tenancy are governed by the same rules. The letting may be either written or verbal. But a verbal lease presents this disadvantage that, if it is unperformed and one of the parties denies its existence, it cannot be proved by witnesses. The party who denies the letting can only be put to his oath (Arts. 1714-1715). It may further be noted that in the case of a verbal lease, notice to quit is regulated by the custom of the place (Art. 1736). The tenant or farmer has the right of underletting or assigning his lease, in the absence of prohibiting stipulation (Art. 1717). The lessor is bound by the nature of his contract and without the need ol any particular stipulation (i.) to deliver to the lessee the thing hired in a good state of repair; (ii.) to maintain it in a state to serve the purpose for which it has been hired; (iii.) to secure to the lessee peaceable enjoyment during the continuance of the lease (Arts. 1719-1720). He is bound to warrant the lessee against, and to indemnify him for, any loss arising from any faults or defects in the thing hired which prevent its use, even though he was not aware of them at the time of the lease (Art. 1721). If during the continuance of the letting, the thing hired is entirely destroyed by accident, the lease is cancelled. In case of partial destruction, the lessee may, according to circumstances, demand either a diminution of the price, or the cancellation of the lease. In neither case is there ground for damages (Art. 1722). The lessor cannot, during the lease, change the form of the thing hired (Art. 1723). The lessee is bound, on his side (i.) to use the thing hired like a good head of a household (ban pere de famille), in accordance with the express or presumed purpose of the hiring; (ii.) to pay the price of the hiring at the times agreed (Art. 1728). On breach of the former obligation, the lease may be judicially cancelled (Art. 1729). As to the con- sequences of breach of the latter, see RENT. If a statement of the condition of the property (etat des lieux) has been prepared, the lessee must give it up such as he received it according to the statement, except what has perished or decayed by age or by means of force majeure (Art. 1730). In the absence of an etat des lieux, the lessee is presumed to have received the thing hired in a good state of tenantable repair, and must so yield it up, saving proof to the contrary (Art. 1731). He is liable for injuries or losses happening during his enjoyment, unless he prove that they have taken place without his fault (Art. 1732) ; in particular, for loss by fire unless he show that the fire happened by accident, force majeure, or defect of construction, or through communica- tion from a neighbouring house (Art. 1733). The lessee is i6o LANDON, C. P.— LANDON, L. E. liable for injuries and losses happening by the act of persons belonging to his house or of his sub-tenants (Art. 1735). A lease terminates (i.) at the expiration of the prescribed term (Art. 1737) — if at that period the lessee remains and is left in posses- sion, there is, in the case of written leases, a tacit renewal (tacite reconductior) of the lease as a verbal lease (Arts. 1738-1739); (ii.) by the loss of the thing hired and by the default of the lessor or lessee in the fulfilment of their respective obligations (Art. 1741), but (iii.) not by the death either of the lessor or of the lessee (1742). The conditions of EJECTMENT are stated under that heading. The special rules (Arts. 1752-1762) relative to the hire of houses are touched upon in LODGER AND LODGINGS. It only remains here to refer to those applicable to leases to farm. The lessee is bound to stock the farm with the cattle and implements necessary for its husbandry (Art. 1766), and to stack in the places appointed for the purpose in the lease (Art. 1 767). A lessee, who farms on condition of dividing the produce with the lessor, can only underlet or assign if he is expressly empowered to do so by the lease (Art. 1763). The lessee must give notice to the lessor of any acts of usurpation committed on the property (Art. 1768). If at least half of the harvest in any year is destroyed by accident, the lessee (a) in the case of a lease for several years, obtains, at the end of his lease, a refund of rent, by way of indemnity, unless he has been indemnified by preceding harvests; (b) in the case of a lease for a year only, may secure a proportional abatement of the current rent. No refund is payable if the produce was severed before the accident, unless the lessor was entitled to a portion of it, when he must bear his share of the loss, provided the lessee was not in mord as regards the delivery of the lessor's portion. The lessee has no right to a refund when the cause of damage was existing and known at the date of the lease (Arts. 1769-1771). Liability for loss by " accidents " may be thrown on the lessee by express stipulation (Art. 1772). "Accidents" here mean ordinary accidents only, such as hail, lightning or frost, and the lessee will not be answerable for loss caused by extraordinary accidents such as war or floods, unless he has been made liable for all accidents, foreseen or unforeseen (Art. 1773). A verbal lease is deemed to be for the term necessary to enable the lessee to gather in all the produce, thus for a year in the case of a meadow or vineyard; in the case of lands leased in tillage, where they are divided into shifts or seasons, for as many years as there are shifts (Art. 1774). The outgoing must leave for the incoming tenant convenient housing and other facilities for the labours of the year following; the incoming must procure for the outgoing tenant conveniences for the consumption of his fodder and for the harvests remaining to be got in. In either case the custom of the place is to be followed (Art. 1777). The outgoing tenant must leave the straw and manure of the year, if he received them at the beginning of his lease, and even where he has not so received them, the owner may retain them according to valuation (Art. 1778). A word must be added as to letting by cheptel (bail A cheptel) — a contract by which one of the parties gives to the other a stock of cattle to keep under conditions agreed on between them (Art. 1800). There are several varieties of the contract, (i.) simple cheptel (cheptel simple) in which the whole stock is supplied by the lessor — the lessee taking half the profit and bearing half the loss (Art. 1804); (ii.) cheptel by moiety (cheptel & moietie) — here each of the contracting parties furnishes half of the stock, which remains common for profit or loss (Art. 1818) ; (iii.) cheptel giyen to a farmer (fermier) or participating cultivator (colon partiaire) — in the cheptel given to the farmer (also called cheptel de fer) stock of a value equal to the estimated price of the stock given must be left at the expiry of the lease (Art. 1821); cheptel given to the partici- pating cultivator resembles simple cheptel, except in points of detail (Arts. 1827-1830); (iv.) the term "cheptel" is also improperly applied to a contract by which cattle are given to be housed and fed — here the lessor retains the ownership, but has only the profit of the calves (Art. 1831). The French system just described is in force in its entirety in Belgium (Code Civil, Arts. 1713 et seq.) and has been followed to some extent in Italy (Civil Code, Arts. 1568 et seq.), Spain (Civil Code, Arts 1542 et seq.), and Portugal (Civil Code, Arts. 1298 et seq., 1595 et seq.). In all these countries there are varieties of emphyteutic tenure; and in Italy the mezzadria or metayer system (see Civil Code, Arts. 1647 et seq.) exists. The German Civil Code adopts the distinction between bail d layer (Miehl, Arts. 535 et seq.) and bail a ferme (Pacht, Arts. 581 et seq.). Dutch law also (Civil Code, Arts. 1583 et seq.) is similar to the French. The Indian law of landlord and tenant is described in the article INDIAN LAW. The laws of the various British colonies on the subject are too numerous and too different to be dealt with here. In Mauritius, the provisions of the Code Civil are in force without modification. In Quebec (Civil Code, Arts. 1605 et seq.) and St Lucia (Civil Code, Arts. 1512 et seq.) they have been reproduced by the local law. In many of the colonies, parts of the English law of landlord and tenant, common law and statutory, have been introduced by local enactments (cf. British Guiana, Ord. 4 of 1846; Jamaica, i Viet. c. 26). In others (e.g. Victoria, Landlord and Tenant Act 1890, No. 1108; Ontario, Rev. Stats. 1897, c. 170) consolidating statutes have been passed. AUTHORITIES. — English Law : Wolstenholme, Brinton and Cherry, Conveyancing and Settled Land Acts (London, gth ed., 1905); Hood and Challis, Conveyancing and Settled Land Acts (London, 7th ed., 1909) ; Foi, on Landlord and Tenant (London, 4th ed., 1907) ; Woodfall, on Landlord and Tenant (London, i8th ed., 1907) ; Fawcett, Landlord and Tenant (London, 3rd ed., 1905). Scots Law: Hunter, on Landlord and Tenant (Edinburgh, 4th ed., 1876); Rankine, on Land Ownership (Edinburgh, 3rd ed., 1891); Rankine, on Leases (Edinburgh, 2nd ed., 1893); Hunter, Landlord and Tenant (4th ed. G. Guthne, Edinburgh, 1876). Irish Law: Kelly's Statute Law of Landlord and Tenant in Ireland (Dublin, 1898) ; Barton and Cherry's Land Act 1896 (Dublin, 1896); Quill, Hamilton and Lpngworth, Irish Land Acts of 1903 and 1904 (Dublin, 1904). American Law: Bpuvier, Law Dictionary (ed. Rawle) (London, 1897); McAdam, Rights, Remedies and Liabilities of Landlord and Tenant (New York, 1900) ; Wood, Law of Landlord and Tenant (New York, 1888). Foreign and Colonial Laws: Field, Landholding and the relation of Landlord and Tenant in various Countries ; Ruling Cases (American Notes), (London and Boston, 1894-1901). (A. W. R.) LANDON, CHARLES PAUL (1760-1826), French painter and art-author, was born at Nonant in 1760. He entered the studio of Regnault, and won the first prize of the Academy in 1792. After his return from Italy, disturbed by the Revolution, he seems to have abandoned painting for letters, but he began to exhibit in 1795, and continued to do so at various intervals up to 1814. His " Leda " obtained an award of merit in 1801, and is now in the Louvre. His " Mother's Lesson," " Paul and Virginia Bathing," and " Daedalus and Icarus " have been engraved; but his works on painting and painters, which reach nearly one hundred volumes, .form his chief title to be remembered. In spite of a complete want of critical accuracy, an extreme care- lessness in the biographical details, and the feebleness of the line engravings by which they are illustrated, Landon's Annales du Musee, in 33 vols., form a vast repertory of compositions by masters of every age and school of permanent value. Landon also published Lives of Celebrated Painters, in 22 vols.; An Historical Description of Paris, 2 vols. ; a Description of London, with 42 plates; and descriptions of the Luxembourg, of the Giustiniani collection, and of the gallery of the duchesse de Berry. He died at Paris in 1826. LANDON, LETITIA ELIZABETH (1802-1838), English poet and novelist, better known by her initials L. E. L. than as Miss Landon or Mrs Maclean, was descended from an old Hereford- shire family, and was born at Chelsea on the I4th of August 1802. She went to a school in Chelsea where Miss Mitford also received her education. Her father, an army agent, amassed a large property, which he lost by speculation shortly before his death. About 1815 the Landons made the acquaintance of William Jerdan, and Letitia began her contributions to the Literary Gazette and to various Christmas annuals. She also published some volumes of verse, which soon won for her a wide literary fame. The gentle melancholy and romantic sentiment her writings embodied suited the taste of the period, and would LANDOR, W. S. 161 in any case have secured her the sympathy and approval of a wide class of readers. She displays richness of fancy and aptness of language, but her work suffered from hasty production, and has not stood the test of time. The large sums she earned by her literary labours were expended on the support of her family. An engagement to John Forster, it is said, was broken off through the intervention of scandalmongers. In June 1838 she married George Maclean, governor of the Gold Coast, but she only sur- vived her marriage, which proved to be very unhappy, by a few months. She died on the 1 5th of October 1 838 at Cape Coast from an overdose of prussic acid, which, it is supposed, was taken accidentally. For some time L. E. L. was joint editor of the Literary Gazette. Her first volume of poetry appeared in 1820 under the title The Fate of Adelaide, and was followed by other collections of verses with similar titles. She also wrote several novels, of which the best is Ethel Churchill (1837). Various editions of her Poetical Works have been published since her death, one in 1880 with an intro- ductory memoir by W. B. Scott. The Life and Literary Remains of Letitia Elizabeth Landon, by Laman Blanchard, appeared in 1841, and a second edition in 1855. LANDOR, WALTER SAVAGE (1775-1864), English writer, eldest son of Walter Landor and his wife Elizabeth Savage, was born at Warwick on the 3oth of January 1775. [He was sent to Rugby school, but was removed at the headmaster's request and studied privately with Mr Langley, vicar of Ashbourne. In 1793 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge. He adopted republican principles and in 1794 fired a gun at the windows of a Tory for whom he had an aversion. He was rusticated for a year, and, although the authorities were willing to condone the offence, he refused to return. The affair led to a quarrel with his father in which Landor expressed his intention of leaving home for ever. He was, however, reconciled with his family through the efforts of his friend Dorothea Lyttelton. He entered no profession, but his father allowed him £150 a year, and he was free to live at home or not as he pleased.] In 1795 appeared in a small volume, divided into three books, The Poems of Waller Savage Landor, and, in pamphlet form of nineteen pages, an anonymous Moral Epistle, respectfully dedicated to Earl Stanhope. No poet at the age of twenty ever had more vigour of style and fluency of verse; nor perhaps has any ever shown such masterly command of epigram and satire, made vivid and vital by the purest enthusiasm and most generous indignation. Three years later appeared the first edition of the first great work which was to inscribe his name for ever among the great names in English poetry. The second edition of Gebir appeared in 1803, with a text corrected of grave errors and improved by magnificent additions. About the same time the whole poem was also published in a Latin form, which for might and melody of line, for power and perfection of language, must always dispute the palm of precedence with the English version. [His father's death in 1805 put him in possession of an independent fortune. Landor settled in Bath. Here in 1808 he met Southey, and the mutual appreciation of the two poets led to a warm friendship.] In 1808, under an impulse not less heroic than that which was afterwards to lead Byron to a glorious death in redemption of Greece and his own good fame, Landor, then aged thirty-three, left England for Spain as a volunteer to serve in the national army against Napoleon at the head of a regiment raised and supported at his sole expense. After some three months' campaigning came the affair of Cintra and its disasters; " his troop," in the words of his biographer, " dispersed or melted away, and he came back to England in as great a hurry as he had left it," but bringing with him the honourable recollection of a brave design unselfishly attempted, and the material in his memory for the sublimest poem published in our language, between the last masterpiece of Milton and the first masterpiece of Shelley — one equally worthy to stand unchallenged beside either for poetic perfection as well as moral majesty — the lofty tragedy of Count Julian, which appeared in 1812, without the name of its author. No comparable work is to be found in English poetry between the date of Samson Agoniste? and the date of Prometheus Unbound; and with both xvi. 6 these great works it has some points of greatness in common. The superhuman isolation of agony and endurance which en- circles and exalts the hero is in each case expressed with equally appropriate magnificence of effect. The style of Count Julian, if somewhat deficient in dramatic ease and the fluency of natural dialogue, has such might and purity and majesty of speech as elsewhere we find only in Milton so long and so steadily sustained. In May 1811 Landorhad suddenly married Miss Julia Thuillier, with whose looks he had fallen in love at first sight in a ball-room at Bath; and in June they settled for a while at Llanthony Abbey in Monmouthshire, from whence he was worried in three years' time by the combined vexation of neighbours and tenants, lawyers and lords-lieutenant; not before much toil and money had been nobly wasted on attempts to improve the sterility of the land, to relieve the wretchedness and raise the condition of the peasantry. He left England for France at first, but after a brief residence at Tours took up his abode for three years at Como; " and three more wandering years he passed," says his biographer, " between Pisa and Pistoja, before he pitched his tent in Florence in 1821." I In 1835 he had an unfortunate difference with his wife which ended in a complete separation. In 1824 appeared the first series of his Imaginary Conversations, in 1826 " the second edition, corrected and enlarged "; a supplementary third volume was added in 1828; and in 1829 the second series was given to the world. Not until 1846 was a fresh instalment added, in the second volume of his collected and selected works. During the interval he had published his three other most famous and greatest books in prose: The Citation and Examination of William Shakespeare (1834), Pericles and Aspasia (1836), The Pentameron (1837). To the last of these was originally appended The Penlalogia, containing five of the very finest among his shorter studies in dramatic poetry. In 1847 he published his most important Latin work, Poemata el inscriptiones, comprising, with large additions, the main contents of two former volumes of idyllic, satiric, elegiac and lyric verse; and in the same golden year of his poetic life appeared the very crown and flower of its manifold labours, the Hellenics of Walter Savage Landor, enlarged and completed. Twelve years later this book was re-issued, with additions of more or less value, with alterations generally to be regretted, and with omissions invariably to be deplored. In 1853 he put forth The Last Fruit off an Old Tree, containing fresh conversations, critical and controversial essays, miscellaneous epigrams, lyrics and occasional poems of various kind and merit, closing with Five Scenes on the martyrdom of Beatrice Cenci, unsurpassed even by their author himself for noble and heroic pathos, for subtle and genial, tragic and profound, ardent and compassionate insight into character, with consummate mastery of dramatic and spiritual truth. In 1856 he published Antony and Octavius — Scenes for the Study, twelve consecutive poems in dialogue which alone would suffice to place him high among the few great masters of historic drama. In 1858 appeared a metrical miscellany bearing the title of Dry Sticks Fagoted by W. S. Landor, and containing among other things graver and lighter certain epigrammatic and satirical attacks which reinvolved him in the troubles of an action for libel; and in July of the same year he returned for the last six years of his life to Italy, which he had left for England in 1835. [He was advised to make over his property to his family, on whom he was now dependent. They appear to have refused to make him an allowance unless he returned to England. By the exertions of Robert Browning an allowance was secured. Browning settled him first at Siena and then at Florence.] Embittered and distracted by domestic dissensions, if brightened and relieved by the affection and veneration of friends and strangers, this final period of his troubled and splendid career came at last to a quiet end on the I7th of September 1864. In the preceding year he had published a last volume of Heroic Idyls, with Additional Poems, English and Latin, — the better part of them well worthy to be indeed the " last fruit " of a genius which after a life of eighty-eight years had lost nothing 5 162 LANDOUR— LAND REGISTRATION of its majestic and pathetic power, its exquisite and exalted loveliness. A complete list of Lander's writings, published or privately printed, in English, Latin and Italian, including pamphlets, fly-sheets and occasional newspaper correspondence on political or literary questions, it would be difficult to give anywhere and impossible to give here. From nineteen almost to ninety his intellectual and literary activity was indefatigably incessant; but, herein at least like Charles Lamb, whose cordial admiration he so cordially returned, he could not write a note of three lines which did not bear the mark of his " Roman hand " in its matchless and inimitable command of a style at once the most powerful and the purest of his age. The one charge which can ever seriously be brought and maintained against it is that of such occasional obscurity or difficulty as may arise from excessive strictness in condensation of phrase and expurgation of matter not always superfluous, and sometimes almost indispensable. His English prose and his Latin verse are perhaps more frequently and more gravely liable to this charge than either his English verse or his Latin prose. At times it is well-nigh impossible for an eye less keen and swift, a scholarship less exquisite and ready than his own, to catch the precise direction and follow the perfect course of his napid thought and radiant ut terance. This apparently studious pursuit and preference of the most terse and elliptic expression which could be found for anything he might have to say could not but occasionally make even so sovereign a master of two great languages appear " dark with excess of light "; but from no former master of either tongue in prose or verse was ever the quality of real obscurity, of loose and nebulous incertitude, more utterly alien or more naturally remote. There is nothing of cloud or fog about the path on which he leads us; but we feel now and then the want of a bridge or a handrail; we have to leap from point to point of narrative or argument without the usual help of a connecting plank. Even in his dramatic works, where least of all it should have been found, this lack of visible connexion or sequence in details of thought or action is too often a source of sensible perplexity. In his noble trilogy on the history of Giovanna queen of Naples it is sometimes actually difficult to realize on a first reading what has happened or is happening, or how, or why, or by what agency — a defect alone sufficient, but unhappily sufficient in itself, to explain the too general ignorance of a work so rich in subtle and noble treatment of character, so sure and strong in its grasp and rendering of " high actions and high passions," so rich in humour and in pathos, so royally serene in its command- ing power upon the tragic mainsprings of terror and of pity. As a poet, he may be said on the whole to stand midway between Byron and Shelley — about as far above the former as below the latter. If we except Catullus and Simonides, it might be hard to match and it would be impossible to overmatch the flawless and blameless yet living and breathing beauty of his most perfect elegies, epigrams or epitaphs. As truly as prettily was he likened by Leigh Hunt " to a stormy mountain pine which should produce lilies." His passionate compassion, his bitter and burning pity for all wrongs endured in all the world, found only their natural and inevitable outlet in his lifelong defence or advocacy of tyrannicide as the last resource of baffled justice, the last discharge of heroic duty. His tender and ardent love of children, of animals and of flowers makes fragrant alike the pages of his writing and the records of his life. He was as surely the most gentle and generous as the most headstrong and hot-headed of heroes or of men. Nor ever was any man's best work more thoroughly imbued and informed with evidence of his noblest qualities. His loyalty and liberality of heart were as inexhaustible as his bounty and beneficence of hand. Praise and encouragement, deserved or undeserved, came yet more readily to his lips than challenge or defiance. Reviled and ridiculed by Lord Byron, he retorted on the offender living less readily and less warmly than he lamented and extolled him dead. On the noble dramatic works of his brother Robert he lavished a magnificence of sympathetic praise which his utmost self- estimate would never have exacted for his own. Age and the lapse of time could neither heighten nor lessen the fulness of this rich and ready generosity. To the poets of his own and of the next generation he was not readier to do honour than to those of a later growth, and not seldom of deserts far lower and far lesser claims than theirs. That he was not unconscious of his own, and avowed it with the frank simplicity of nobler times, is not more evident or more certain than that in com- parison with his friends and fellows he was liable rather to undervalue than to overrate himself. He was a classic, and no formalist; the wide range of his just and loyal admiration had room for a genius so far from classical as Blake's. Nor in his own highest mood or method of creative as of critical work was he a classic only, in any narrow or exclusive sense of the term. On either side, immediately or hardly below his mighty master- piece of Pericles and Aspasia, stand the two scarcely less beautiful and vivid studies of medieval Italy and Shakespearean England. The very finest flower of his immortal dialogues is probably to be found in the single volume comprising only " Imaginary Conversations of Greeks and Romans"; his utmost command of passion and pathos may be tested by its transcendent success in the distilled and concentrated tragedy of Tiberius and Vipsania, where for once he shows a quality more proper to romantic than classical imagination — the subtle and sublime and terrible power to enter the dark vestibule of distraction, to throw the whole force of his fancy, the whole fire of his spirit, into the " shadowing passion " (as Shakespeare calls it) of gradually imminent insanity. Yet, if this and all other studies from ancient history or legend could be subtracted from the volume of his work, enough would be left whereon to rest the foundation of a fame which time could not sensibly impair. (A. C. S.) BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See The Works and Life of Walter Savage Landor (8 vols., 1846), the life being the work of John Forster. Another edition of his works (1891—1893), edited by C. G. Crump, comprises Imaginary Conversations, Poems, Dialogues in Verse and Epigrams and The Longer Prose Works. His Letters and other Unpublished Writings were edited by Mr Stephen Wheeler (1897). There are many volumes of selections from his works, notably one (1882) for the ' Golden Treasury " series, edited by Sidney Colvin, who also con- tributed the monograph on Landor (1881) in the " English Men of Letters " series. A bibliography of his works, many of which are very rare, is included in Sir Leslie Stephen's article on Landor in the Dictionary of National Biography (vol. xxxii., 1892). (M. BR.) LANDOUR, a hill station and sanatorium in India, in Dehra Dun district of the United Provinces, adjoining Mussoorie. Pop. (1901) 1720, rising to 3700 in the hot season. Since 1827 it has been a convalescent station for European troops, with a school for their children. LAND REGISTRATION, a legal process connected with the transfer of landed property, comprising two forms — registration of deeds and registration of title, which may be best described as a species of machinery for assisting a purchaser or mortgagee in his inquiries as to his vendor's or mortgagor's title previously to completing his dealing, and for securing his own position afterwards. The expediency of making inquiry into the vendor's title before completing a purchase of land (and the case of a mortgage is precisely similar) is obvious. In the case of goods possession may ordinarily be relied on as proof of full ownership; in the case of land, the person in ostensible possession is very seldom the owner, being usually only a tenant, paying rent to someone else. Even the person to whom the rent is paid is in many cases — probably, in England, in most cases — not the full owner, but only a life owner, or a trustee, whose powers of disposing of the property are of a strictly limited nature. Again, goods are very seldom the subject of a mortgage, whereas land has from time immemorial been the frequent subject of this class of transaction. Evidently, therefore, some sort of inquiry is necessary to enable a purchaser to obtain certainty that the land for which he pays full price is not subject to an unknown mortgage or charge which, if left undiscovered, might afterwards deprive him of a large part or even the whole of its value. Again, the probability of serious consequences to the purchaser ensuing from a mistake as to title is infinite!}' greater in the case of land than in the case of goods. Before the rightful owner can recover LAND REGISTRATION 163 misappropriated goods, he has to find out where they are. This is usually a matter of considerable difficulty. By the time they have reached the hands of a bond fide purchaser all chance of their recovery by the true owner is practically at an end. But with land the case is far otherwise. A dispossessed rightful owner never has any difficulty in tracing his property, for it is immovable. All he has to do is to bring an action for ejectment against the person in possession. For these reasons, among others, any attempt to deal with land on the simple and unsuspecting principles which obtain in regard to goods would be fraught with grave risks. Apart from very early and primitive social conditions, there appear to be only two ways in which the required certainty as to title to land can be obtained. Either the purchaser must satisfy himself, by an exhaustive scrutiny and review of all the deeds, wills, marriages, heirships and other documents and events by which the property has been conveyed, mortgaged, leased, devised or transmitted during a considerable period of time, that no loophole exists whereby an adverse claim can enter or be made good — this is called the system of private investigation of title — or the government must keep an authoritative list or register of the properties within its jurisdiction, together with the names of the owners and particulars of the encumbrances in each case, and must protect purchasers and others dealing with land, on the faith of this register, from all adverse claims. This second system is called Registration of Title. To these two alternatives may perhaps be added a third, of very recent growth — Insurance of Title. This is largely used in the United States. But it is in reality only a phase of the system of private investigation. The insurance company investigates the title, and charges the purchaser a premium to cover the expense and the risk of error. Registration of deeds is an adjunct of the system of private investigation, and, except in England, is a practically invariable feature of it. It consists in the establish- ment of public offices in which all documents affecting land are to be recorded — partly to preserve them in a readily accessible place, partly to prevent the possibility of any material deed or document being dishonestly concealed by a vendor. Where registration is effected by depositing a full copy of the deed, it also renders the subsequent falsification of the original document dangerous. Registration of deeds does not (except perhaps to a certain extent indirectly) cheapen or simplify the process of investigation — the formalities at the registry add something to the trouble and cost incurred — but it prevents the particular classes of fraud mentioned. The history of land registration follows, as a general rule, a fairly uniform course of development. In very early times, and in small and simple communities, the difficulty afterwards found in establishing title to land does not arise, owing to the primitive habit of attaching ceremony and publicity to all dealings. The parties meet on the land, with witnesses; symbolical acts (such as handing over a piece of earth, or the bough of a tree) are performed; and a set form of words is spoken, expressive of the intention to convey. By this means the ownership of each estate in the community becomes to a certain extent a matter of common knowledge, rendering fraud and mistake difficult. But this method leaves a good deal to be desired in point of security. Witnesses die, and memory is uncertain; and one of the earliest improvements consists in the establishment of a sort of public record kept by the magistrate, lord or other local authority, containing a series of contemporary notes of the effect of the various transactions that take' place. This book becomes the general title-deed of the whole community, and as long as transactions remain simple, and not too numerous, the results appear to be satisfactory. Of this character are the Manorial Court Rolls, which were in the middle ages the great authorities on title, both in England and on the continent. The entries in them in early times were made in a very few words. The date, the names of the parties, the name or short verbal description of the land, the nature of the transaction, are all that appear. In the land registry at Vienna there is a continuous series of registers of this kind going back to 1368, in Prague to 1377, in Munich to 1440. No doubt there are extant (though in a less easily accessible form) manorial records in England of equal or greater antiquity. This may be considered the first stage in the history of Land Registration. It can hardly be said to be in active operation at the present day in any civilized country — in the sense in which that term is usually understood. Where dealings become more numerous and complicated, written instruments are required to express the intentions of the parties, and afterwards to supply evidence of the landowner's title. It appears, too, that as a general rule the public books already described continue to be used, notwithstanding this change; only (as would be expected) the entries in them, once plain and simple, either grow into full copies of the long and intricate deeds, or consist of mere notes stating that such and such deeds have been executed, leaving the persons interested to inquire for the originals, in whose custody soever they may be found. This system, which may be regarded as the second stage in the history of land registration, is called Registration of Deeds. It prevails in France, Belgium, parts of Switzerland, in Italy, Spain, India, in almost all the British colonies (except Australasia and Canada), in most of the states of the American Union, in the South American republics, in Scotland and Ireland, and in the English counties of Yorkshire and Middlesex. Where it exists, there is generally a law to the effect that in case of dispute a registered deed shall prevail over an unregistered one. The practical effect is that a purchaser can, by searching the register, find out exactly what deeds he ought to inquire for, and receives an assurance that if, after completion, he registers his own conveyance, no other deeds — even if they exist — will prevail against him. The expenses and delays, not to mention the occasional actual losses of property through fraud or mistake, attendant on the system of making every purchaser responsible for the due examination of his vendor's title — whether or not assisted by registration of deeds — have induced several governments to establish the more perfect system of Registration of Title, which consists in collecting the transactions affecting each separate estate under a separate head, keeping an accurate account of the parcels of which each such estate is composed, and summarizing authoritatively, as each fresh transaction occurs, the subsisting rights of all parties in relation to the land itself. This system prevails in Germany, Austria, Hungary, parts of Switzerland, the Australasian colonies, nearly the whole of Canada, some of the states of the American Union, to a certain extent in Ireland, and is in course of establishment in England and Wales. The Register consists of three portions: — (i) The description of the land, usually, but not necessarily, accompanied by a reference to a map; (2) the ownership, giving the name and address of the person who can sell and dispose of the land; and (3) the encumbrances, in their order of priority, and the names of the persons for the time being entitled to them. When any fresh transaction takes place the instrument effecting it is produced, and the proper alterations in, or additions to, the register are made: if it be a sale, the name of the vendor is cancelled from the register, and that of the purchaser is entered instead; if it be a mortgage, it is added to the list of encumbrances; if a discharge, the encumbrance discharged is cancelled; if it is a sale of part of the land, the original description is modified or the plan is marked to show the piece conveyed, while a new descrip- tion or plan is made and a new register is opened for the detached parcel. In the English and Australian registries a " land certificate " is also issued to the landowner containing copies of the register and of the plan. This certificate takes the place more or less of the old documents of title. On a sale, the process is as follows: The vendor first of all produces to the purchaser his land certificate, or gives him the number of his title and an authority to inspect the register. In Austria and in some colonial registries this is not necessary, the register being open to public inspection, which in England is not the case. The purchaser, on inspecting this, can easily see for himself whether the land he wishes to buy is comprised in the registered description or plan, whether the vendor's name appears on the register as the owner 164 LAND REGISTRATION of the land, and whether there are any encumbrances or other burdens registered as affecting it. If there are encumbrances, the register states their amount and who are entitled to them. The purchaser then usually1 prepares a conveyance or transfer of the land (generally in a short printed form issued by the registry), and the vendor executes it in exchange for the purchase money. If there are mortgages, he pays them off to the persons named in the register as their owners, and they concur in a discharge. He then presents the executed instruments at the registry, and is entered as owner of the land instead of the vendor, the mortgages, if any, being cancelled. Where " land certificates " are used (as in England and Australia), a new land certificate is issued to the purchaser showing the existing state of the register and containing a copy of the registered plan of the land. The above is only a brief outline of the processes employed. For further information as to practical details reference may be made to the treatises mentioned at the end of this article. England and Wales.— The first attempt to introduce general regis- tration of conveyances appears to have been made by the Statute of Enrolments, passed in the 27th year of Henry VIII. But this was soon found to be capable of evasion, and it became a dead letter. A Registration Act applying to the counties of Lancaster, Chester and Durham was passed in Queen Elizabeth's reign, but failed for want of providing the necessary machinery for its observance. The subject reappeared in several bills during the Commonwealth, but these failed to pass, owing, it would seem, to the objection of landowners to publicity. In 1669 a committee of the House of Lords reported that one cause of the depreciation of landed property was the uncertainty of titles, and proposed registration of deeds as a remedy, but nothing was done. During the next thirty years numerous pamphlets for and against a general registry were published. In 1704 the first Deed Registry Act was passed, applying to the West Riding of Yorkshire. In 1707 the system was extended to the East Riding, and in 1 708 to Middlesex. These Middlesex and Yorkshire registries (modified considerably in practice, but not seriously in principle, by the Yorkshire Registries Acts 1884, 1885, and Land Registry [Middlesex Deeds] Act 1891) remain in 'operation, and are greatly valued by the smaller pro- prietors and mortgagees, owing to the security against fraud which they provide at a trifling cost. The selection of these counties seems capricious: its probable explanation is that in them trade was flourishing, and the fortunes made were frequently invested in land, and a protection against secret encumbrances was most in demand. In 1728 and 1732 Surrey and Derby petitioned, unsuccessfully, for local registries. In 1735 the North Riding Deed Registry Act was passed. In 1739 a General Registry bill passed the Commons, but did not reach the Lords. Next year the Lords passed a similar bill, but it did not reach the Commons. In 1759 a General Registry bill was thrown out by a majority of one. In 1784 Northumberland un- successfully petitioned for a local registry. After this the subject went almost out of sight till the Real Property Commission of 1828. They reported in 1830 in favour of a general register of deeds, but though several bills were introduced, none were passed. In 1846 a committee of the House of Lords reported that the marketable value of real property was seriously diminished by the tedious and ex- pensive process of the transfer of land, and that a registry of title to all real property was essential to the success of any attempt to simplify the system of conveyancing. In 1850 a Royal Commission reported in favour of a general register of deeds, and in 1851 Lord Campbell introduced a bill accordingly, but it was opposed, and was dropped. In 1853 Lord Cranworth introduced a bill, which passed the Lords but not the Commons. Hitherto only registration of deeds had been considered, but in 1854 a new Royal Commission was appointed, which reported in 1857 in favour of a register of title. The scheme they recommended was substantially embodied in a bill introduced in 1859 by Lord Cairns — then Solicitor-General— but a dissolution stopped its pro- gress. In 1862 Lord Westbury had the satisfaction of carrying the first act for registration of title. This act enabled any landowner to register an indefeasible title on production of strict proof. The proof required was to be such as the court of chancery would force an unwilling purchaser to accept. Only a few hundred titles were registered under this act, and in 1868 a Royal Commission was ap- pointed to inquire into the causes of its failure. They reported in 1870, making various suggestions of detail, and especially adverting to the great expense caused by the strictness of the official investiga- tion of title before a property could be admitted to the register. In the same year Lord Hatherley introduced a Transfer of Land Bill, but it was not proceeded with. In 1875 Lord Selborne introduced a Land Titles and Transfer Bill, following more or less the recom- mendations of the report of 1870, proposing for the first time com- pulsory registration of title upon every next sale after a prescribed 1 In Prussia all conveyances are verbal, made in person or by attorney before the registrar, who forthwith notes them in his books. date. Lord Cairns again introduced this bill (with some mpdifica- :ions) in 1874, but it had to be dropped. In 1875 Lord Cairns's Land Transfer Act of that year was passed, which was much the same as the former bill, but without compulsion. This act had no better success in the way of voluntary general adoption than the act of 1862, but as its adoption has since been made compulsory, its pro- visions are important. Its most noticeable feature, from a practical point of view, is the additional prominence given to an expedient :alled " Possessory " registration (which also existed under another name in Lord Westbury s Act), whereby is removed the great initial difficulty of placing titles on the register in the ^rst instance. Two sortsof registration were established, " Absolute "and " Possessory." The effect of an absolute registration was immediately to destroy all claims adverse to the registered title. But this was only to be granted on a regular investigation of title, which, though not so strict as under the former act, yet necessarily involved time and cost. Possessory registration, however, was to be granted to any one who could show a prima facie title — a quick and cheap process. But the effect of such registration would not be immediately felt. It would not destroy existing adverse claims. It would only prevent new diffi- culties from arising. In course of time such a title would be practic- ally as good as an absolute one. In 1885 the duke of Marlborough introduced a bill for a registry of titles, and in the following vacation Lord Davey wrote three letters to The Times advocating the same thing on the general lines afterwards adopted.^ In 1887 Lord Halsbury, by introducing his Land Transfer Bill, commenced a struggle with the opponents of reform, which, after ten years of almost continuous effort, resulted in the passing of his act of 1897, establishing compulsory registration of title. Lord Halsbury intro- duced bills in 1887, 1888 and 1889. Lord Herschell, who succeeded him after the change of government, introduced bills in 1893, 1894 and 1895, these last three being unanimously passed by the House of Lords on every occasion. The bill of 1895 reached committee in the Commons, but was stopped by the dissolution of parliament. In 1897 Lord Halsbury (who had returned to the woolsack) again intro- duced the same bill with certain modifications which caused the Incorporated Law Society to withdraw its opposition in the House of Commons, and the act was finally passed on the last day of the session. Under it the Privy Council has power to issue orders declaring that on a certain date registration of title is to be com- pulsory on sale in a given district. The effect of such an order is to oblige every purchaser of land in the district after that date to register a " possessory title," immediately after his purchase. The compulsory provisions of the act extend to freeholds and (by a rule afterwards made) to leaseholds having forty years to run. No order except the first can be made, save on the request of a county council. The first order was made in July 1898. It embraced the whole administrative county of London (including the City of London), proceeding gradually by groups of parishes. Under this order upwards of 122,000 titles had been registered by 1908, representing a value exceeding one hundred millions sterling. Under the operation of this act, at the expense of a slightly increased cost on all transactions during a few years, persons dealing with land in the county will ultimately experience great relief in the matter both of cost and of delay. The costs of a sale (including professional assistance, if required) will ultimately be for the vendor about one-fifth, and for the purchaser (at the most usual values) less than half, of the present expenses. The delay will be no more than in dealings with stock. Mortgagees will also be protected from risks of fraud, which at present are very appreciable, and of which the Redgrave and Richards cases are recent examples. Further par- ticulars of the practical operation of the acts will be found in the Registrar's Reports of 1902 and 1906, embracing the period from 1899 to 1905 inclusive, with comments on the general position, suggestions for future legislation, &c. In the autumn of 1908 a Royal Commission under the chairmanship of Lord St Aldwyn, was appointed to inquire into the working of the Land Transfer Acts. The evidence given before them in October, November and December 1908 comprised a general exposition by the registrar of the origin and history of the acts, and the principles of their working, and suggestions for amendments in certain details. It also com- prised tne experience of several landowners and others, who had found the acts highly beneficial, and who had carried through a large number of dealings under absolute titles, without professional help, very quickly, and at a greatly reduced cost. Scotland. — In Scotland registration of deeds was established by an act of 1617, which remained unaltered till 1845. There are also acts of 1868 and 1874. The registry is in Edinburgh. Deeds are registered almost invariably by full copy. The deeds are indexed according to properties — each property having a separate number and folio called a " search sheet," on which all deeds affecting it are referred to. About 40,000 deeds are registered annually, consequence of the existence of this register is to render fraud in title absolutely unknown. Forty years is the usual period investigated. The investigation can, if desired, be made from the records in the 1 This summary is an abridgement (with permission) of pp. 7 to 26 of Mr R. Burnet Morris's book referred to at the end of this article. LAND REGISTRATION 165 registry alone. The fees are trifling, but suffice to pay the expenses of the office, which employs between 70 and 80 permanent officers in addition to temporary assistants. The total costs of conveyancing amount, roughly speaking, to between I and 2 % on the purchase money, and are equally shared between vendor and purchaser. In 1906 a royal commission was appointed, with Lord Dunedin as chairman, to inquire into the expediency of instituting in Scotland a system of registration of title. Australia and New Zealand. — These states now furnish the most conspicuous examples in the British empire of the success of registra- tion of title. But prior to the year 1857 they had only registration of deeds, and the expense, delay and confusion resulting from the frequent dealings appear to have been a crying evil. Sir Robert Torrens, then registrar of deeds in South Australia, drew up and carried an act establishing a register of title similar to the shipping register. The act rapidly became popular, and was adopted (with variations) in all the other Australasian states in the years 1861, 1862, 1870 and 1874. Consolidating and amending acts have since been passed in most of these states. Only absolute title is registered. All land granted by government, after the passing of the several acts, is placed on the register compulsorily. But voluntary applications are also made in very large numbers. It is said ordinary purchasers will not buy land unless the vendor first registers the title. The fees are very low — £l to £3 is a usual maximum — though in some states, e.g. Victoria, the fees rise indefinitely, ad valorem, at a rate of about IDS. per £1000. Insurance funds are established to provide com- pensation for errors. At a recent date they amounted to over £400,000, while only £14,600 odd had been paid in claims. All the registries pay their own expenses. Bankers and men of business generally are warm in their appreciation of the acts, which are popularly called Torrens Acts, after their originator, who, though not a lawyer, originated and carried through this important and difficult legal work. Canada. — Registration of title was introduced in Vancouver Island in 1861, was extended to the rest of British Columbia in 1870, and was in 1885 adopted by Ontario, Manitoba and the North- West Territories. Only Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island retain the old English system, plus registration of deeds. The three provinces which have adopted registration of title have adopted it in somewhat different forms. In British Columbia it is similar to Lord Westbury's Act of 1862. The North-West Territories follow closely the Torrens Acts. The Ontario Act is almost a transcript of Lord Cairns's Act of 1875. The fees are very low, seldom exceeding a few shillings, but all expenses of the office are paid from this source. The Ontario registry has five district offices, as well as the central one at Toronto. This is apparently the only colonial registry not open to public inspection. Other British Colonies. — In the other British colonies private investigation of title, plus registration of deeds, is the prevailing system, but registration of title has been introduced in one or two instances. Germany and Austria-Hungary. — By far the most important examples of registration of title at present existing — because they show how the system works when applied to large European com- munities, with all the intricacies and complications of modern civilized life— are to be found in Germany and Austria-Hungary. In some parts of these countries registration of title has been established for several centuries — notably in Bohemia ; in most parts it has existed for the greater part of the igth century; in some districts, again, notably Tirol and the Rhine Provinces, it is still in course of intro- duction. In all cases it appears to have been preceded by a system of deed registration, which materially facilitated its introduction. In some cases, Prussia, for instance, the former registers were kept in such a way as to amount in themselves to little short of a registry of title. Very low scales of fees suffice to pay all official expenses. In Prussia the fees for registering sales begin at 5d. for a value of £l ; at £20 the fee is 2s 7d.; at £100 it is 75. 3d.; at £1000 it is £i, ios.; at £5000, £4, 53., and so on. In case of error, the officials are personally liable; failing these, the state.' Other states are very similar. In 1894, 1,159,995 transactions were registered in Prussia. In 1893, 938,708 were registered in Austria. Some idea of the extent to which small holdings prevail in these countries may be gathered from the fact that 36 % of the sales and mortgages in Austria were for under £8, 6s. 8d. value — 74% were for under £50. Owing to the ease and simplicity of the registers, it is not always necessary to employ professional help. When such help is required, the fees are low. In Vienna £i is a very usual fee for the purchaser's lawyer. £10 is seldom reached. In Germany the register is private. In Austria it is open to public inspection. In these registers may be found examples of large estates in the country with numerous charges and encumbrances and dealings therewith; peasants' properties, in numerous scattered parcels, acquired and disposed of at different times, and variously mortgaged; town and suburban properties, fiats, small farms, rights to light and air, rights of way, family settlements, and dealings of all sorts — inheritances and wills, partitions, bankruptcies, mortgages, and a great variety of dealings therewith. The Continental systems are usually administered locally in districts, about_2O to 30 m. across, attached to the local law courts. In Baden and Wiirttemberg every parish (commune) has its own registry. All ordinary dealings are transacted with me greatest expedition. Security is absolute.1 The United States. — Up to a late date the ordinary English system, with registration of deeds, was universal in the United States. The registries appear to go back practically to the original settlement of the country. Registration is by full copy. It is said that in the large towns the name indexes were often much overgrown owing to the want of subdivision into smaller areas corresponding to the parishes into which the Middlesex and Yorkshire indexes are divided. In the New York registry not many years ago 25,000 deeds were registered annually. At the same time 35,000 were registered in Middlesex. Complaints are made by American lawyers of want of accuracy in the indexes also. In 1890 an act was passed in New York for splitting the indexes into " blocks," which is believed to have given much relief. The average time and cost of an examina- tion of title, as estimated by a committee of the Bar Association of New York in 1887, was about thirty days and 150 dollars (about £30). A later State Commission in Illinois estimates the law costs of a sale there at about 25 dollars (£5) ; the time may run into many months. Allusion has already been made to the insurance of title companies. The rates of insurance are substantial, e.g. 65 dollars (£13) on the first 3000 dollars (£600), and 5 dollars (£i) on each additional 1000 dollars (£200). This would amount to £20 on £2000 value, £110 on £20,000, £510 on £100,000. The guarantee given is very ample, and may be renewed to subsequent owners at one-third of the fee. Registration of title has lately been introduced, on a voluntary basis, into the states of California, Oregon, Illinois, Massachusetts, Minnesota and Colorado, and also into Hawaii and the Philippines. France. — In France registration of deeds is universal. Sales, mortgages, gifts and successions; easements, leases of over eighteen years, and transactions affecting the land to the extent of three years' rent may lose priority if not registered. Wills need not be registered. Mortgages must be re-registered every ten years. Purchase deeds are registered by filing full copies. Registries are established in all the considerable towns. The duty on sales amounts to the high figure of about 6|% on the value. Part of this is allocated to registration, in addition to which a fixed fee of one franc, and stationers' charges averaging 6 francs are also chargeable. The title can usually be fully investigated from the documents in the registry. Official searches for mortgages are commonly resorted to, at a cost of about 5 francs. Under the monarchy the land system was prac- tically copyhold tenure, but greater validity was attached to the Court Rolls than was the case in England. The present system was established by a law of 1790 after the abolition of seigniorial institu- tions in 1789. This was modified by the Code Napoleon, and further perfected by a law of 1855. The average value of transactions in France is very small. Probably at the present time four-fifths of the properties are of under £25 value. The costs of a sale for 200 francs (£8) would be about as follows: Duty, 13 fr. ; Notary (l %), 2 fr.; expenses, 12 fr. — -total 27 fr. A sale for 1000 fr. (£40) would cost about no fr. Taking all values, the cost of conveyance and duty reaches the high figure of 10% in the general run of transactions. The vendor as a rule has no costs. Indefeasible title is not obtainable, but frauds are almost unknown. A day or two usually suffices for all formalities. On large sales a further process known as the " purge " is undergone, which requires a few weeks and more expense, in order to guard against possible claims against which the deed registries afford no protection, such as dowries of wives, claims under guardian- ships, &c. A commission (Commission Extraparlementaire du Cadastre), appointed in 1891 to consider the revision of the govern- ment cadastral maps (which are in very serious arrear) and the establishment of registration of title, collected, in nine volumes of Comptes Rendus, a great mass of most interesting particulars relat- ing to land questions in France, and in 1905 reported in favour of the general establishment of a register of title, with a draft of the necessary enactment. AUTHORITIES. — A very complete list of some 114 English publica- tions from 1653 to 1895 will be found in R. Burnet Morris, Land Registration (1895); Parliamentary Publications: Second Report of the Real Property Commissioners (1831); Report of the Registration and Conveyancing Commission (1850); Report of the Registration of Title Commission (1857); Report of the Land Transfer Commission (1870); Reports on Registration of Title in Australasian Colonies (1871 and 1881); Report on Registration of Title in Germany and Austria-Hungary (1896) ; The Registrar's Reports of 1902 and 1906 on the Formation of a Register in London ; Royal Commission on the Land Transfer Acts, Minutes of Evidence (1909). General reviews of land registration in the British Isles, the Colonies, and in foreign countries: R. Burnet Morris, as above, and C. F. Brickdale, Land Transfer in Various Countries (1894). Books on practice: England — Brick- dale and Sheldon, The Land Transfer Acts (2nd ed., 1905) ; Cherry and Marigold, The Land Tranfer Acts (1898); Hay, Land Registra- tion under the Land Transfer Acts (1904); Land Transfer, &c. (1901); C. F. Brickdale, Registration in Middlesex (1892). Australia— The Australian Torrens System; Hogg, The Transfer of Land Act 1890 1 Full information as to the German and Austrian systems is to be found in a Parliamentary Report of 1896 (C.— 8139) on the subject. i66 LANDSBERG AM LECH— LANDSEER (Melbourne). Prussia-^Oberneck, Die Preussischen Grundbuch- geselze (Berlin). Austria — Das allgemeine Grundbuchsgesetz, &c. (Vienna) ; Bartsch, Das Oesterreichische allgemeine Grundbuchsgesetz in seiner practischen Anwendung (Vienna). Saxony — Siegmann, Sdchsische Hypothekenrecht (Leipzig). Statistics — Oesterreichische Statistik (Grundbuchs-dmter) (Vienna, annually). (C. F.-BR.) LANDSBERG AM LECH, a town in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the river Lech, 38 m. by rail W. by S. of Munich. Pop. (1905) 6505. It has eight Roman Catholic churches, among them the Liebfrauen Kirche dating from 1498, several monasteries, and a fine medieval town-hall, with frescoes by Karl von Piloty and a painting by Hubert von Herkomer. Here also are a fine gateway, the Bayer-Tor, an agricultural and other schools. Brewing, tanning and the manufacture of agricultural machinery are among the principal industries. See Schober, Landsberg am Lech und Umgebung (1902); and Zwerger, Geschichte Landsbergs (1889). LANDSBERG-AN-DER-WARTHE, a town in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, at the confluence of the Warthe and the Kladow, 80 m. N.E. of Berlin by rail. Pop. (1905) 36,934. It has important engine and boiler works and iron-foundries; there are also manufactures of tobacco, cloth, carriages, wools, spirits, jute products and leather. An active trade is carried on in wood, cattle and the produce of the surrounding country. Landsberg obtained civic privileges in 1257, and later was besieged by the Poles and then by the Hussites. See R. Eckert, Geschichte von Landsberg-Warthe (1890). LANDSBERG BEI HALLE, a town in Prussia on the Streng- bach, on the railway from Berlin to Weissenfels. Pop. (1905) 1770. Its industries include quarrying and malting, and the manufacture of sugar and machinery. Landsberg was the capital of a small margraviate of this name, ruled in the I2th century by a certain Dietrich, who built the town. Later it belonged to Meissen and to Saxony, passing to Prussia in 1814. LANDSEER, SIR EDWIN HENRY (1802-1873), English painter, third son of John Landseer, A.R.A., a well-known engraver and writer on art, was born at 71 Queen Anne Street East (afterwards 33 Foley Street), London, on March 7th 1802. His mother was Miss Potts, who sat to Sir Joshua Reynolds as the reaper with a sheaf of corn on her head, in " Macklin's Family Picture," or " The Gleaners."1 Edwin Henry Landseer began his artistic education under his father so successfully that in his fifth year he drew fairly well, and was familiar with animal character and passion. Drawings of his, at South Kensington, dated by his father, attest that he drew excellently at eight years of age; at ten he was an admirable draughtsman and his work shows considerable sense of humour. At thirteen he drew a majestic St Bernard dog so finely that his brother Thomas engraved and published the work. At this date (1815) he sent two pictures to the Royal Academy, and was described in the catalogue as "Master E. Landseer, 33 Foley Street." Youth forbade his being reckoned among practising artists, and caused him to be considered as the " Honorary Exhibitor " of " No. 443, Portrait of a Mule," and " No. 584, Portraits of a Pointer Bitch and Puppy." Adopting the advice of B. R. Haydon, he studied the Elgin Marbles, the animals in the Tower of London and Exeter 'Change, and dissected every animal whose carcass he could obtain. In 1816 Landseer was admitted a student of the Royal Academy schools. In 1817 he sent to the Academy a portrait of "Old Brutus," a . much-favoured dog, which, as well as its son, another Brutus, often appeared in his later pictures. Even at this date Landseer enjoyed considerable reputation, and had more work than he could readily perform, his renown having been zealously fostered by his father in James Elmes's Annals of the Fine Arts. At the Academy he was a diligent student and a favourite of Henry Fuseli's, who would 'John Landseer died February 29, 1852, aged ninety-one (or eighty-three, according to Cosmo Monkhouse). Sir Edwin's eldest brother Thomas, an A.R.A. and a famous engraver, whose interpre- tations of his junior's pictures have made them known throughout the world, was born in 1795, and died January 20, 1880. Charles Landseer, R.A., and Keeper of the Royal Academy, the second brother, was born in 1799, and died July 22, 1879. John Landseer's brother Henry was a painter of some reputation, who emigrated to Australia. look about the crowded antique school and ask, " Where is my curly-headed dog-boy ? " Although his pictures sold easily from the first, the prices he received at this time were compara- tively small. In 1818 Landseer sent to the Society of Painters in Oil and Water Colours, which then held its exhibitions in Spring Gardens, his picture of " Fighting Dogs getting Wind." The sale of this work to Sir George Beaumont vastly enhanced the fame of the painter, who soon became " the fashion." This picture illustrates the prime strength of Landseer's earlier style. Unlike the productions of his later life, it displays not an iota of sentiment. Perfectly drawn, solidly and minutely finished, and carefully composed, its execution attested the skill acquired during ten years' studies from nature. Between 1818 and 1825 Landseer did a great deal of work, but on the whole gained little besides facility of technical expression, a greater zest for humour and a larger style. The work of this stage ended with the production of the painting called " The Cat's Paw," which was sent to the British Institution in 1824, and made an enormous sensation. The price obtained for this picture, £100, enabled Landseer to set up for himself in the house No. i St John's Wood Road, where he lived nearly fifty years and in which he died. During this period Landseer's principal pictures were " The Cat Disturbed"; "Alpine Mastiffs reanimating a Distressed Traveller," a famous work engraved by his father; " The Ratcatchers " ; " Pointers to be " ; " The Larder Invaded " ; and " Neptune," the head and shoulders of a Newfoundland dog. In 1824 Landseer and C. R. Leslie made a journey to the High- lands— a momentous visit for the former, who thenceforward rarely failed annually to repeat it in search of studies and subjects. In 1826 Landseer was elected an A.R.A. In 1827 appeared " The Monkey who has seen the World," a picture which marked the growth of a taste for humorous subjects in the mind of the painter that had been evoked by the success of the " Cat's Paw." " Taking a Buck " (1825) was the painter's first Scottish picture. Its execution marked a change in his style which, in increase of largeness, was a great improvement. In other respects, however, there was a decrease of solid qualities; indeed, finish, searching modelling, and elaborate draughtsmanship rarely appeared in Landseer's work after 1823. The subject, as such, soon after this time became a very distinct element in his pictures; ultimately it dominated, and in effect the artist enjoyed a greater degree of popularity than technical judgment justified, so that later criticism has put Landseer's position in art much lower than the place he once occupied. Sentiment gave new charm to his works, which had previously depended on the expression of animal passion and character, and the exhibition of noble qualities of draughtsmanship. Sentimentality ruled in not a few pictures of later dates, and conform to Tdo and to Tdo at last they return." Some of these representations require modification; but no thoughtful reader of the treatise can fail to be often puzzled by what is said on the point in hand. Julien, indeed, says with truth (p. xiii.) that " it is impossible to take Tdo for the primordial Reason, for the sublime In- Deity. telligence, which has created and governs the world "; but many of Lao-tsze's statements are unthinkable if there be not behind the Tdo the unexpressed recognition of a personal creator and ruler. Granted that he does not affirm positively the existence of such a Being, yet certainly he does not deny it, and his language even implies it. It has been said, indeed, that he denies it, and we are referred in proof to the fourth chapter: — " Tdo is like the emptiness of a vessel; and the use of it, we may say, must be free from all self-sufficiency. How deep and mysterious it is, as if it were the author of all things! We should make our sharpness blunt, and unravel the com- plications of tilings; we should attemper our brightness, and assimilate ourselves to the obscurity caused by dust. How still and clear is Tdo, a phantasm with the semblance of permanence! I do not know whose son it is. It might appear to have been before God (Ti)." The reader will not overlook the cautious and dubious manner in which the predicates of Tdo are stated in this remarkable passage. The author does not say that it was before God, but that " it might appear " to have been so. Nowhere else in his treatise does the nature of Tdo as a method or style of action come out more clearly. It has no positive existence of itself; it is but like the emptiness of a vessel, and the manifesta- tion of it by men requires that they endeavour to free themselves from all self-sufficiency. Whence came it? It does not shock L&o-tsze to suppose that it had a father, but he cannot tell whose son it is. And, as the feeling of its mysteriousness grows on him, he ventures to say that " it might appear to have been before God." There is here no denial but express recognition of the existence of God, so far as it is implied in the name Ti, which is the personal name for the concept of heaven as the ruling power, by means of which the fathers of the Chinese people rose in prehistoric time to the idea of God. Again and again L£o-tsze speaks of heaven just as " we do when we mean thereby the Deity who presides over heaven and earth." These last words are taken from Walters (p. 81) ; and, though he adds, " We must not forget that this heaven is inferior and subsequent to the mysterious Tdo, and was in fact produced by it," it has been shown how rash and unwarranted is the ascription of such a sentiment to " the Venerable Philosopher." He makes the Tdo prior to heaven and earth, which is a phrase denoting what we often call " nature," but he does not make it prior to heaven in the higher and im- material usage of that name. The last sentence of his treatise is: — " It is the Tdo— the way — of Heaven to benefit and not injure; it is the Tdo — the way — of the sage to do and not strive." Since Julien laid the Tdo Teh King fairly open to Western readers in 1842, there has been a tendency to overestimate rather than to underestimate its value as a scheme of thought and a discipline for the individual and society. There are in it lessons of unsurpassed value, such as the inculcation of simplicity, humility and self- abnegation, and especially the brief enunciation of the divine duty of returning good for ill; but there are also the regretful repre- sentations of a primitive society when men were ignorant of the rudi- ments of culture, and the longings for its return. When it was thought that the treatise made known the doctrine of the Trinity, and even gave a phonetic representation of the Hebrew name for God, it was natural, even necessary, to believe that its author had had communication with more western parts of Asia, and there was much speculation about visits to India and Judaea, and even to Greece. The necessity for assuming such travels has passed away. If we can receive Sze-m& Ch'ien's histories as trustworthy, LSo-tsze might have heard, in the states of Chow and among the wild tribes adjacent to them, views about society and government very like his own. Ch'ien relates how an envoy came in 624 B.C. — twenty years before the date assigned to the birth of LSo-tsze — to the court of Duke Mfl of Ch'in, sent by the king_ of some rude hordes on the west. The duke told him of the histories, LA PAZ poems, codes of rites, music and laws which they had in the middle states, while yet rebellion and disorder were of frequent occurrence, and asked how good order was secured among the wild people, who had none of those appliances. The envoy smiled, and replied that the troubles of China were occasioned by those very things of which the duke vaunted, and that there had been a gradual degenera- tion in the condition of its states, as their professed civilization had increased, ever since the days of the ancient sage, Hwang Ti, whereas in the land he came from,'where there was nothing but the primitive simplicity, their princes showed a pure virtue in their treatment of the people, who responded to them with loyalty and good faith. " The government of a state," said he in conclusion, " is like a man's ruling his own single person. He rules it, and does not know how he does so; and this was indeed the method of the sages." Lao-tsze did not need to go further afield to find all that he has said about government. We have confined ourselves to the Taoism of the Tdo Teh King without touching on the religion Taoism now existing in China, but The which did not take shape until more than five hundred Taoism years after the death of Lao-tsze, though he now occupies of to-day. tne second place in its trinity of "The three Pure or Holy Ones." There is hardly a word in his treatise that savours either of superstition or religion. In the works of Lieh-tsze and Chwang-tsze, his earliest followers of note, we find abundance of grotesque superstitions; but their beliefs (if indeed we can say that they had beliefs) had not become embodied in any religious institu- tions. When we come to the Ch'in dynasty (221-206 B.C.), we meet with a Taoism in the shape of a search for the fairy islands of the eastern sea, where the herb of immortality might be gathered. In the 1st century A.D. a magician, called Chang Tao-ling, comes before us as the chief professor and controller of this Taoism, preparing in retirement " the pill " which renewed his youth, supreme over all spirits, and destroying millions of demons by a stroke of his pencil. He left his books, talismans and charms, with his sword and seal, to his descendants, and one of them, professing to be animated by his soul, dwells on the Lung-hu mountain in Kiang-si, the acknowledged head or pope of Taoism. But even then the system was not yet a religion, with temples or monasteries, liturgies and forms of public worship. It borrowed all these from Buddhism, which first obtained public recognition in China between A.D. 65 and 70, though at least a couple of centuries passed before it could be said to have free course in the country. Even still, with the form of a religion, Taoism is in reality a conglomeration of base and dangerous superstitions. Alchemy, geomancy and spiritualism have dwelt and dwell under its shadow. Each of its " three Holy Ones " has the title of Thien Tsun, " the Heavenly and Honoured," taken from Buddhism, and also of Shang Ti or God, taken from the old religion of the country. The most popular deity, however, is not one of them, but has the title of Yii Wang Shang Ti, " God, the Perfect King." But it would take long to tell of all its "celestial gods," "great gods," " divine rulers "and others. It has been doubted whether Lao-tsze acknowledged the existence of God at all, but modern T&oism is a system of the wildest polytheism. The science and religion of thesWest meet from it a most determined opposition. The " Venerable Philosopher " himself would not have welcomed them; but he ought not to bear the obloquy of being the founder of the Taoist religion. (J. LE.) LA PAZ, a western department of Bolivia, bounded N. by the national territories of Caupolican and El Beni, E. by El Beni and Cochabamba, S. by Cochabamba and Oruro and W. by Chile and Peru. Pop. (1900) 445,616, the majority of whom are Indians. Area 53,777 sq. m. The department belongs to the great Bolivian plateau, and its greater part to the cold, bleak, puna climatic region. The Cordillera Real crosses it N.W. to S.E. and culminates in the snow-crowned summits of Sorata and Illimani. The west of the department includes a part of the Titicaca basin with about half of the lake. This elevated plateau region is partially barren and inhospitable, its short, cold summers permitting the production of little besides potatoes, quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) and barley, with a little Indian corn and wheat in favoured localities. Some atten- tion is given to the rearing of llamas, , and a few cattle, sheep and mules are to be seen south of Lake Titicaca. There is a considerable Indian population in this region, living chiefly in small hamlets on the products of their own industry. In the lower valleys of the eastern slopes, where climatic conditions range from temperate to tropical, wheat, Indian corn, oats and the fruits and vegetables of the temperate zone are cultivated. Farther down, coffee, cacao, coca, rice, sugar cane, tobacco, oranges, bananas and other tropical fruits are grown, and the forests yield cinchona bark and rubber. The mineral wealth of La Paz includes gold, silver, tin, copper and bismuth. Tin and copper are the most important of these, the principal tin mines being in the vicinity of the capital and known under the names of Huayna-Potosi, Milluni and Chocoltaga. The chief copper mines are the famous Corocoro group, about 75 m. S.S.E. of Lake Titicaca by the Desaguadero river, the principal means of transport. The output of the Corocoro mines, which also includes gold and silver, finds its way to market by boat and rail to Mollendo, and by pack animals to Tacna and rail to Arica. There are no roads in La Paz worthy of the name except the 5 m. between the capital and the " Alto," though stage- coach communication with Oruro and Chililaya has been main- tained by the national government. The railway opened in 1905 between Guaqui and La Paz (54 m.) superseded the latter of these stage lines, and a railway is planned from Viacha to Oruro to supersede the other. The capital of the department is the national capital La Paz. Corocoro, near the Desaguadero river, about 75 m. S.S.E. of Lake Titicaca and 13,353 ft. above sea-level, has an estimated population (1906) of 15,000, chiefly Aymara Indians. LA PAZ (officially LA PAZ DE AYACUCHO), the capital of Bolivia since 1898, the see of a bishopric created in 1605 and capital of the department of La Paz, on the Rio de la Paz or Rio Chuquiapo, 42 m. S.E. of Lake Titicaca (port of Chililaya) in 16° 30' S., 68° W. Pop. (1900) 54,713, (1906, estimate) 67,235. The city is built in a deeply-eroded valley of the Cordillera Real which is believed to have formed an outlet of Lake Titicaca, and at this point descends sharply to the S.E., the river making a great bend southward and then flowing northward to the Beni. The valley is about lorn, long and 3 m. wide, and is singularly barren and forbidding. Its precipitous sides, deeply gullied by torrential rains and diversely coloured by mineral ores, rise 1500 ft. above the city to the margin of the great plateau surrounding Lake Titicaca, and above these are the snow-capped summits of Illimani and other giants of the Bolivian Cordillera. Below, the valley is fertile and covered with vegetation, first of the temperate and then of the tropical zone. The elevation of La Paz is 12,120 ft. above sea-level, which places it within the puna climatic region, in which the summers are short and cold. The mean annual temperature is a little above the puna average, which is 54° F., the extremes ranging from 19° to 75°. Pneumonia and bronchial complaints are common, but consumption is said to be rare. The surface of the valley is very uneven, rising sharply from the river on both sides, and the transverse streets of the city are steep and irregular. At its south-eastern extremity is the Alameda, a handsome public promenade with parallel rows of exotic trees, shrubs and flowers, which are maintained with no small effort in so inhospitable a climate. The trees which seem to thrive best are the willow and eucalyptus. The streets are generally narrow and roughly paved, and there are numerous bridges across the river and its many small tributaries. The dwellings of the poorer classes are commonly built with mud walls and covered with tiles, but stone and brick are used for the better structures. The cathedral, which was begun in the i7th century when the mines of Potosi were at the height of their productiveness, was never finished because of the revolutions and the comparative poverty of the city under the republic. It faces the Plaza Mayor and is distinguished for the finely-carved stonework of its facade. Facing the same plaza are the government offices and legislative chambers. Other notable edifices and institutions are the old university of San Andres, the San Francisco church, a national college, a seminary, a good public library and a museum rich in relics of the Inca and colonial periods. La Paz is an important commercial centre, being connected with the Pacific coast by the Peruvian railway from Mollendo to Puno (via Arequipa), and a Bolivian extension from Gvaqui to the Alto de La Paz (Heights of La Paz)— the two lines being connected by a steamship service across Lake Titicaca. An electric railway 5 m. long connects the Alto de La Paz with the city, 1493 ft. below. This route is 496 m. long, and is expensive because of trans-shipments and the cost of handling cargo at Mollendo. The vicinity of La Paz abounds with mineral wealth; most important are the tin deposits of Huayna-Potosi, Milluni LA PEROUSE— LAPIDARY, AND GEM CUTTING and Chocoltaga. The La Paz valley is auriferous, and since the foundation of the city gold has been taken from the soil washed down from the mountain sides. La Paz was founded in 1548 by Alonzo de Mendoza on the site of an Indian village called Chuquiapu. It was called the Pueblo Nuevo de Nuestra Senora de la Paz in commemoration of the recon- ciliation between Pizarro and Almagro, and soon became an im- portant colony. At the close of the war of independence (1825) it was rechristened La Paz de Ayacucho, in honour of the last decisive battle of that protracted struggle. It was made one of the four capitals of the republic, but the revolution of 1898 permanently established the seat of government here because of its accessibility, wealth, trade and political influence. LA PEROUSE, JEAN-FRANCOIS DE GALAUP, COMTE DE (i74i-c. 1788), French navigator, was born near Albi, on the 22nd of August 1741. His family name was Galaup, and La Perouse or La Peyrouse was an addition adopted by himself from a small family estate near Albi. As a lad of eighteen he was wounded and made prisoner on board the " Formidable " when it was captured by Admiral Hawke in 1759; and during the war with England between 1778 and 1783 he served with dis- tinction in various parts of the world, more particularly on the eastern coasts of Canada and in Hudson's Bay, where he captured Forts Prince of Wales and York (August 8th and 2ist, 1782). In 1785 (August ist) he sailed from Brest in command of the French government expedition of two vessels (" La Boussole " under La Perouse himself, and " L'Astrolabe," under de Langle) for the discovery of the North- West Passage, vainly essayed by Cook on his last voyage, from the Pacific side. He was also charged with the further exploration of the north-west coasts of America, and the north-east coasts of Asia, of the China and Japan seas, the Solomon Islands and Australia; and he was ordered to collect information as to the whale fishery in the southern oceans and as to the fur trade in North America. He reached Mount St Elias, on the coast of Alaska, on the 23rd of June 1786. After six weeks, marked by various small discoveries, he was driven from these regions by bad weather; and after visiting the Hawaiian Islands, and discovering Necker Island (November 5th, 1786), he crossed over to Asia (Macao, January 3rd, 1787). Thence he passed to the Philippines, and so to the coasts of Japan, Korea and " Chinese Tartary," where his best results were gained. Touching at Quelpart, he reached De Castries Bay, near the modern Vladivostok, on the 28th of July 1787; and on the 2nd of August following discovered the strait, still named after him, between Sakhalin and the Northern Island of Japan. On the 7th of September he put in at Petro- pavlovsk in Kamchatka, where he was well received by special order of the Russian empress, Catherine II. ; thence he sent home Lesseps, overland, with the journals, notes, plans and maps recording the work of the expedition. He left Avacha Bay on the 2oth of September, and arrived at Mauna in the Samoan group on the 8th of December; here de Langle and ten of the crew of the " Astrolabe " were murdered. He quitted Samoa on the 1 4th of December, touched at the Friendly Islands and Norfolk Island and arrived in Botany Bay on the 26th of January 1788. From this place, where he interchanged courtesies with some of the English pioneers in Australia, he wrote his last letter to the French Ministry of Marine (February 7th). After this no more was heard of him and his squadron till in 1826 Captain Peter Dillon found the wreckage of what must have been the "Boussole" and the "Astrolabe" on the reefs of Vanikoro, an island to the north of the New Hebrides. In 1828 Dumont d'Urville visited the scene of the disaster and erected a monu- ment (March i4th). See Milet Mureau, Voyage de la Perouse autour du monde (Paris, '797) 4 vols. ; G6rard, Vies . . . des . . . marins franfais (Paris, 1825), 197-200; Peter Dillon, Narrative . . . of a Voyage in the South Seas for the Discovery of the Fate of La Perouse (London, 1829), 2 vols.; Dumont d'Urville, Voyage pittoresque autour du monde; Quoy and Paul Gaimard, Voyage de . . . I Astrolabe; Domeny de Rienzi, Oceanic; Van Tenac, Histoire general de la marine, iv. 258- 264 ; Moniteur universel, I3th of February 1847. LAPIDARY, and GEM CUTTING (Lat. lapidarius, lapis, a stone). The earliest examples of gem cutting and carving known (see also GEM) are the ancient engraved seals, which are of two principal types, the cylindrical or " rolling " seals of Babylonia and Assyria, suggested by a joint of the bamboo or the central whorl of a conch-like shell, and the peculiar scara- baeoid seals of Egypt. Recent researches make it appear that both these types were in use as far back as 4500 B.C., though with some variations. The jewels of Queen Zer, and other jewels consisting of cut turquoise, lapis lazuli and amethyst, found by the French mission, date from 4777 B.C. to 4515 B.C. Until about 2500 B.C., the cylinder seals bore almost wholly animal designs; then cuneiform inscriptions were added. In the 6th century B.C., the scarabaeoid type was introduced from Egypt, while the rolling seals began to give place to a new form, that of a tall cone. These, in a century or two, were gradually shortened; the hole by which they were suspended was enlarged until it could admit the ringer, and in time they passed into the familiar form of seal-rings. This later type, which prevailed for a long period, usually bore Persian or Sassanian inscriptions. The scarabaeoid seals were worn as rings in Egypt apparently from the earliest times. The most ancient of the cylinder seals were cut at first from shell, then largely from opaque stones such as diorite and serpentine. After 2500 B.C., varieties of chalcedony and milky quartz were employed, translucent and richly coloured; some- times even rock crystal, and also frequently a beautiful compact haematite. Amazone stone, amethyst and fossil coral were used, but no specimen is believed to be known of ruby, sapphire, emerald, diamond, tourmaline or spinel. The date of about 500 B.C. marks the beginning of a period of great artistic taste and skill in gem carving, which extended throughout the ancient civilized world, and lasted until the 3rd or 4th century A.D. Prior to this period, all the work appears to have been done by hand with a sapphire point, or else with a bow-drill ; thenceforward the wheel came to be largely employed. The Greek cutters, in their best period, the 5th and 6th centuries B.C., knew the use of disks and drills, but preferred the sapphire point for their finest work, and continued to use it for two or three hundred years. Engraving by the bow-drill was introduced in Assyrian and Babylonian work as early as perhaps 3000 B.C., the earlier carving being all done with the sapphire point, which was secured in a handle for convenient application. This hand- work demanded the utmost skill and delicacy of touch in the artist. The bow-drill consisted of a similar point fastened in the end of a stick, which could be rotated by means of a horizontal cross-bar attached at each end to a string wound around the stick; as the cross-bar was moved up and down, the stick was made to rotate alternately in opposite directions. This has been a frequent device for such purposes among many peoples, both ancient and modern, civilized and uncivilized. The point used by hand, and the bow-drill, were afterwards variously combined in executing such work. Another modification was the sub- stitution for the point, in either process, of a hollow tube or drill, probably in most cases the joint of a hollow reed, whereby very accurate circles could be made, as also crescent figures and the like. This process, used with fine hard sand, has also been widely employed among many peoples. It may perhaps have been suggested by the boring of other shells by carnivorous molluscs of the Murex type, examples of which may be picked up on any sea-beach. It is possible that the cylinder seals were drilled in this way out of larger pieces by means of a hollow reed or bamboo, the cylinder being left as the core. The Egyptian scarabs were an early and very characteristic type of seal cutting. The Greek gem cutters modified them by adding Greek and Etruscan symbols and talismanic signs; many of them also worked in Egypt and for Egyptians. Phoenician work shows a mixture of Assyrian and Egyptian designs; and Cypriote seals, principally on the agate gems, are known that are referred to the gth century B.C. Scarabs are sometimes found that have been sliced in two, and the new flat faces thus produced carved with later inscriptions and set in rings. This secondary work is of many kinds. An Assyrian cylinder in the Metropolitan Museum, New York, referred to 3000 B.C., bears such a cutting of Mediterranean 196 LAPIDARY, AND GEM CUTTING character, of the 2nd or 3rd century B.C. In the early Christian era, also, many Greek and Roman gems were recut with Gnostic and other peculiar and obscure devices. In the later Roman period, the 3rd and 4th centuries, a great decline in the art is seen — so great that Castellani terms it " the idiotic age." Numbers of gems of this kind have been found together, as though they were the product of a single manu- facturer, carved in the crudest manner, both in design and execution. Yet remarkable results are sometimes produced in these by a few touches of the drill, which under the glass appear very crude but nevertheless yield strong effects. The same thing may be seen now in many of the Japanese sketches and lacquer designs, where a whole landscape is depicted, or rather suggested, by a few simple but powerful strokes. It is now thought that some of these seals may be of earlier origin than has been supposed, and also that they may have been worn by the poorer classes, who could not afford the more finished work. They must have been made by the hundred thousand. The decline of the art went on until in the Byzantine period, especially the 6th century, it had reached a very low point. Most of the gems of this period show drill- work of poor quality, although hand-work is occasionally seen. With the Renaissance, the art of gem carving revived, and the engravers from that time and onward have produced results that equal the best Greek and Roman work; copies of ancient gem carvings made by some of the 18th-century masters are only distinguishable from true antiques by experts of great proficiency. It is in fact extremely difficult to judge positively as to the age of engraved gems. The materials of which they are made are hard and resistant to any change through time, and there are many ingenious devices for producing the appear- ances usually believed to indicate great age, such as slightly dulled or scratched surfaces and the like. There are also the gems with secondary carving, already alluded to, and the ancient gems that, have been partially recut by modern engravers for the purpose of fraudulently enhancing their price. All these elements enter into the problem and make it an almost hopeless one for any but a person of great experience in the study of such objects; and even he may not be able in all cases to decide. Until the I4th century, almost all the gems were cut en cabochon — that is, smoothly rounded, as carbuncles and opals are still — or else in the form of beads drilled from both sides for suspension or attachment, the two perforations often meeting but imperfectly. These latter may be of Asiatic origin, brought into Europe by commerce during the Crusades. Some of the finest gems in the Austrian, Russian and German crowns are stones of this perforated or bead type. An approach, or transi- tion, to the modern facetting is seen in a style of cutting often used for rock-crystal in the loth and nth centuries: an oval cabochon was polished flat, and the sides of the dome were also trimmed flat, with a rounded back, and the upper side with a ridge in the centre, tapering off to the girdle of the stone below. The plane facetted cutting is altogether modern; and hence the pictures which represent the breastplate of the ancient Jewish high-priest as set with facetted stones are wholly imaginary and probably incorrect, as we have no exact knowledge of the forms of the gems. The Orientals polish gems in all sorts of irregular, rounded shapes, according to the form of the piece as found, and with the one object of preserving as much of its original size and colour as possible. The greatest ingenuity is used to make a speck of colour, as in a sapphire, tone up an entire gem, by cutting it so that there is a point of high colour at the lower side of the gem. In later times a few facets are sometimes cut upon a generally rounded stone. The cabochon method is still used for opaque or translucent stones, as opal, moonstone, turquoise, carbuncle, &c.; but for transparent gems the facetted cutting is almost always employed, on account of its fine effect in producing brilliancy, by reflection or refraction of light from the under side of the gem. Occasionally the ancients used natural crystals with polished faces, or perhaps at times polished these to some extent artificially. This use of crystals was frequent with prisms of emerald, which were drilled and suspended as drops. Those the French call " primes d'emeraudes." These were often natural crystals from Zaborah, Egypt or the Tirol Mountains, drilled through the height of the prism, and with little or no polishing. In rare instances perfect and brilliant crystals may now be seen mounted as gems. The modern method is that of numerous facets, geometrically disposed to bring out the beauty of light and colour to the best advantage. This is done at the sacrifice of material, often to the extent of half the stone or even more — the opposite of the Oriental idea. There are various forms of such cutting, but three are specially employed, known as the brilliant, the rose and the table-cut. The last, generally made from cleavage pieces, usually square or oblong, with a single facet or edge on each side, and occasionally four or more facets on the lower side of the stone, is used chiefly for emeralds, rubies and sapphires; the two former for diamonds in particular. The brilliant is essentially a low, double cone, its top truncated to form a large flat eight- sided face called the table, and its basal apex also truncated by a very small face known as the culctte or cullet. The upper and lower slopes are cut into a series of triangular facets, 32 above the girdle, in four rows of eight, and 24 below, in three rows, making 56 facets in all. The rose form is used for diamonds not thick enough to cut as brilliants; it is flat below and has 12 to 24, or sometimes 32, triangular facets above, in three rows, meeting in a point. Stones thus cut are also known as " roses couronnees "; others with fewer facets, twelve or even six, are called " roses d'Anvers," and are a specialty, as their name implies, at Antwerp. These, however, are only cut from very thin or shallow stones. None of the rose-cut diamonds is equal in beauty to the brilliants. There are several other forms, among which are the " briolette," " marquise," oval and pear- shaped stones, &c., but they are of minor importance. The pear- shaped brilliant is a facetted ball or drop, being a brilliant in style of cutting, although the form of the gem is elongated or drop-shaped. The " marquise " or " navette " form is an elliptical brilliant of varying width in proportion to its length. The " rondelle " form consists of flat, circular gems with smooth sides pierced, like shallow beads, with facetted edges, and is sometimes used between pearls, or gem beads, and in the coloured gems, such as rubies, sapphires, emeralds, &c. The mitred gems fitted to a gauge are much used and are closely set together, forming a continuous line of colour. Modern gem cutting and engraving are done by means of the lathe, which can be made to revolve with extreme rapidity, carrying a point or small disk of soft iron, with diamond-dust and oil. The disks vary in diameter from that of a pin-head to a quarter of an inch. Better than the lathe, also, is the S. S. White dental engine, which the present writer was the first to suggest for this use. The flexibility and sensitiveness of this machine enables it to respond to the touch of the artist and to impart a personal quality to his work not possible with the mechanical action of the lathe, and more like the hand-work with the sapphire point. The diamond-dust and oil, thus applied, will carve any stone softer than the diamond itself with com- parative ease. We may now review some of the special forms of cutting and working gems and ornamental stones that have been developed in Europe since the period of the Renaissance. Garnets (q.v.) have been used and worked from remote antiquity; but in modern times the cutting of them has been carried on chiefly in Bohemia, in the region around Merowitz and Dlaskowitch. The stones occur in a trap rock, and are weathered out by its decom- position and gathered from gravels and beds of streams. They are of the rich red variety known as pyrope (q.v.), or Bohemian garnet; it is generally valued as a gem-stone. Such are the so-called ' Cape rubies," of South Africa, found in considerable quantity in German East Africa, and the beautiful garnets known as the "Arizona rubies." Garnets are so abundant in Bohemia as to constitute an important industry, employing some five hundred miners, an equal number of cutters and as many as three thousand dealers. Extensive garnet cutting is also done in India, especially at Jeypore, where there are large works employing natives who have been taught by Europeans. The Indian garnets, however, are mostly of another variety, the almandine (q.v.); it is equally rich in colour, though LAPIDARY, AND GEM CUTTING 197 inclining more to a violet cast than the pyrope, and can be obtained in larger pieces. The ancient garnets, from Etruscan and Byzantine remains, some of which are flat plates set in gold, or carved with mythological designs, were probably obtained from India or perhaps from the remarkable locality for large masses of garnet in German East Africa. Many are cut with the portraits of Sassanian kings with their characteristic pearl earrings. The East Indians carve small dishes out of a single garnet. The carving of elegant objects from transparent quartz, or rock crystal, has been carried on since the i6th century, first in Italy, by the greatest masters of the time, and afterwards in Prague, under Rudolph II., until the Thirty Years' War, when the industry was wiped out. Splendid examples of this work are in the important museums of Europe. Many of these are reproduced now in Vienna, and fine examples are included in some American museums. Among them are rock-crystal dishes several inches across, beautifully en- graved in intaglio and mounted in silver with gems. Other varieties of quartz minerals, such as agate, jasper, &c., and other ornamental stones of similar hardness, are likewise wrought into all manner of art objects. Caskets, vases, ewers, coupes and animal and other fanciful forms, are familiar in these opaque and semi-transparent stones, either carved out of single masses or made of separate pieces united with gold, silver or enamel in the most artistic manner. Cellini, and other masters in the l6th and I7th centuries, vied with each other in such work. The greatest development of agate (q.v.), however, has been seen in Germany, at Waldkirch in Breisgau, and especially at Idar and Oberstein on the Nahe, in Oldenburg. The industry began in the I4th century, at the neighbouring town of Freiburg, but was trans- ferred to Waldkirch, where it is still carried on, employing about 120 men and women, the number of workmen having increased nearly threefold since the middle of the igth century. The Idar and Oberstein industry was founded somewhat later, but is much more extensive. Mills run by water-power line the Nahe river for over 30 m., from above Kreuznach to below Idar, and gave employment in 1908 to some 5000 people — 162 5 lapidaries, 160 drillers, looengravers, 2900 cutters, &c. , besides 300 jewellers and 300 dealers. The industry began here in consequence of the abundance of agates in the amygda- loid rocks of the vicinity ; and it is probable that many of the Cinque Cento gems, and perhaps even some of the Roman ones, were ob- tained in this region. By the middle of the 1 8th century the best material was about exhausted, but the industry had become so firmly established that it has been kept up and increased by import- ing agates. In 1540 there were only three mills; in 1740, twenty- five; in 1840, fifty; in 1870, one hundred and eighty-four. Agents and prospectors are sent all over the world to procure agates and other ornamental stones, and enormous quantities are brought there and stored. The chief source of agate supply has been in Uruguay, but much has been brought from other distant lands. It was esti- mated that fifty thousand tons were stored at Salto in Uruguay at one time. The grinding is done on large, horizontal wheels like grindstones, some 6 ft. in diameter and one-fourth as thick, run by water-wheels. The faces of some of these grindstones are made with grooves of different sizes so that round objects or convex surfaces can be ground very easily and rapidly. An agate ball or marble, for instance, is made from a piece broken to about the right size and held in one of these semicircular grooves until one-half of it is shaped, and then turned over and the other half ground in the same way. The polishing is done on wooden wheels, with tripoli found in the vicinity ; any carving or ornamentation is then put on with a wheel-edge or a drill by skilled workmen. In the United States the Drake Company at Sioux Falls, South Dakota, has done cutting and polishing in hard materials on a grand scale. It is here, and here only, that the agatized wood from Chalce- dony Park, Arizona, has been cut and polished, large sections of tree-trunks having been made into table-tops and columns of wonderful beauty, with a polish like that of a mirror. Much of the finest lapidary work, both on a large and a small scale, is done in Russia. Catherine II. sought to develop the precious stone resources of the Ural region, and sent thither two Italian lapidaries. This led to the founding of an industry which now em- ploys at least a thousand people. The work is done either at the great imperial lapidary establishment at Ekaterinburg, or in the vicinity of the mines by lapidary masters, as they are called, each of whom has his peculiar style. The products are sold to dealers at the great Russian fairs at Nizhmy Novgorod, Moscow and Ekaterinburg. The imperial works at the last-named place have command of an immense water-power, and are on such a scale that great masses of hard stones can be worked as marble is in other countries. Much of the machinery is primitive, but the applications are ingenious and the results unsurpassed anywhere. The work done is of several classes, ranging from the largest and most massive to the smallest and most delicate. There is (l ) the cutting of facetted gems, as topaz, aquamarine, amethyst, &c., from the mines of the Ural, and of other gem-stones also ; this is largely done by means of the cadrans, a small machine held in the hand, by which the angle of the facets can be adjusted readily when once the stone has been set, and which produces work of great beauty and accuracy. Then there is (2) a vast variety of ornamental objects, large and small, some weighing 2000 Ib and over, and requiring years to complete; they are made from the opaque minerals of the Ural and Siberia — malachite, rhodonite, lapis-lazuli, aventurine and jasper. A peculiar type of work is (3) the production of beautiful groups of fruit, flowers and leaves, in stones selected to match exactly the colour of each object represented. These are chosen with great care and skill, somewhat as in the Florentine mosaics, not to produce a flat inlaid picture, however, but a perfect reproduction of form, size and colour. These groups are carved and polished from hard stones, whereas the Florentine mosaic work includes many substances that are much softer, as glass, shell, &c. Enormous masses of material are brought to these works; the supply of rhodonite, jade, jaspers of various colours, &c., sometimes amounting to hundreds of tons. One mass of Kalkansky jasper weighed nearly 9 tons, and a mass of rhodonite above 50 tons; the latter required a week of sledging, with ninety horses, to bring it from the quarry, only 14 m. from the works. About seventy-five men are employed, at twenty-five roubles a month (£2, us. 6d.), and ten boys, who earn from two to ten roubles (43. to £i). A training school is connected with the works, where over fifty boys are pupils; on graduating they may remain as government lapidaries or set up on their own account. There are two other great Russian imperial establishments of the same kind. One of these, founded by Catherine II., is at Peterhof, a short distance from the capital; it is a large building fitted up with imperial elegance. Here are made all the designs and models for the work done at Ekaterinburg; these are returned and strictly preserved. In the Peterhof works are to be seen the largest and most remarkable achieyements of the lapidarian art, vases and pedestals and columns of immense size, made from the hardest and most elegant stones, often requiring the labour of years for their com- pletion. The third great establishment is at Kolyvan, in Siberia, bearing a like relation to the minerals and gem-stones of the Altai region that the works of Ekaterinburg do to the Ural. The three establishments are conducted at large expense, from the private revenue of the tsar. The Russian emperors have always taken special interest in lapidary work, and the products of these establish- ments have made that country famous throughout the world. The immense monolithic columns of the Hermitage and of St Isaac's Cathedral, of polished granite and other hard and elegant stones, are among the triumphs of modern architectural work; and the Alexander column at St Petersburg is a single polished shaft, 13 ft. in diameter and 82 ft. in height, of the red Finland granite. The finest lapidary work of modern France is done at Moulin la Vacherie Saint Simon, Seine-et-Marne, where some seventy-five of the most skilful artisans are engaged. The products are all manner of ornamental objects of every variety of beautiful stone, all finished with absolute perfection of detail. Columns and other ornaments of porphyry and the like, of ancient workmanship, are brought hither from Egypt and elsewhere, and recut into smaller objects for modern artistic tastes. Here, too, are made spheres of transparent quartz — " crystal balls " — up to 6 in. in diameter, the material for which is obtained in Madagascar. A few words may be said, by way of comparison and contrast, about the lapidary art of Japan and China, especially in relation to the crystal balls, now reproduced in France and elsewhere. The tools are the simplest, and there is no machinery; but the lack of it is made u|jby time and patience, and by hereditary pride, as a Japanese artisan can often trace back his art through many generations continuously. To make a quartz ball, a large crystal or mass is chipped or broken into available shape, and then the piece is trimmed into a spherical form with a small steel hammer. The polishing is effected by grinding with emery and garnet-powder and plenty of water, in semi-cylindrical pieces of cast iron, of sizes varying with that of the ball to be ground, which is kept constantly turning as it is rubbed. Small balls are fixed in the end of a bamboo tube, which the worker continually revolves. The final brilliant polish is given by the hand, with rouge-powder (haematite). This process is evidently very slow, and only the cheapness of labour prevents the cost from being too great. The spheres are now made quite freely but very differently in France, Germany and the United States. They are ground in semi- circular grooves in a large horizontal wheel of hard stone, such as is used for grinding garnets at Oberstein and Idar, or else by gradually revolving them on a lathe and fitting them into hollow cylinders. Plenty of water must be used, to prevent heating and cracking. The polishing is effected on a wooden wheel with tripoli. Work of this kind is now done in the United States, in the production of the spheres and carved ornaments of rock-crystal, that is equal to any in the world. But most of the material for these supposed Japanese balls now comes from Brazil or Madagascar, and the work is done in Germany or France. The cutting of amber is a special branch of lapidary work developed along the Baltic coast of Germany, where amber is chiefly obtained. The amber traffic dates back to prehistoric times; but the cutting industry in northern Europe cannot be definitely traced further back than the idth century, when gilds of amber- workers were known at Bruges and Liibeck. Fine carving was also done at Konigsberg as early as 1399. The latter city and Danzig have become the chief seats of the amber industry, and the business has increased immensely i98 LAPIDARY, AND GEM CUTTING within a recent period. Articles are made there, not only for all the civilized world, but for exportation to half-civilized and even barbarous nations, in great variety of shapes, styles and colours DIAMOND CUTTING. — On account of its extreme hardness, the treatment of the diamond in preparation for use in jewelry constitutes a separate and special branch of the lapidary's art. Any valuable gem must first be trimmed, cleaved or sawed into suitable shape and size, then cut into the desired form, and finally polished upon the faces which have been cut. The stages in diamond working are, therefore, (i) cleavage or division; (2) cutting; (3) polishing; but in point of fact there are four processes, as the setting of the stone for cutting is a somewhat distinct branch, and the workers are classed in four groups — cleavers, setters, cutters and polishers. i. Cleaving or Dividing. — Diamonds are always found as crystals, usually octahedral in form, though often irregular or distorted. The problem involved in each case is twofold: (i) to obtain the largest perfect stone possible, and (2) to remove any portions containing flaws or defects. These ends are generally met by cleaving the crystal, i.e. causing it to split along certain natural planes of structural weakness, which are parallel with the faces of the octahedron. This process requires the utmost judgment, care and skill on the part of the operator, as any error would cause great loss of valuable material; hence expert cleavers command very high wages. The stone is first examined closely, to determine the directions of the cleavage planes, which are recognizable only by an expert. The cleaver then cuts a narrow notch at the place selected, with another diamond having a sharp point; a rather dull iron or steel edge is then laid on this line, and a smart blow struck upon it. If all has been skilfully done, the diamond divides at once in the direction desired. De Boot in 1609 mentions knowing some one who could part a diamond like mica or talc. In this process, each of the diamonds is fixed in cement on the end of a stick or handle, so that they can be held firmly while one is applied to the other. When the stone is large and very valuable, the cleaving is a most critical process. Wollaston in 1790 made many favourable transactions by buying very poor-looking flawed stones and cleaving off the good parts. In the case of the immense Excelsior diamond of 971 carats, which was divided at Amsterdam in 1904, and made into ten splendid stones, the most elaborate study extending over two months was given to the work before- hand, and many models were made of the very irregular stone and divided in different ways to determine those most advan- tageous. This process was in 1908 applied to the most remark- able piece of work of the kind ever undertaken — the cutting of the gigantic Cullinan diamond of 3025! English carafc. The stone was taken to Amsterdam to be treated by the old-fashioned hand method, with innumerable precautions of every kind at every step, and the cutting was successfully accomplished after nine months' work (see The Times, Nov. 10, 1908). The two principal stones obtained (see DIAMOND), one a pendeloque or drop brilliant, and the other a square brilliant, were given 72 and 64 facets respectively (exclusive of the table and cullet) instead of the normal 56. This process of cleavage is the old-established one, still used to a large extent, especially at Amsterdam. But a different method has recently been introduced, that of sawing,1 which is now generally employed in Antwerp. The stone is placed in a small metal receptacle which is filled with melted aluminium; thus embedded securely, with only the part to be cut exposed, it is pressed firmly against the edge of a metallic disk or thin wheel, 4 or 5 in. in diameter, made of copper, iron or phosphor bronze, which is charged with diamond dust and oil, and made to revolve with great velocity. This machine was announced as an American invention, but the form now principally employed at Antwerp was invented by a Belgian diamond cutter in the United States, and is similar to slitting wheels used by gem 1 The Universal Magazine of Knowledge and Pleasure for 1 749 states that diamond dust, " well ground and diluted with water and vinegar, is used in the sawing of diamonds, which is done with an iron or brass wire, as fine as a hair." — Ed. cutters for centuries. Two patents were taken out, however, by different parties, with some distinctions of method. The process is much slower than hand-cleavage, but greatly diminishes the loss of material involved. It is claimed that not only can flaws or defective portions be thus easily taken off, but that any well-formed crystal of the usual octahedral shape (known in the trade as " six-point ") can be divided in half very perfectly at the " girdle," making two stones, in each of which the sawed face can be used with advantage to form the " table " of a brilliant. By another method the stone is sawed at a tangent with the octahedron, and then each half into three pieces; for this Wood method a total saving of 5% is claimed. Occasionally the finest material is only a small spot in a large mass of impure material, and this is taken out by most skilful cleaving. After the cleaving or sawing, however, the diamond is rarely yet in a form for cutting the facets, and requires considerable shaping. This rough " blocking-out " of the final form it is to assume, by removing irregularities and making it symmetrical, is called " brutage." Well-shaped and flawless crystals, indeed may not require to be cleaved, and then the brutage is the first process. Here again, the old hand methods are beginning to give place to mechanism. In either case two diamonds are taken, each fixed in cement on the end of a handle or support, and are rubbed one against the other until the irregularities are ground away and the general shape desired is attained. The old method was to do this by hand — an extremely tedious and laborious process. The machine method, invented about 1885 and first used by Field and Morse of Boston, is now used at Antwerp exclusively. In this, one diamond is fixed at the centre of a rotating apparatus, and the other, on an arm or handle, is placed so as to press steadily against the other stone at the proper angle. The rotating diamond thus becomes rounded and smoothed; the other one is then put in its place at the centre and their mutual action reversed. At Amsterdam a hand-process is employed, which lies between the cleavage and the brutage. This consists in cutting or trim- ming away angles and irregularities all over the stone by means of a sharp-edged or pointed diamond, both being mounted in cement on pear-shaped handles for firm holding. This work is largely done by women. In all these processes the dust and fragments are caught and carefully saved. 2. Cutting and Setting. — The next process is that of cutting the facets; but an intervening step is the fixing or " setting " of the stone for that purpose. This is done by embedding it in a fusible alloy, melting at 440° Fahr., in a little cup-shaped depression on the end of a handle, the whole being called a " dop. " Only the portion to be ground off is left exposed; and two such mounted diamonds are then rubbed against each other until a face is produced. This is the work of the cutter; it is very laborious, and requires great care and skill. The hands must be protected with leather gloves. The powder produced is carefully saved, as in the former processes, for use in the final polishing. When one face has been produced, the alloy is softened by heating, and the stone re-set for grinding another surface; and as this process is necessary for every face cut, it must be repeated many times for each stone. An improved dop has lately been devised in which the diamond is held by a system of claws so that all this heating and resetting can, it is claimed, be obviated, and the cutting completed with only two changes. 3. Polishing. — The faces having thus been cut, the last stage is the polishing. This is done upon horizontal iron wheels called " skaifs," made to rotate up to 2500 revolutions per minute. The diamond-powder saved in the former operations, and also made by crushing very inferior diamonds, here comes into use as the only material for polishing. It is applied with oil, and the stones are fixed in a " dop " in much the same way as in the cutting process. Again, the utmost skill and watchful- ness are necessary, as the angles of the faces must be mathematic- ally exact, in order to yield the best effects by refraction and reflection of light, and their sizes must be accurately regulated to preserve the symmetry of the stone. In this process, also, LAPILLI— LAPIS LAZULI 199 the old hand method is already replaced in part by an improved device whereby the diamond is held by adjustable claws, on a base that can be rotated, so as to apply it in any desired position. By this means the time and trouble of repeated re-setting in the dop are saved, as well as the liability to injury from the heating and cooling; the services of special " setters " are also made needless. The rapid development of mechanical devices for the several stages of diamond cutting has already greatly influenced the art. A very interesting comparison was brought out in the thirteenth report of the American Commissioner of Labour, as to the aspects and relations of hand-work and machinery in this branch of industry. It appeared from the data gathered that the advantage lay with machinery as to time and with hand-work as to cost, in the ratios respectively of i to -3-38 and 1-76 to i. In other words, about half the gain in time is lost by increased expense in the use of machine methods. A great many devices and applications have been developed within the last few years, owing to the immense increase in the production of diamonds from the South African mines, and their consequent widespread use. History of Diamond Cutting. — The East Indian diamonds, many of which are doubtless very ancient, were polished in the usual Oriental fashion by merely rounding off the angles. Among church jewels in Europe are a few diamonds of unknown age and source, cut four- sided, with a table above and a pyramid below. Several cut diamonds are recorded among the treasures of Louis of Anjou in the third quarter of the I4th century. But the first definite accounts of diamond polishing are early in the century following, when one Hermann became noted for such work in Paris. The modern method of " brilliant " cutting, however, is generally ascribed to Louis de Berquem, of Bruges, who in 1475 cut several celebrated diamonds sent to him by Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy. He taught this process to many pupils, who afterwards settled in Antwerp and Amsterdam, which have been the chief centres of diamond cutting ever since. Peruzzi was the artist who worked out the theory of the well-proportioned brilliant of 58 facets. Some very fine work was done early in London also, but most of the workmen were Jews, who, being objectionable in England, finally betook themselves to Amsterdam and Antwerp. Efforts have been lately made to re- establish the art in London, where, as the great diamond mart of the world, it should peculiarly belong. The same unwise policy was even more marked in Portugal. That nation had its colonial possessions in India, following the voyages and discoveries of Da Gama, and thus became the chief importer of diamonds into Europe. Early in the l8th century, also, the diamond- mines were discovered in Brazil, which was then likewise a Portuguese possession; thus the whole diamond product of the world came to Portugal, and there was naturally developed in Lisbon an active industry of cutting and polishing diamonds. But in time the Jews were forced away, and went to Holland and Belgium, where diamond cutting has been concentrated since the middle of the :8th century. It is of interest to trace the recent endeavours to establish diamond cutting in the United States. The pioneer in this move- ment was Henry D. Morse of Boston, associated with James W. Yerrington of New York. He opened a diamond-cutting establish- ment about 1860 and carried it on for some years, training a number of young men and women, who became the best cutters in the country. But the chief importance of his work lay in its superior quality. So long had it been a monopoly of the Dutch and Belgians that it was declining into a mere mechanical trade. Morse studied the diamond scientifically and taught his pupils how important mathematical exactitude in cutting was to the beauty and value of the gem. He thus attained a perfection rarely seen before, and gave a great stimulus to the art. Shops were opened in London as well, in con- sequence of Morse's success; and many valuable diamonds were recut in the United States after his work became known. This fact in turn reacted upon the cutter abroad, especially in France and Switzerland; and thus the general standard of the art was greatly advanced. Diamond cutting in the United States is now a well-established industry. From 1882 to 1885 a number of American jewelers under- took such work, but for various reasons it was not found practicable then. Ten years later, however, there were fifteen firms engaged in diamond cutting, giving employment to nearly 150 men in the various processes involved. In the year 1894 a number of European diamond workers came over; some foreign capital became engaged; and a rapid development of diamond cutting took place. This movement was caused by the low tariff on uncut diamonds as compared with that on cut stones. It went so far as to be felt seriously abroad ; but in a year or two it declined, owing partly to strikes and partly to legal questions as to the application of some of the tariff provisions. At the close of 1895, however, there were still some fourteen establish- ments in and near New York, employing about 500 men. Since then the industry has gradually developed. Many of the European diamond workers who came over to America remained and carried on their art; and the movement then begun has become permanent. New York is now recognized as one of the chief diamond-cutting centres; there are some 500 cutters, and the quality of work done is fully equal, if not superior, to any in the Old World. So well is this fact established that American-cut diamonds are exported and sold in Europe to a considerable and an increasing extent. In the Brazilian diamond region of Minas Geraes an industry of cutting has grown up since 1875. Small mills are run by water power, and the machinery, as well as the.methods, are from Holland. This Brazilian diamond work is done both well and cheaply, and supplies the local market. The leading position in diamond working still belongs to Amster- dam, where the number of persons engaged in the industry has trebled since about 1875, in consequence of the enormous increase in the world's supply of diamonds. The number now amounts to 15,000, about one-third of whom are actual cleavers, cutters, polishers, &c. The number of cutting establishments in Amsterdam is about seventy, containing some 7000 mills. Antwerp comes next with about half as many mills and a total of some 4500 persons engaged in all departments, including about seventy women. These are distributed among thirty-five or forty establishments. A majority of the workers are Belgians, but there are many Dutch, Poles and Austro-Hungarians, principally Jews. Among these numerous employees there is much opportunity for dishonesty, and but little surveillance, actual or possible; yet losses from this cause are almost unknown. The wages paid are good, averaging from £2, gs. 6d. to £2, 175. 6d. a week. Sorters receive from 28s. to £2; cutters from £2, 95. 6d to £3, 6s., and cleavers from £3, 143. upwards. With the recent introduction of electricity in diamond cutting there has been a revolution in that industry. Whereas formerly wheels were made to revolve by steam, they are now placed in direct connexion with electric motors, although there is not a motor to each machine. The saws for slitting the diamond can thus be made to revolve much more rapidly, and there is a cleanliness and a speed about the work never before attained. (G. F. K.) LAPILLI (pi. of Ital. lapillo, from Lat. lapillus, dim. of lapis, a stone), a name applied to small fragments of lava ejected from a volcano. They are generally subangular in shape and vesicular in structure, varying in size from a pea to a walnut. In the Neapolitan dialect the word becomes rapilli — a form sometimes used by English writers on volcanoes. (See VOLCANOES.) LAPIS LAZULI, or azure stone,1 a mineral substance valued for decorative purposes in consequence of the fine blue colour which it usually presents. It appears to have been the sapphire of ancient writers: thus Theophrastus describes the ffairei,pos as being spotted with gold-dust, a description quite inappropriate to modern sapphire, but fully applicable to lapis lazuli, for this stone frequently contains disseminated particles of iron-pyrites of gold-like appearance. Pliny, too, refers to the sapphirus as a stone sprinkled with specks of gold; and possibly an allusion to the same character may be found in Job xxviii. 6. The Hebrew sappir, denoting a stone in the High Priest's breastplate, was probably lapis lazuli, as acknowledged in the Revised Version of the Bible. With the ancient Egyptians lapis lazuli was a favourite stone for amulets and ornaments such as scarabs; it was also used to a limited extent by the Assyrians and Baby- lonians for cylinder seals. It has been suggested that the Egyptians obtained it from Persia in exchange for their emeralds. When the lapis lazuli contains pyrites, the brilliant spots in the deep blue matrix invite comparison with the stars in the firma- ment. The stone seems to have been sometimes called by ancient writers KVO.VOS. It was a favourite material with the Italians. of the Cinquecento for vases, small busts and other ornaments. Magnificent examples of the decorative use of lapis lazuli are to be seen in St Petersburg, notably in the columns of St Isaac's cathedral. The beautiful blue colour of lapis lazuli led to its employment, when ground and levigated, as a valuable pigment known as ultramarine (?.».), a substance now practically dis- placed by a chemical product (artificial ultramarine). Lapis lazuli occurs usually in compact masses, with a finely granular structure; and occasionally, but only as a great rarity, 1 The Med. Gr. Xofofcptoc, Med. Lat. lazurius or lazulus, as the names of this mineral substance, were adaptations of the Arab. al-lazward, Pers. lajward, blue colour, lapis lazuli. The same word appears in Med. Lat. as azura, whence O.F. azur, Eng. " azure," blue, particularly used of that colour in heraldry (q.v.) and represented conventionally in black and white by horizontal lines. I 200 LAPITHAE— LAPLACE it presents the form of the rhombic dodecahedron. Its specific gravity is 2-38 to 2-45, and its hardness about 5-5, so that being comparatively soft it tends, when polished, to lose its lustre rather readily. The colour is generally a fine azure or rich Berlin blue, but some varieties exhibit green, violet and even red tints, or may be altogether colourless. The colour is sometimes improved by heating the stone. Under artificial illumination the dark-blue stones may appear almost black. The mineral is opaque, with only slight translucency at thin edges. Analyses of lapis lazuli show considerable variation in com- position, and this led long ago to doubt as to its homogeneity. This doubt was confirmed by the microscopic studies of L. H. Fischer, F. Zirkel and H. P. J. Vogelsang, who found that sections showed bluish particles in a white matrix; but it was reserved for Professor W. C. Brogger and H. Backstrom, of Christiania, to separate the several constituents and subject them to analysis, thus demonstrating the true constitution of lapis lazuli, and proving that it is a rock rather than a definite mineral species. The essential part of most lapis lazuli is a blue mineral allied to sodalite and crystallized in the cubic system, which Brogger distinguishes as lazurite, but this is intimately associated with a closely related mineral which has long been known as haiiyne, or haiiynite. The lazurite, sometimes regarded as true lapis lazuli, is a sulphur-bearing sodum and aluminium silicate, having the formula: Na^NaSsAl) Al2(SiO4)3. As the lazurite and the haiiynite seem to occur in molecular intermixture, various kinds of lapis lazuli are formed; and it has been proposed to distinguish some of them as lazurite-lapis and hauyne-lapis, according as one or the other mineral prevails. The lazurite of lapis lazuli is to be carefully distinguished from lazulite, an aluminium-magnesium phosphate, related to turquoise. In addition to the blue cubic minerals in lapis lazuli, the following minerals have also been found: a non-ferriferous diopside, an amphibole called, from the Russian mineralogist, koksharovite, orthoclase, plagioclase, a muscovite-like mica, apatite, titanite, zircon, calcite and pyrite. The calcite seems to form in some cases a great part of the lapis; and the pyrite, which may occur in patches, is often altered to limonite. Lapis lazuli usually occurs in crystalline limestone, and seems to be a product of contact metamorphism. It is recorded from Persia, Tartary, Tibet and China, but many of the localities are vague and some doubtful. The best known and probably the most important locality is in Badakshan. There it occurs in limestone, in the valley of the river Kokcha, a tributary to the Oxus, south of Firgamu. The mines were visited by Marco Polo in 1271, by J. B. Fraser in 1825, and by Captain John Wood in 1837-1838. The rock is split by aid of fire. Three varieties of the lapis lazuli are recognized by the miners: nili of indigo- blue colour, asmani sky-blue, and sabzi of green tint. Another locality for lapis lazuli is in Siberia near the western extremity of Lake Baikal, where it occurs in limestone at its contact with granite. Fine masses of lapis lazuli occur in the Andes, in the vicinity of Ovalle, Chile. In Europe lapis lazuli is found as a rarity in the peperino of Latium, near Rome, and in the ejected blocks of Monte Somma, Vesuvius. (F. W. R.*) LAPITHAE, a mythical race, whose home was in Thessaly in the valley of the Peneus. The genealogies make them a kindred race with the Centaurs, their king Peirithoiis being the son, and the Centaurs the grandchildren (or sons) of Ixion. The best -known legends with which they are connected are those of Ixion (q.v.) and the battle with the Centaurs (q.v.). A well- known Lapith was Caeneus, said to have been originally a girl named Caenis, the favourite of Poseidon, who changed her into a man and made her invulnerable (Ovid, Metam. xii. 146 ff). In the Centaur battle, having been crushed by rocks and trunks of trees, he was changed into a bird; or he disappeared into the depths of the earth unharmed. According to some, the Lapithae are representatives of the giants of fable, or spirits of the storm; according to others, they are a semi-legendary, semi-historical race, like the Myrmidons and other Thessalian tribes. The Greek sculptors of the school of Pheidias conceived of the battle of the Lapithae and Centaurs as a struggle between mankind and mischievous monsters, and symbolical of the great conflict between the Greeks and Persians. Sidney Colvin (Journ. Hellen. Stud. i. 64) explains it as a contest of the physical powers of nature, and the mythical expression of the terrible effects of swollen waters. | LA PLACE (Lat. Placaeus), JOSUE DE (i6o6?-i66s), French Protestant divine, was born in Brittany. He studied and after- wards taught philosophy at Saumur. In 1625 he became pastor of the Reformed Church at Nantes, and in 1632 was appointed professor of theology at Saumur, where he had as his colleagues, appointed at the same time, Moses Amyraut and Louis Cappell. In 1640 he published a work, Theses theologicae de statu hominis lapsi ante gratiam, which was looked upon with some suspicion as containing liberal ideas about the doctrine of original sin. The view that the original sin of Adam was not imputed to his descendants was condemned at the synod of Charenton (1645), without special reference being made to La Place, whose position perhaps was not quite clear. As a matter of fact La Place distinguished between a direct and indirect imputation, and after his death his views, as well as those of Amyraut, were rejected in the Formula consensus of 1675. He died on the i7th of August 1665. La Place's defence was published with the title Disputaliones academicae (3 yols., 1649-1651; and again in 1665); his work De imputatione primi peccati Adami in 1655. A collected edition of his works appeared at Franeker in 1699, and at Aubencit in 1702. LAPLACE, PIERRE SIMON, MARQUIS DE (1749-1827), French mathematician and astronomer, was born at Beaumont-en-Auge in Normandy, on the 28th of March 1749. His father was a small farmer, and he owed his education to the interest excited by his lively parts in some persons of position. His first dis- tinctions are said to have been gained in theological controversy, but at an early age he became mathematical teacher in the military school of Beaumont, the classes of which he had attended as an extern. He was not more than eighteen when, armed with letters of recommendation, he approached J. B. d'Alembert, then at the height of his fame, in the hope of finding a career in Paris. The letters remained unnoticed, but Laplace was not crushed by the rebuff. He wrote to the great geometer a letter on the principles of mechanics, which evoked an immediate and enthusi- astic response. " You," said d'Alembert to him, " needed no introduction; you have recommended yourself; my support is your due." He accordingly obtained for him an appointment as professor of mathematics in the Ecole Militaire of Paris, and continued zealously to forward his interests. Laplace had not yet completed his twenty-fourth year when he entered upon the course of discovery which earned him the title of " the Newton of France." Having in his first published paper ' shown his mastery of analysis, he proceeded to apply its resources to the great outstanding problems in celestial mechanics. Of these the most conspicuous was offered by the opposite inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn, which the emulous efforts of L. Euler and J. L. Lagrange had failed to bring within the bounds of theory. The discordance of their results incited Laplace to a searching examination of the whole subject of planetary perturbations, and his maiden effort was rewarded with a discovery which constituted, when developed and com- pletely demonstrated by his own further labours and those of his illustrious rival Lagrange, the most important advance made in physical astronomy since the time of Newton. In a paper read before the Academy of Sciences, on the loth of February 1773 (Mlm. presentes par divers savans, torn, vii., 1776), Laplace announced his celebrated conclusion of the invariability of planetary mean motions, carrying the proof as far as the cubes of the eccentricities and inclinations. This was the first and most important step in the establishment of the stability of the solar system. It was followed by a series of profound investiga- tions, in which Lagrange and Laplace alternately surpassed and supplemented each other in assigning limits of variation to the several elements of the planetary orbits. The analytical tourna- ment closed with the communication to the Academy by Laplace, 1 " Recherches sur le calcul integral," Melanges de la Soc. Roy. de Turin (1766-1769). LAPLACE 201 in 1787, of an entire group of remarkable discoveries. It would be difficult, in the whole range of scientific literature, to point to a memoir of equal brilliancy with that published (divided into three parts) in the volumes of the Academy for 1784, 1785 and 1786. The long-sought cause of the " great inequality " of Jupiter and Saturn was found in the near approach to com- mensurability of their mean motions; it was demonstrated in two elegant theorems, independently of any except the most general considerations as to mass, that the mutual action of the planets could never largely affect the eccentricities and inclina- tions of their orbits; and the singular peculiarities detected by him in the Jovian system were expressed in the so-called " laws of Laplace." He completed the theory of these bodies in a treatise published among the Paris Memoirs for 1788 and 1789; and the striking superiority of the tables computed by J. B. J. Delambre from the data there supplied marked the profit derived from the investigation by practical astronomy. The year 1787 was rendered further memorable by Laplace's announcement on the igth of November (Memoirs, 1786), of the dependence of lunar acceleration upon the secular changes in the eccentricity of the earth's orbit. The last apparent anomaly, and the last threat of instability, thus disappeared from the solar system. With these brilliant performances the first period of Laplace's scientific career may be said to have closed. If he ceased to make striking discoveries in celestial mechanics, it was rather their subject-matter than his powers that failed. The general working of the great machine was now laid bare, and it needed a further advance of knowledge to bring a fresh set of problems within reach .of investigation. The time had come when the results obtained in the development and application of the law of gravitation by three generations of illustrious mathematicians might be presented from a single point of view. To this task the second period of Laplace's activity was devoted. As a monument of mathematical genius applied to the celestial revolutions, the Mecanique celeste ranks second only to the Principia of Newton. The declared aim of the author l was to offer a complete solution of the great mechanical problem presented by the solar system, and to bring theory to coincide so closely with observation that empirical equations should no longer find a place in astronomical tables. His success in both respects fell little short of his lofty ideal. The first part of the work (2 vols. 410, Paris, 1799) contains methods for calculating the movements of translation and rotation of the heavenly bodies, for determining their figures, and resolving tidal problems; the second, especially dedicated to the improvement of tables, exhibits in the third and fourth volumes (1802 and 1805) the application of these formulae; while a fifth volume, published in three instalments, 1823-1825, comprises the results of Laplace's latest researches, together with a valuable history of progress in each separate branch of his subject. In the delicate task of appor- tioning his own large share of merit, he certainly does not err on the side of modesty; but it would perhaps be as difficult to produce an instance of injustice, as of generosity in his estimate of others. Far more serious blame attaches to his all but total suppression in the body of the work — and the fault pervades the whole of his writings — of the names of his predecessors and contemporaries. Theorems and formulae are appropriated wholesale without acknow- ledgment, and a production which may be described as the organized result of a century of patient toil presents itself to the world as the offspring of a single brain. The Mecanique celeste is, even to those most conversant with analytical methods, by no means easy reading. J. B. Biot, who assisted in the correction of its proof sheets, re- marked that it would have extended, had the demonstrations been fully developed, to eight or ten instead of five volumes; and he saw at times the author himself obliged to devote an hour's labour to recovering the dropped links in the chain of reasoning covered by the recurring formula. " II est aise' a voir." a The Exposition du systeme du monde (Paris, 1796) has been styled by Arago " the Mecanique celeste disembarrassed of its analytical paraphernalia." Conclusions are not merely stated in it, but the methods pursued for their attainment are indicated. It has the strength of an analytical treatise, the charm of a popular dissertation. The style is lucid and masterly, and the summary of astronomical history with which it terminates has been reckoned one of the masterpieces of the language. To this linguistic excellence the writer owed the place accorded to him " Plan de 1'Ouvrage," (Euvres, torn. i. p. i. 1 Journal des savants (1850). in 1816 in the Academy, of which institution he became president in the following year. The famous " nebular hypothesis " of Laplace made its appearance in the Systeme du monde. Although relegated to a note (vii.), and propounded " Avec la defiance que doit inspirer tout ce qui n'est point un resultat de 1'observation ou du calcul," it is plain, from the complacency with which he recurred to it 3 at a later date, that he regarded the speculation with considerable interest. That it formed the starting-point, and largely prescribed the course of thought on the subject of planetary origin is due to the simplicity of its assumptions, and the clearness of the mechanical principles involved, rather than to any cogent evidence of its truth. It is curious that Laplace, while bestowing more attention than they deserved on the crude conjectures of Buffon, seems to have been unaware that he had been, to some extent, anticipated by Kant, who had put forward in 1755, in his Allgemeine Naturgeschichte, a true though defective nebular cosmogony. The career of Laplace was one of scarcely interrupted prosperity. Admitted to the Academy of Sciences as an associate in 1773, he became a member in 1785, having, about a year previously, succeeded E. Bezout as examiner to the royal artillery. During an access of revolutionary suspicion, he was removed from the commission of weights and measures; but the slight was quickly effaced by new honours. He was one of the first members, and became president of the Bureau of Longitudes, took a prominent place at the Institute (founded in 1796), professed analysis at the Ecole Normale, and aided in the organization of the decimal system. The publication of the Mecanique celeste gained him world-wide celebrity, and his name appeared on the lists of the principal scientific associations of Europe, including the Royal Society. But scientific distinctions by no means satisfied his ambition. He aspired to the role of a politician, and has left a memorable example of genius degraded to servility for the sake of a riband and a title. The ardour of his republican principles gave place, after the i8th Brumaire, to devotion towards the first consul, a sentiment promptly rewarded with the post of minister of the interior. His incapacity for affairs was, however, so flagrant that it became necessary to supersede him at the end of six weeks, when Lucien Bonaparte became his successor. " He brought into the administration," said Napoleon, " the spirit of the infinitesimals." His failure was consoled by elevation to the senate, of which body he became chancellor in September 1803. He was at the same time named grand officer of the Legion of Honour, and obtained in 1813 the same rank in the new order of Reunion. The title of count he had acquired on the creation of the empire. Nevertheless he cheer- fully gave his voice in 1814 for the dethronement of his patron, and his " suppleness " merited a seat in the chamber of peers, and, in 1817, the dignity of«a marquisate. The memory of these tergiversations is perpetuated in his writings. The first' edition of the Systeme du monde was inscribed to the Council of Five Hundred; to the third volume of the Mecanique celeste (1802) was prefixed the declaration that, of all the truths contained in the work, that most precious to the author was the expression of his gratitude and devotion towards the " pacificator of Europe "; upon which noteworthy protestation the suppression in the editions of the Theorie des probability subsequent to the restoration, of the original dedication to the emperor formed a fitting commentary. During the later years of his life, Laplace lived much at Arcueil, where he had a country-place adjoining that of his friend C. L. Berthollet. With his co-operation the Societe1 d'Arcueil was formed, and he occasionally contributed to its Memoirs. In this peaceful retirement he pursued his studies with unabated ardour, and received with uniform courtesy distinguished visitors from all parts of the world. Here, too, he died, attended by his physician, Dr Majendie, and his mathe- matical coadjutor, Alexis Bouvard, on the 5th of March 1827. His last words were: " Ce que nous connaissons est peu de chose, ce que nous ignorons est immense." Expressions occur in Laplace's private letters inconsistent 3 Mec. eel., torn. v. p. 346. 202 LAPLACE with the atheistical opinions he is commonly believed to have held. His character, notwithstanding the egotism by which it was disfigured, had an amiable and engaging side. Young men of science found in him an active benefactor. His relations with these " adopted children of his thought " possessed a singular charm of affectionate simplicity; their intellectual progress and material interests were objects of equal solicitude to him, and he demanded in return only diligence in the pursuit of knowledge. Biot relates that, when he himself was beginning his career, Laplace introduced him at the Institute for the purpose of explaining his supposed discovery of equations of mixed differences, and afterwards showed him, under a strict pledge of secrecy, the papers, then yellow with age, in which he had long before obtained the same results. This instance of abnegation is the more worthy of record that it formed a marked exception to Laplace's usual course. Between him and A. M. Legendre there was a feeling of " more than coldness," owing to his appropriation, with scant acknowledgment, of the fruits of the other's labours; and Dr Thomas Young counted himself, rightly or wrongly, amongst the number of those similarly aggrieved by him. With Lagrange, on the other hand, he always remained on the best of terms. Laplace left a son, Charles Emile Pierre Joseph Laplace (1780-1874), who succeeded to his title, and rose to the rank of general in the artillery. It might be said that Laplace was a great mathematician by the original structure of his mind, and became a great discoverer through the sentiment which animated it. The regulated enthusiasm with which he regarded the system of nature was with him from first to last. It can be traced in his earliest essay, and it dictated the ravings of his final illness. By it his extra- ordinary analytical powers became strictly subordinated to physical investigations. To this lofty quality of intellect he added a rare sagacity in perceiving analogies, and in detecting the new truths that lay concealed in his formulae, and a tenacity of mental grip, by which problems, once seized, were held fast, year after year, until they yielded up their solutions. In every branch of physical astronomy, accordingly, deep traces of his work are visible. " He would have completed the science of the skies," Baron Fourier remarked," had the science been capable of completion." It may be added that he first examined the conditions of stability of the system formed by Saturn's rings, pointed out the necessity for their rotation, and fixed for it a period (ioh33m ) virtually identical with that established by the observations of Herschel; that he detected the existence in the solar system of an invariable plane such that the sum of the products of the planetary masses by the pro- jections upon it of the areas described by their radii vectores in a given time is a maximum; and made notable advances in the theory of astronomical refraction (Mec. eel. torn. iv. p. 258), besides construct- ing satisfactory formulae for the barometrical determination of heights (Mec. eel. torn. iv. p. 324). Hi* removal of the considerable discrepancy between the actual and Newtonian velocities of sound,1 by taking into account the increase of elasticity due to the heat of compression, would alone have sufficed to illustrate a lesser name. Molecular physics also attracted his notice, and he announced in 1824 his purpose of treating the subject in a separate work. With A. Lavoisier he made an important series of experiments on specific heat (1,782-1784), in the course of which the " ice calorimeter " was invented; and they contributed jointly to the Memoirs of the Academy (1781)3 paper on the development of electricity by evapora- tion. Laplace was, moreover, the first to offer a complete analysis of capillary action based upon a definite hypothesis — that of forces " sensible only at insensible distances "; and he made strenuous but unsuccessful efforts to explain the phenomena of light on an identical principle. It was a favourite idea of his that chemical affinity and capillary attraction would eventually be included under the same law, and it was perhaps because of its recalcitrance to this cherished generalization that the undulatory theory of light was distasteful to him. The investigation of the figure of equilibrium of a rotating fluid mass engaged the persistent attention of Laplace. His first memoir was communicated to the Academy in 1 773, when he was only twenty- four, his last in 1817, when he was sixty-eight. The results of his many papers on this subject — characterized by him as " un des points les plus interessans du syst£me du monde — are embodied in the Mecanique celeste, and furnish one of the most remarkable proofs of his analytical genius. C. Maclaurin, Legendre and d'Alembert had furnished partial solutions of the problem, confining their 1 Annales de chimie et de physique (1816), torn. iii. p. 238. attention to the possible figures which would satisfy the conditions of equilibrium. Laplace treated the subject from the point of view of the gradual aggregation and cooling of a mass of matter, and demon- strated that the form which such a mass would ultimately assume must be an ellipsoid of revolution whose equator was determined by the primitive plane of maximum areas. The related subject of the attraction of spheroide was also signally promoted by him. Legendre, in 1783, extended Maclaurin's theorem concerning ellipsoids of revolution to the case of any spheroid of revolution where the attracted point, instead of being limited to the axis or equator, occupied any position in space; and Laplace, in his treatise Theorie du mouvement et de la figure elliptique des planetes (published in 1784), effected a still further generalization by proving, what had been suspected by Legendre, that the theorem was equally true for any confocal ellipsoids. Finally, in a celebrated memoir, Theorie des attractions des spheroides et de la figure des planetes, published in 1785 among the Paris Memoirs for the year 1782, although written after the treatise of 1784, Laplace treated ex- haustively the general problem of the attraction of any spheroid upon a particle situated outside or upon its surface. These researches derive additional importance from having intro- duced two powerful engines of analysis for the treatment of physical problems, Laplace's coefficients and the potential function. By his discovery that the attracting force in any direction of a mass upon a particle could be obtained by the direct process of differentiating a single function, Laplace laid the foundations of the mathematical sciences of heat, electricity and magnetism. The expressions designated by Dr Whewell, Laplace's coefficients (see SPHERICAL HARMONICS) were definitely introduced in the memoir of 1785 on attractions above referred to. In the figure of the earth, the theory of attractions, and the sciences of electricity and magnetism this powerful calculus occupies a prominent place. C. F. Gauss in particu- lar employed it in the calculation of the magnetic potential of the earth, and it received new light from Clerk Maxwell's interpretation of harmonics with reference to poles on the sphere. Laplace nowhere displayed the massiveness of his genius more conspicuously than in the theory of probabilities. The science which B. Pascal and P. de Fermat had initiated he brought very nearly to perfection; but the demonstrations are so involved, and the omissions in the chain of reasoning so frequent, that the Theorie analytique (1812) is to the best mathematicians a work requiring most arduous study. The theory of probabilities, which Laplace described as common sense expressed in mathematical language, engaged his attention from its importance in physics and astronomy; and he applied his theory, not only to the ordinary problems of chances, but also to the inquiry into the causes of phenomena, vital statistics and future events. The device known as the method of least squares, for reducing numerous equations of condition to the number of unknown quantities to be determined, had been adopted as a practically convenient rule by Gauss and Legendre ; but Laplace first treated it as a problem in probabilities, and proved by an intricate and difficult course of reasoning that it was also the most advantageous, the mean of the probabilities of error in the determination of the elements being thereby reduced to a minimum. Laplace published in 1779 the method of generating functions, the foundation of his theory of probabilities, and the first part of his Theorie analytique is devoted to the exposition of its principles, which in their simplest form consist in treating the successive values of any function as the coefficients in the expansion of another function with reference to a different variable. The latter is there- fore called the generating function of the former. A direct and an inverse calculus is thus created, the object of the former being to determine the coefficients from the generating function, of the latter to discover the generating function from the coefficients. The one is a problem of interpolation, the other a step towards the solution of an equation in finite differences. The method, however, is now obsolete owing to the more extended facilities afforded by the calculus of operations. The first formal proof of Lagrange's theorem for the development in a series of an implicit function was furnished by Laplace, who gave to it an extended generality. He also showed that every equation of an even degree must have at least one real quadratic factor, reduced the solution of linear differential equations to definite integrals, and furnished an elegant method by which the linear partial differential equation of the second order might be solved. He was also the first to consider the difficult problems involved in equations of mixed differences, and to prove that an equation in finite differences of the first degree and the second order might always be converted into a continued fraction. In 1842, the works of Laplace being nearly out of print, his widow was about to sell a farm to procure funds for a new impression, when the government of Louis Philippe took the matter in hand. A grant of 40,000 francs having been obtained from the chamber, a national edition was issued in seven 410 vols., bearing the title CEuvres de Laplace (1843-1847). The Mecanique celeste with its four supple- ments occupies the first 5 vols., the 6th contains the Systeme du monde, and the 7th the Th. des probabilites, to which the more popular Essai philosophique forms an introduction. Of the four supplements added by the author (1816-1825) he tells us that the problems in the LAPLAND 203 last were contributed by his son. An enumeration of Laplace's memoirs and papers (about one hundred in number) is rendered superfluous by their embodiment in his principal works. The Th. des prob. was first published in 1812, the Essai in 1814; and both works as well as the Systeme du monde went through repeated editions. An English version of the Essai appeared in New York in 1902. Laplace's first separate work, Theorie du mouvement et de la figure elliptique des planetes (1784), was published at the expense of President Bochard de Saron. The Precis de I'histoire de I'astro- nomie (1821), formed the fifth book of the 5th edition of the Systeme du monde. An English translation, with copious elucidatory notes, of the first 4 vols. of the Mecanique celeste, by N. Bowditch, was published at Boston, U.S. (1829-1839), in 4 vols. 4to. ; a compendium of certain portions of the same work by Mrs Somerville appeared in 1831, and a German version of the first 2 vols. by Burckhardt at Berlin in 1801. English translations of the Systeme du monde by J. Pond and H. H. Harte were published, the first in 1809, the second in 1830. An edition entitled Les CEuvres completes de Laplace (1878), &c., which is to include all his memoirs as well as his separate works, is in course of publication under the auspices of the Academy of Sciences. The thirteenth 410 volume was issued in 1904. Some of Laplace's results in the theory of probabilities are simplified in S. F. Lacroix's Traite elementaire du calcul des probabilites and De Morgan's Essay, published in Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia. For the history of the subject see A History of the Mathematical Theory of Probability, by Isaac Todhunter (1865). Laplace's treatise on specific heat was published in German in 1892 as No. 40 of W. Ostwald's Klassiker der exacten Wissenschaften. AUTHORITIES. — Baron Fourier's Eloge, Memoires de I'institut, x. Ixxxi. (1831); Revue encyclopedique, xliii. (1829); S. D. Poisson's Funeral Oration (Conn, des Temps, 1830, p. 19); F. X. von Zach, Allg. geographische Ephemeriden, iv. 70 (1799); F. Arago, Annuaire du Bureau des Long. 1844, p. 271, translated among Arago's Bio- graphies of Distinguished Men (1857); J. S. Bailly, Hist, de I'astr. moderne, t. iii.; R. Grant, Hist, of Phys. Astr. p. 50, &c. ; A. Berry, Short Hist, of Astr. p. 306; Max Marie, Hist, des sciences t. x. pp. 69-98; R. Wolf, Geschichte der Astronomie; J. Madler, Gesch. der Himmelskunde, i. 17; W. Whewell, Hist, of the Inductive Sciences, ii. passim; J. C. Poggendorff, Biog-lit. Handworterbuch. (A. M. C.) LAPLAND, or LAPPLAND, a name used to indicate the region of northern Europe inhabited by the Lapps, though not applied to any administrative district. It covers in Norway the division (amter) of Finmarken and the higher inland parts of Tromso and Nordland; in Russian territory the western part of the govern- ment of Archangel as far as the White Sea and the northern part of the Finnish district of Uleaborg; and in Sweden the inland and northern parts of the old province of Norrland, roughly coincident with the districts (Ian) of Norbotten and Vesterbotten, and divided into five divisions — Torne Lappmark, Lule Lappmark, Pile Lappmark, Lycksele Lappmark and Asele Lappmark. The Norwegian portion is thus insignificant; of the Russian only a little lies south of the Arctic circle, and the whole is less accessible and more sparsely populated than the Swedish, the southern boundary of which may be taken arbit- rarily at about 64° N., though scattered families of Lapps occur much farther south, even in the Hardanger Fjeld in Norway. The Scandinavian portion of Lapland presents the usual characteristics of the mountain plateau of that peninsula — on the west side the bold headlands and fjords, deeply-grooved valleys and glaciers of Norway, on the east the long mountain lakes and great lake-fed rivers of Sweden. Russian Lapland is broadly similar to the lower-lying parts of Swedish Lapland, but the great lakes are more generally distributed, and the valleys are less direct. The country is low and gently undulating, broken by detached hills and ridges not exceeding in elevation 2500 ft. In the uplands of Swedish Lapland, and to some extent in Russian Lapland, the lakes afford the principal means of com- munication; it is almost impossible to cross the forests from valley to valley without a native guide. In Sweden the few farms of the Swedes who inhabit the region are on the lake shores, and the traveller must be rowed from one to another in the typical boats of the district, pointed at bow and stern, unusually low amidships, and propelled by short sculls or paddles. Sailing is hardly ever practised, and squalls on the lakes are often dangerous to the rowing-boats. On a few of the lakes wood-fired steam-launches are used in connexion with the timber trade, which is considerable, as practically the whole region is forested. Between the lakes all journeying is made on foot. The heads of the Swedish valleys are connected with the Norwegian fjords by passes generally traversed only by tracks; though from the head of the Ume a driving road crosses to Mo on Ranen Fjord. Each principal valley has a considerable village at or near the tail of the lake-chain, up to which a road runs along the valley. The village consists of wooden cottages with an inn (gastgifvaregdrd), a church, and frequently a collection of huts without windows, closed in summer, but inhabited by the Lapps when they come down from the mountains to the winter fairs. Sometimes there is another church and small settlement in the upper valley, to which, once or twice in a summer, the Lapps come from great distances to attend service. To these, too, they sometimes bring their dead for burial, bearing them if necessary on a journey of many days. Though Lapland gives little scope for husbandry, a bad summer being commonly followed by a winter famine, it is richly furnished with much that is serviceable to man. There are copper-mines at the mountain of Sulitelma, and the iron deposits in Norrland are among the most extensive in the world. Their working is facilitated by the railway from Stockholm to Gellivara, Kirunavara and Narvik on the Nor- wegian coast, which also connects them with the port of Lulea on the Gulf of Bothnia. The supply of timber (pine, fir, spruce and birch) is unlimited. Though fruit-trees will not bear there is an .abundance of edible berries; the rivers and lakes abound with trout, perch, pike and other fish, and in the lower waters with salmon; and the cod, herring, halibut and Greenland shark in the northern seas attract numerous Norwegian and Russian fishermen. The climate is thoroughly Arctic. In the northern parts unbroken daylight in summer and darkness in winter last from two to three months each; and through the greater part of the country the sun does not rise at mid-winter or set at midsummer. In December and January in the far north there is little more daylight than a cold glimmer of dawn; by February, however, there are some hours of daylight; in March the heat of the sun is beginning to modify the cold, and now and in April the birds of passage begin to appear. In April the snow is melting from the branches; spring comes in May; spring flowers are in blossom, and grain is sown. At the end of this month or in June the ice is breaking up on the lakes, woods rush into leaf, and the unbroken daylight of the northern summer soon sets in. July is quite warm; the great rivers come down full from the melting snows in the mountains. August is a rainy month, the time of harvest ; night-frosts may begin already about the middle of the month. All preparations for winter are made during September and October, and full winter has set in by November. The Lapps. — The Lapps (Swed. Lappar; Russian Lopari; Norw. Finner) call their country Sabme or Same, and themselves Samelats — names almost identical with those employed by the Finns for their country and race, and probably connected with a root signifying " dark." Lapp is almost certainly a nickname imposed by foreigners, although some of the Lapps apply it contemptuously to those of their countrymen whom they think to be less civilized than themselves.1 In Sweden and Finland the Lapps are usually divided into fisher, mountain and forest Lapps. In Sweden the first class includes many impoverished mountain Lapps. As described by Laestadius (1827-1832), their condition was very miserable; but since his time matters have improved. The principal colony has its summer quarters on the Stora-Lule Lake, possesses good boats and nets, and, besides catching and drying fish, makes money by the shooting of wild fowl and the gathering of eggs. When he has acquired a little means it is not unusual for the fisher to settle down and reclaim a bit of land. The mountain and forest Lapps are the true representatives of the race. In the wandering life of the mountain Lapp his autumn residence, on the borders of the forest district, may be considered as the central point; it is there that he erects his njalla, a small wooden storehouse raised high above the ground by one or more piles. About the beginning of November he begins to wander south or east into the forest land, and in the winter he may visit, not only 1 The most probable etymology is the Finnish lappu, and in this case the meaning would be the " land's end folk." 204 LAPLAND such places as Jokkmokk and Arjepluog, but even Gefle, Upsala or Stockholm. About the beginning of May he is back at his njalla, but as soon as the weather grows warm he pushes up to the mountains, and there throughout the summer pastures his herds and prepares his store of cheese. By autumn or October he is busy at his njalla killing the tsurplus reindeer bulls and curing meat for the winter. From the mountain Lapp the forest (or, as he used to be called, the spruce-fir) Lapp is mainly distinguished by the narrower limits within which he pursues his nomadic life. He never wanders outside of a certain district, in which he possesses hereditary rights, and maintains a series of camping-grounds which he visits in regular rotation. In May or April he lets his reindeer loose, to wander as they please; but immediately after midsummer, when the mosquitoes become troublesome, he goes to collect them. Catching a single deer and belling it, he drives it through the wood; the other deer, whose instinct leads them to gather into herds for mutual protection against the mosquitoes, are attracted by the sound. Should the summer be very cool and the mosquitoes few, the Lapp finds it next to impossible to bring the creatures together. About the end of August they are again let loose, but they are once more collected in October, the forest Lapp during winter pursuing the same course of life as the mountain Lapp. In Norway there are three classes — the sea Lapps, the river Lapps and the mountain Lapps, the first two settled, the third nomadic. The mountain Lapps have a rather ruder and harder life than the same class in Sweden. About Christmas those of Kautokeino and Karasjok are usually settled in the neighbourhood of the churches; in summer they visit the coast, and in autumn they return inland. Previous to 1852, when they were forbidden by imperial decree, they were wont in winter to move south across the Russian frontiers. It is seldom possible for them to remain more than three or four days in one spot. Flesh is their favourite, in winter almost their only food, though they also use reindeer milk, cheese and rye or barley cakes. The sea Lapps are in some respects hardly to be distinguished from the other coast dwellers of Finmark. Their food consists mainly of cooked fish. The river Lapps, many of whom, however, are descendants of Finns proper, breed cattle, attempt a little tillage and entrust their reindeer to the care of mountain Lapps. In Finland there are comparatively few Laplanders, and the great bulk of them belong to the fisher class. Many are settled in the neighbourhood of the Enare Lake. In the spring they go down to the Norwegian coast and take part in the sea fisheries, returning to the lake about midsummer. Formerly they found the capture of wild reindeer a profitable occupation, using for this purpose a palisaded avenue gradually narrowing towards a pitfall. The Russian Lapps are also for the most part fishers, as is natural in a district with such an extent of coast and such a number of lakes, not to mention the advantage which the fisher has over the reindeer keeper in connexion with the many fasts of the Greek Church. They maintain a half nomadic life, very few having become settlers in the Russian villages. It is usual to distinguish them according to the district of the coast which they frequent, as Murman (Murmanski) and Terian (Terski) Lapps. A separate tribe, the Filmans, i.e Finnmans, wander about the Pazyets, Motov and Pechenga tundras, and retain the peculiar dialect and the Lutheran creed which they owe to a former connexion with Sweden. They were formerly known as the " twice and thrice tributary " Lapps, because they paid to two or even three states — Russia, Denmark and Sweden. The Lapps within the historical period have considerably recruited themselves from neighbouring races. Shortness of stature1 is their most obvious characteristic, though in regard to this much exaggeration has prevailed. Dtiben found .an average of 4-9 ft. for males and a little less for females; Mante- gazza, who made a number of anthropological observations in Norway in 1879, gives 5 ft. and 4-75 ft., respectively (Archimo 1 Hence they have been supposed by many to be the originals of the " little folk " of Scandinavian legend. per Vantrop., 1880). Individuals much above or much below the average are rare. The body is usually of fair proportions, but the legs are rather short, and in many cases somewhat bandy. Dark, swarthy, yellow, copper-coloured are all adjectives employed to describe their complexion — the truth being that their habits of life do not conduce either to the preservation or display of the natural colour of their skin, and that some of them are really fair, and others, perhaps the majority, really dark. The colour of the hair ranges from blonde and reddish to a bluish or greyish black; the eyes are black, hazel, blue or grey. The shape of the skull is the most striking peculiarity of the Lapp. He is the most brachycephalous type of man in Europe, perhaps in the world.2 According to Virchow, the women in width of face are more Mongolian in type than the men, but neither in men nor women does the opening of the eye show any true obliquity. In children the eye is large, open and round. The nose is always low and broad, more markedly retrousse among the females than the males. Wrinkled and puckered by exposure to the weather, the faces even of the younger Lapps assume an appearance of old age. The muscular system is usually well developed, but there is deficiency of fatty tissue, which affects the features (particularly by giving relative prominence to the eyes) and the general character of the skin. The thinness of the skin, indeed, can but rarely be paralleled among other Europeans. Among the Lapps, as among other lower races, the index is shorter than the ring finger. The Lapps are a quiet, inoffensive people. Crimes of violence are almost unknown, and the only common breach of law is the killing of tame reindeer belonging to other owners. In Russia, however, they have a bad reputation for lying and general untrustworthiness, and drunkenness is well-nigh a universal vice. In Scandinavia laws have been directed against the importation of intoxicating liquors into the Lapp country since 1723. Superficially at least the great bulk of the Lapps have been Christianized — those of the Scandinavian countries being Pro- testants, those of Russia members of the Greek Church. Al- though the first attempt to convert the Lapps to Christianity seems to have been made in the nth century, the worship of heathen idols was carried on openly in Swedish Lappmark as late as 1687, and secretly in Norway down to the first quarter of the 1 8th century, while the practices of heathen rites survived into the igth century, if indeed they are extinct even yet. Lapp graves, prepared in the heathen manner, have been discovered in upper Namdal (Norway), belonging to the years 1820 and 1826. In education the Scandinavian Lapps are far ahead of their Russian brethren, to whom reading and writing are arts as unfamiliar as they were to their pagan ancestors. The general manner of life is patriarchal. The father of the family has complete authority over all its affairs; and on his death this authority passes to the eldest son. Parents are free to disinherit their children; and, if a son separates from the family without his father's permission, he receives no share of the property except a gun and his wife's dowry.3 The Lapps are of necessity conservative in most of their habits, many of which can hardly have altered since the first taming of the reindeer. But the strong current of mercantile enterprise has carried a few important products of southern civilization into their huts. The lines in which James Thomson describes their simple life — The reindeer form their riches: these their tents, Their robes, their beds, and all their homely wealth Supply ; their wholesome fare and cheerful cups — are still applicable in the main to the mountain Lapps; but even they have learned to use coffee as an ordinary beverage and to wear stout Norwegian cloth (vadmal). Linguistically the Lapps belong to the Finno-Ugrian group (q.v.) ; the similarity of their speech to Finnish is evident though 2 Bertillon found in one instance a cephalic index of 94. The average obtained by Pruner Bey was 84-7, by Virchow 82-5. 3 A valuable paper by Ephimenko, on " The Legal Customs of the Lapps, especially in Russian Lapland," appeared in vol. viii. of the Mem. of Russ. Geog. Soc., Ethnog. Section, 1878. LAPLAND 205 the phonetics are different and more complicated. It is broken up into very distinct and even mutually unintelligible dialects, the origin of several of which is, however, easily found in the political and social dismemberment of the people. Diiben distinguishes four leading dialects; but a much greater number are recognizable. In Russian Lapland alone there are three, due to the influence of Norwegian, Karelian and Russian (Lonnrot, Acta Soc. Sci. Fennicae, vol. iv.). "The Lapps," says Castren, "have had the misfortune to come into close contact with foreign races while their language was yet in its tenderest infancy, and consequently it has not only adopted an endless number of foreign words, but in many gram- matical aspects fashioned itself after foreign models." That it began at a very early period to enrich itself with Scandinavian words is shown by the use it still makes of forms belonging to a linguistic stage older even than that of Icelandic. Diiben Language. ]las subjected the vocabulary to a very interesting analysis for the purpose of discovering what stage of culture the people had reached before their contact with the Norse. Agricultural terms, the names of the metals and the word for smith are all of ^Scandi- navian origin, and the words for " taming " and " milk " would suggest that the southern strangers taught the Lapps how to turn the reindeer to full account. The important place, however, which this creature must always have held in their estimation is evident from the existence of more than three hundred native words in con- nexion with reindeer. The Lapp tongue was long ago reduced to writing by the mission- aries; but very little has been printed in it except school-books and religious works. A number of popular tales and songs, indeed, have been taken down from the lips of the people. The songs are similar to those of the Finns, and a process of mutual borrowing seems to have gone on. In one of the saga-like pieces — Pishan-Peshan's son — there seems to be a mention of the Baikal Lake, and possibly also of the Altai Mountains. The story of Njavvisena, daughter of the Sun, is full of quaint folk-lore about the taming of the reindeer. Giants, as well as a blind or one-eyed monster, are frequently intro- duced, and the Aesopic fable is not without its representatives. Many of the Lapps are able to speak one or even two of the neigh- bouring tongues. The reputation of the Laplanders for skill in magic and divination is of very early date, and in Finland is not yet extinct. When Erik Blood-axe, son of Harold Haarfager, visited Bjarmaland in 922, he found Gunhild, daughter of Asur Tote, living among the Lapps, to whom she had been sent by her father for the purpose of being trained in witchcraft; and Ivan the Terrible of Russia sent for magicians from Lapland to explain the cause of the appearance of a comet. One of the powers with which they were formerly credited was that of raising winds. " They tye three knottes," says old Richard Eden, " on a strynge hangyng at a whyp. When they lose one of these they rayse tollerable wynds. When they lose an other the wynde is more vehement; but by losing the thyrd they rayse playne tempestes as in old tyme they were accustomed to rayse thunder and lyghtnyng " (Hist, of Trauayle, 1577). Though we are familiar in English with allusions to " Lapland witches," it appears that the art, according to native custom, was in the hands of the men. During his divination the wizard fell into a state of trance or ecstasy, his soul being held to run at large to pursue its witfh' inquiries. Great use was made of a curious divining- drum, oval in shape and made of wood, I to 4 ft. in length. Over the upper surface was stretched a white-dressed reindeer skin, and at the corners (so to speak) hung a variety of charms — tufts of wool, bones, teeth, claws, &c. The area was divided into several spaces, often into three, one for the celestial gods, one for the terrestrial and one for man. A variety of figures and conventional signs were drawn in the several compartments: the sun, for in- stance, is frequently represented by a square and a stroke from each corner, Thor by two hammers placed crosswise; and in the more modern specimens symbols for Christ, the Virgin, and the Holy Ghost are introduced. An arpa or divining-rod was laid on a definite spot, the drum beaten by a hammer, and conclusions drawn from the position taken up by the arpa. Any Lapp who had attained to manhood could in ordinary circumstances consult the drum for himself, but in matters of unusual moment the professional wizard (naid, noide or noaide) had to be called in. History. — The Lapps have a dim tradition that their ancestors lived in a far eastern land, and they tell rude stories of conflicts with Norsemen and Karelians. But no answer can be obtained from them in regard to their early distribution and movements. It has been maintained that they were formerly spread over the whole of the Scandinavian peninsula, and they have even been considered the remnants of that primeval race of cave-dwellers which hunted the reindeer over the snow-fields of central and western Europe. But much of the evidence adduced for these theories is highly questionable. The contents of the so-called Lapps' graves found in vaiious parts of Scandinavia are often sufficient in themselves to show that the appellation must be a misnomer, and the syllable Lap or Lapp found in many names of places can often be proved to have no connnexion with the pps.1 They occupied their present territory when they are first mentioned in history. According to Diiben the name first occurs in the i3th century — in the Fundinn Noregr, composed about 1 200, in Saxo Grammaticus, and in a papal bull of date 1230; but the people are probably to be identified with those Finns of Tacitus whom he describes as wild hunters with skins 'or clothing and rude huts as only means of shelter, and certainly with the Skrithiphinoi of Procopius (Goth. ii. 15), the Scritobini of Paulus Warnefridus, and the Scridifinni of the geographer of Ravenna. Some of the details given by Procopius, in regard :or instance to the treatment of infants, show that his informant was acquainted with certain characteristic customs of the Lapps. In the 9th century the Norsemen from Norway began to treat ;heir feeble northern neighbours as a subject race. The wealth of Dttar, " northmost of the northmen," whose narrative has been areserved by King Alfred, consisted mainly of six hundred of those " deer they call hrenas " and in tribute paid by the natives; and the Eigils saga tells how Brynjulf Bjargulfson had his right to collect contributions from the Finns (i.e. the Lapps) recognized by Harold Haarfager. So much value was attached to this source of wealth that as early as 1050 strangers were excluded from the fur- trade of Finmark, and a kind of coast-guard prevented their intrusion. Meantine the Karelians were pressing on the eastern Lapps, and in the course of the llth century the rulers of Novgorod began to treat them as the Norsemen had treated their western brethren. The ground-swell of the Tatar invasion drove the Karelians west- ward in the I3th century, and for many years even Finmark was so unsettled that the Norsemen received no tribute from the Lapps. At length in 1326 a treaty was concluded between Norway and Russia by which the supremacy of the Norwegians over the Lapps was recognized as far east as Voljo beyond Kandalax on the White Sea, and the supremacy of the Russians over the Karelians as far as Lyngen and the Malself. The relations of the Lapps to their more powerful neighbours were complicated by the rivalry of the different Scandinavian kingdoms. After the disruption of the Calmar Union (1523) Sweden began to assert its rights with vigour, and in 1595 the treaty of Teusina between Sweden and Russia decreed " that the Lapps who dwell in the woods between eastern Bothnia and Varanger shall pay their dues to the king of Sweden." It was in vain that Christian IV. of Denmark visited Kola and exacted homage in 1599, and every year sent messengers to protest against the collection of his tribute by the Swedes (a custom which continued down to 1806). Charles of Sweden took the title of " king of the Kajans and Lapps," and left no means untried to establish his power over all Scandinavian Lapland. By the peace of Knarod (1613) Gustavus Adolphus gave up the Swedish claim to Finmark; and in 1751 mutual renunciations brought the relations of Swedish and Norwegian (Danish) Lapland to their present position. Mean- while Russian influence had been spreading westward; and in 1809, when Alexander I. finally obtained the cession of Finland, he also added to his dominions the whole of Finnish Lapland to the east of the Muonio and the Kongama. It may be interesting to mention that Lapps, armed with bows and arrows, were attached to certain regiments of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany during the Thirty Years' War. The Lapps have had the ordinary fate of a subject and defenceless people; they have been utilized with little regard to their own interest or inclinations. The example set by the early Norwegians was followed by the Swedes: a peculiar class of adventurers known as the Birkarlians (from Bjark or Birk, " trade ") began in the I3th century to farm the Lapps, and, receiving very extensive privileges from the kings, grew to great wealth and influence. In 1606 there were twenty-two Birkarlians in Tornio, seventeen in Lule, sixteen in Pite, and sixty-six in Ume Lappmark. They are regularly spoken of as having or owning Lapps, whom they dispose of as any other piece of property. In Russian Lapland matters followed much the same course. The very institutions of the Solovets monastery, in- tended by St Tryphon for the benefit of the poor neglected pagans, turned out the occasion of much injustice towards them. By a charter of Ivan Vasilivitch (November 1556), the monks are declared masters of the Lapps of the Motoff and Petchenga districts, and they soon sought to extend their control over those not legally assigned to them (Ephimenko). Other monasteries were gifted 1 The view that the Lapps at one time occupied the whole of the Scandinavian peninsula, and have during the course of centuries been driven back by the Swedes and Norwegians is disproved by the recent investigations of Yngvar Nielsen, K. B. Wiklund and others. The fact is, the Lapps are increasing in numbers, as well as pushing their way farther and farther south. In the beginning of the i6th century their southern border-line in Norway ran on the upper side of 64° N. In 1890 they forced their way to the head of the Hardanger Fjord in 60° N. In Sweden the presence of Lapps as far south as Jamtland (or Jemtland) is first mentioned in 1564. In 1881 they pushed on into the north of Dalecarlia, about 61° 45'N. 206 LA PLATA— LAPPA with similar proprietary rights; and the supplication of the patriarch Nikon to Alexis Mikhaelovitch, for example, shows clearly the oppression to which the Lapps were subjected. It is long, however, since these abuses were abolished; and in Scandinavia more especially the Lapps of the present day enjoy the advantages resulting from a large amount of philanthropic legisla- tion on the part of their rulers. There seems to be no fear of their becoming extinct, except it may be by gradual amalgamation with their more powerful neighbours. In Norway the total number of Lapps was 20,786 in 1891, and in Sweden in 1904 it was officially estimated that there were 7000. Add to these some 3000 for Russian Lapland, and the total Lapp population approximates to 30,000. In Sweden the Lapps are gradually abandoning their nomadic habits and becoming merged in the Swedish population. The majority of the Norwegian Lapps lead a semi-nomadic existence; but the number of inveterate nomads can scarcely reach 1500 at the present day. In Sweden there are about 3500 nomads. AUTHORITIES. — G. von Diiben, Om Lappland och Lapparne (Stockholm, 1873), with list of over 200 authorities; C. Rabot, " La Laponie suedoise d'apres les recentes explorations de MM. Svenonius et Hamberg," La Geographic, Soc. Geog. de Paris VII. (1903) ; S. Passarge, Fahrten in Schweden, besonders in Nordschweden und Lappland (Berlin, 1897) ; Bayard Taylor, Northern Travel (London, 1858); E. Rae, The While Sea Peninsula (London, 1882), and Land of the North Wind (London, 1875); P. B. du Chaillu, Land of the Midnight Sun (London, 1881); S. Tromholt, Under the Rays of the Aurora Borealis (London, 1885); Y. Nielsen, Det Norske geogr. Selskabs Aarbog (1891); H. H. Reusch, Folk og natur i Finmarken (1895); K. B. Wicklund, De Svenska nomadlapparnas Ayttningar till Norge i dlore och nyare tid (Upsala, 1908) ; see also SWEDEN. Among older works may be mentioned Scheffer, Lapponia (Frankfurt, 1673, English trans. Oxford, 1674) ; Regnard, Voyage de Laponie, English version in Pinkerton's Voyages, vol. i.; Leem, Besknvelse over Finmarkens Lapper (Copenhagen, 1767), in Danish and Latin; see also Pinkerton, loc. cit.\ Sir A. de C. Brooke, A Winter in Lapland (London, 1827); Laestadius, Journal (1831). As to the language, J. A. Friis, professor of Lapp in the university of Christiania, has published Lappiske Sprogprover: en samling lapp. eventyr, ordsprog, og g&der (Christiania, 1856), and Lappish mythologi eventyr og folkesagn (Christiania, 1871). See also G. Donner, Lieder der Lappen (Helsingfors, 1876); Poestion, Lapp- landische Mdrchen, &c. (Vienna, 1885). Grammars of the Lapp tongue have been published by Fjellstrom (1738), Leem (1748), Rask (1832), Stockfleth (1840); lexicons by Fjellstrom (1703), Leem (1768-1781), Lindahl (1780), Stockfleth (1852). Among more recent works may be mentioned a dictionary (1885), by J. A. Friis; a reader, with German translations (1888), by J. Qvigstad; a dictionary (1890) and two grammars (1891 and 1897) of the Lulea dialect, and a chrestomathy of Norwegian Lappish (1894), by K. B. Wiklund; a dictionary of Russian Lappish, or the Kola dialect (1891), by A. Genetz; readers of different dialects (1885-1896), by J. Halasz; and a grammar of Norwegian Lappish (1882), by S. Nielsen; further, a comparative study of Lappish and Finnish by Qvigstad in the Acts of the Finnish Academy of Science, vol. xii., 1883; the same author's Nordische Lehnworter im Lappischen (1893); Wiklund, Entwurf einer urlappischen Lautlehre (1896); see also various articles by these writers, Paasonen and others in the Journal de la Societe Fmno-Ougrienne and the Finnisch-Ugrische Forschungen; Qvigstad and Wiklund, Bibliographie der lappischen Liter atur (1900). The older literature on the Lapps received a notable addition by the discovery in 1896, among the letters of Linnaeus preserved in the British Museum, of a MS. diary of a journey made in 1695 to the north of Swedish Lappmark by Olof Rudbeck the younger. On missionary work see Stockfleth, Dagbog over mine missions Reiser (1860); E. Haller, Svenska Kyrkans mission i Lappmarken (1896). It was not until 1840 that the New Testament was translated into Norwegian Lappish, and not until 1895 that the entire Bible was printed in the same dialect. In the Russian dialect of Lappish there exist only two versions of St Matthew's gospel. LA PLATA, a city of Argentina and capital of the province of Buenos Aires, 5 m. inland from the port of Ensenada, or La Plata, and about 31 m. S.E. of the city of Buenos Aires, with which it is connected by rail. Pop. (1895) 45,609; (1907, estimate) 84,000. La Plata was founded in 1882, two years after Buenos Aires had been constituted a federal district and made the national capital. This necessitated the selection of another provincial capital, which resulted in the choice of an open plain near the former port of Ensenada de Barragan, on which a city was laid out after the plan of Washington. The streets are so wide that they seem out of proportion to the low brick buildings. The principal public buildings, constructed of brick and stucco, are the government-house, assembly building, treasury, municipal hall, cathedral, courts of justice, police headquarters, provincial museum and railway station. The museum, originally presented by Dr Moreno, has become one of the most important in South America, its palaeontological and anthropological collections being unique. There are also a university, national college, public library, astronomical observatory, several churches, two hospitals and two theatres. A noteworthy public park is formed by a large plantation of eucalyptus trees, which have grown to a great height and present an imposing appearance on the level, treeless plain. Electricity is in general use for public and private lighting, and tramways are laid down in the principal streets and extend eastward to the port. The harbour of the port of La Plata consists of a large artificial basin, 1450 yds. long by 150 yds. wide, with approaches, in addition to the old port of Ensenada, which are capable of receiving the largest vessels that can navigate the La Plata estuary. Up to the opening of the new port works of Buenos Aires a large part of the ocean-going traffic of Buenos Aires passed through the port of La Plata. It has good railway con- nexions with the interior, and exports cattle and agricultural produce. LAPORTE, ROLAND (1675-1704), Camisard leader, better known as " Roland," was born at Mas Soubeyran (Card) in a cottage which has become the property of the Societe de 1'Histoire du Protestantisme francais, and which contains relics of the hero. He was a nephew of Laporte, the Camisard leader who was hunted down and shot in October 1702, and he himself became the leader of a band of a thousand men which he formed into a disciplined army with magazines, arsenals and hospitals. For daring in action and rapidity of movement he was second only to Cavalier. These two leaders in 1702 secured entrance to the town of Sauve under the pretence of being royal officers, burnt the church and carried off provisions and ammunition for their forces. Roland, who called himself " general of the children of God," terrorized the country between Nimes and Alais, burning churches and houses, and slaying those suspected of hostility against the Huguenots, though without personally taking any part of the spoil. Cavalier was already in negotiation with Marshal Villars when Roland cut to pieces a Catholic regiment at Fontmorte in May 1704. He refused to lay down his arms without definite assurance of the restoration of the privileges accorded by the Edict of Nantes. Villars then sought to negotiate, offering Roland the command of a regiment on foreign service and liberty of conscience, though not the free exercise of their religion, for his co-religionists. This parley had no results, but Roland was betrayed to his enemies, and on the I4th of August 1704 was shot while defending himself against his captors. The five officers who were with him surrendered, and were broken on the wheel at Nimes. Roland's death put an end to the effective resistance of the Cevenols. See A. Court, Histoire des troubles des Cevennes (Villefranche, 1760) ; H. M. Baird, The Huguenots and the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (2 vols., London, 1895), and other literature dealing with the Camisards. LA PORTE, a city and the county seat of La Porte county, Indiana, U.S.A., 12 m. S. of Lake Michigan and about 60 m. S.E. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 7126; (1900) 7113 (1403 foreign- born); (1910) 10,525. It is served by the Lake Erie & Western, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Pere Marquette, the Chicago, South Bend & Northern Indiana (electric), and the Chicago-New York Electric Air Line railways. La Porte lies in the midst of a fertile agricultural region, and the shipment of farm and orchard products is one of its chief in- dustries. There are also numerous manufactures. La Forte's situation in the heart of a region of beautiful lakes (including Clear, Pine and Stone lakes) has given it a considerable reputation as a summer resort. The lakes furnish a large supply of clear ice, which is shipped to the Chicago markets. La Porte was settled in 1830, laid out in 1833, incorporated as a town in 1835, and first chartered as a city in 1852. LAPPA, an island directly opposite the inner harbour of Macao, the distance across being from i to ij m. It is a station of the Chinese imperial maritime customs which collects duties on vessels trading between China and the Portuguese colony LAPPARENT— LAPWING 207 of Macao. The arrangement is altogether abnormal, and was consented to by the Portuguese government in 1887 to assist the Chinese authorities in the suppression of opium smuggling. A similar arrangement prevails at the British colony of Hong- Kong, where the Chinese customs station is Kowloon. In both cases the customs stations levy duties on vessels entering and leaving the foreign port in lieu of levying them, as ought to be done, on entering or leaving a Chinese port. LAPPARENT, ALBERT AUGUSTE COCHON DE (1830-1908), French geologist, was born at Bourges on the 3oth of December 1839. After studying at the Ecole Polytechnique from 1858 to 1860 he became ingenieur au corps des mines, and took part in drawing up the geological map of France; and in 1875 he was appointed professor of geology and mineralogy at the Catholic Institute, Paris. In 1879 he prepared an important memoir for the geological survey of France on Le Pays de Bray, a subject on which he had already published several memoirs, and in 1880 he served as president of the French Geological Society. In 1881-1883 he published his Traite de geologic (sth ed., 1905), the best European text-book of stratigraphical geology. His other works include Cours de mineralogie (1884, 3rd ed., 1899), La Formation des combustibles miner aux (1886), Le Niveau de la mer et ses variations (1886), Les TremUements de terre (1887), La Geologic en chemin defer (1888), Precis de mineralogie (1888), Le Siecle du fer (1890), Les Anciens Glaciers (1893), Leqons de geographie physique (1896), Notions generales sur I'ecorce terrestre (1897), Le Globe terrestre (1899), and Science et apologetique (1905). With Achille Delesse he was for many years editor of the Revue de geologic and contributed to the Extraits de geologie, and he joined with A. Potier in the geological surveys undertaken in connexion with the Channel Tunnel proposals. He died in Paris on the 5th of May 1908. LAPPENBERG, JOHANN MARTIN (1794-1865), German historian, was born on the 3oth of July 1794 at Hamburg, where his father, Valentin Anton Lappenberg (1759-1819), held an official position. He studied medicine, and afterwards history, at Edinburgh. He continued to study history in London, and at Berlin and Gottingen, graduating as doctor of laws at Gottingen in 1816. In 1820 he was sent by the Hamburg senate as resident minister to the Prussian court. In 1823 he became keeper of the Hamburg archives; an office in which he had the fullest opportunities for the laborious and critical research work upon which his reputation as an historian rests. He retained this post until 1863, when a serious affection of the eyes compelled him to resign. In 1850 he represented Hamburg in the German parliament at Frankfort, and his death took place at Hamburg on the 28th of November 1865. Lappenberg's most important work is his Geschichle wn England, which deals with the history of England from the earliest times to 1154, and was published in two volumes at Hamburg in 1834-1837. It has been trans- lated into English by B. Thorpe as History of England under the Anglo-Saxon Kings (London 1845, and again 1881), and History of England under the Norman Kings (Oxford, 1857), and has been continued in three additional volumes from 1154 to 1509 by R. Pauli. His other works deal mainly with the history of Hamburg, and include Hamburgische Chroniken in Nieder- siichsischer Sprache (Hamburg, 1852-1861); Geschichtsquellen des Erzstiftes und der Stadt Bremen (Bremen, 1841); Hamburgisches Urkundenbuch (Hamburg, 1842); Urkundliche Geschifhte des Hansischen Stahlhofes zu London (Hamburg, 1851); Hambur- gische Rechlsalterthiimer (Hamburg, 1845); and Urkundliche Geschichte des Ursprunges der deutschen Hanse (Hamburg, 1830), a continuation of the work of G. F. Sartorius. For the Monu- menla Germaniae historica he edited the Chronicon of Thietmar of Merseburg, the Gesta Hammenburgensis ecclesiae pontificum of Adam of Bremen and the Chronica Slavorum of Helmold, with its continuation by Arnold of Liibeck. Lappenberg, who was a member of numerous learned societies in Europe, wrote many other historical works. See E. H. Meyer, Johann Martin Lappenberg (Hamburg, 1867); and R. Pauli in the Allgemeine deutsche Biographic, Band xvii. (Leipzig, 1883). LAPRADE, PIERRE MARTIN VICTOR RICHARD DE (1812- 1883), known as VICTOR DE LAPRADE, French poet and critic, was born on the I3th of January 1812 at Montbrison, in the department of the Loire. He came of a modest provincial family. After completing his studies at Lyons, he produced in 1839 a small volume of religious verse, Les Parfums de Madeleine. This was followed in 1840 by La Colere de Jesus, in 1841 by the religious fantasy of Psyche, and in 1844 by Odes et poemes. In 1845 Laprade visited Italy on a mission of literary research, and in 1847 he was appointed professor of French literature at Lyons. The French Academy, by a single vote, preferred Emile Augier at the election in 1857, but in the following year Laprade was chosen to fill the chair of Alfred de Musset. In 1861 he was removed from his post at Lyons owing to the publication of a political satire in verse (Les Muses d'Etat), and in 1871 took his seat in the National Assembly on the benches of the Right. He died on the I3th of December 1883. A statue has been raised by his fellow-townsmen at Montbrison. Besides those named above, Laprade's poetical works include Poemes evangeliques (1852), Idylles heroiques (1858), Les Voix de silence (1864), Pernette (1868), Poemes civiles (1873), Le Lime d'un pere (1877), .Varia and Livre des adieux (1878-1879). In prose he published, in 1840, Des habitudes intellect uelles de I'avocat. Questions d'art et de morale appeared in 1861, succeeded by Le Sentiment de la nature, avant le Christianisme in 1866, and Chez les modernes in 1868, Education liberals in 1873. The material for these books had in some cases been printed earlier, after delivery as a lecture. He also contributed articles to the Revue des deux mondes and the Revue de Paris. No writer represents more perfectly than Laprade the admirable genius of French provincial life, its homely simplicity, its culture, its piety and its sober patriotism. As a poet he belongs to the school of Chateaubriand and Lamartine. Devoted to the best classical models, inspired by a sense of the ideal, and by worship of nature as revealing the divine — gifted, too, with a full faculty of expression — he lacked only fire and passion in the equipment of a romantic poet. But the want of these, and the pressure of a certain chilly facility and of a too conscious philosophizing have prevented him from reaching the first rank, or from even attain- ing the popularity due to his high place in the second. Only in his patriotic verse did he shake himself clear from these trammels. Speaking generally, he possessed some of the qualities, and many of the defects, of the English Lake School. Laprade's prose criticisms must be ranked high. Apart from his classical and metaphysical studies, he was widely read in the literatures of Europe, and built upon the groundwork of a naturally correct taste. His dislike of irony and scepticism probably led him to underrate the product of the i8th century, and there are signs of a too fastidious dread of Philistinism. But a constant love of the best, a joy in nature and a lofty patriotism are not less evident than in his poetry. Few writers of any nation have fixed their minds so steadily on whatsoever things are pure, and lovely and of good report. See also Edmond Eire, Victor de Laprade, sa vie et ses teuvres. (C.) LAPSE (Lat. lapsus, a slip or departure), in law, a term used in several senses, (i) In ecclesiastical law, when a patron has neglected to present to a void benefice within six months next after the avoidance, the right of presentation is said to lapse. In such case the patronage or right of presentation devolves from the neglectful patron to the bishop as ordinary, to the metropolitan as superior and to the sovereign as patron para- mount. (2) The failure of a testamentary disposition in favour of any person, by reason of the decease of its object in the testator's lifetime, is termed a lapse. See LEGACY, WILL. LAPWING (O.Eng. hleapemnce= "one who turns about in running or flight "),' a bird, the Tringa vanellus of Linnaeus and the Vanellus vulgaris or V. cristalus of modern ornithologists. 1 Skeat, Etym. Diet. (1898), s.v. Caxton in 1481 has " lapwynches " (Reynard the Fox, cap. 27). The first part of the word is from hleapan, to leap ; the second part is " wink " (O.H.G. winchan, Ger. wanken, to waver). Popular etymology has given the word its present form, as if it meant " wing-flapper, from " lap," a fold or flap of a garment. 208 LAPWORTH— LAR In the temperate parts of the Old World this species is perhaps the most abundant of the plovers, Charadriidae, breeding in almost every suitable place from Ireland to Japan — the majority migrating towards winter to southern countries, as the Punjab, Egypt and Barbary — though in the British Islands some are always found at that season. As a straggler it has occurred within the Arctic Circle (as on the Varanger Fjord in Norway) , as well as in Iceland and even Greenland; while it not unfrequently appears in Madeira and the Azores. Conspicuous as the strongly contrasted colours of its plumage and its very] peculiar flight make it, it is remarkable that it maintains its ground when so many of its allies have been almost exterminated, for the lap- wing is the object perhaps of greater persecution than any other European bird that is not a plunderer. Its eggs are the well- known " plovers' eggs " of commerce,1 and the bird, wary and wild at other times of the year, in the breeding-season becomes easily approachable, and is shot to be sold in the markets for " golden plover." Its growing scarcity in Great Britain was very perceptible until the various acts for the protection of wild birds were passed. It is now abundant and is of service both for the market and to agriculture. What seems to be the secret of the lapwing holding its position is the adaptability of its nature to various kinds of localities. It will find sustenance equally on the driest of soils as on the fattest pastures; upland and fen, arable and moorland, are alike to it, provided only the ground be open enough. The wailing cry2 and the frantic gestures of the cock bird in the breeding-season will tell any passer-by that a nest or brood is near; but, unless he knows how to look for it, nothing save mere chance will enable him to find it. The nest is a slight hollow in the ground, wonderfully inconspicuous even when deepened, as is usually the case, by incubation, and the black- spotted olive eggs (four in number) are almost invisible to the careless or untrained eye. The young when first hatched are clothed with mottled down, so as closely to resemble a stone, and to be overlooked as they squat motionless on the approach of danger. At a distance the plumage of the adult appears to be white and black in about equal proportions, the latter predominating above; but on closer examination nearly all the seeming black is found to be a bottle-green gleaming with purple and copper; the tail-coverts, both above and below, are of a bright bay colour, seldom visible in flight. The crest consists of six or eight narrow and elongated feathers, turned slightly upwards at the end, and is usually carried in a horizontal position, extending in the cock beyond the middle of the back; but it is capable of being erected so as to become nearly vertical. Frequenting parts of the open country so very divergent in character, and as remarkable for the peculiarity of its flight as for that of its cry, the lapwing is far more often observed in nearly all parts of the British Islands than any other of the group Limicolae. The peculiarity of its flight seems due to the wide and rounded wings it possesses, the steady and ordinarily 1 There is a prevalent belief that many of the eggs sold as "plovers' " are those of rooks, but no notion can be more absurd, since the appearance of the two is wholly unlike. Those of the redshank, of the golden plover (to a small extent), and enormous numbers of those of the black-headed gull, and in certain places of some of the terns, are, however, sold as lapwings', having a certain similarity of shell to the latter, and a difference of flavour only to be detected by a fine palate. 1 This sounds like pee-weet, with some variety of intonation. Hence the names peewit, peaseweep and teuchit, commonly ap- Elied in some parts of Britain to this bird — though the first is that y which one of the smaller gulls, Larus ridibundus (see GULL), is known in the districts it frequents. In Sweden Vipa, in Germany Kiebitz, in Holland Kiewiet, and in France Dixhuit, are names of the lapwing, given to it from its usual cry. Other English names are green plover and hornpie — the latter from its long hornlike crest and pied plumage. The lapwing's conspicuous crest seems to have been the cause of a common blunder among English writers of the middle ages, who translated the Latin word Upupa, property hoopoe, by lapwing, as being the crested bird with which they were best ac- quainted. _ In like manner other writers of the same or an earlier period latinized lapwing by Egrettides (plural), and rendered that again into English as egrets — the tuft of feathers misleading them also. The word Vanellus is from vannus, the fan used for winnowing corn, and refers to the audible beating of the bird's wings. somewhat slow flapping of which impels the body at each stroke with a manifest though easy jerk. Yet on occasion, as when performing its migrations, or even its almost daily transits from one feeding-ground to another, and still more when being pursued by a falcon, the speed with which it moves through the air is very considerable. On the ground this bird runs nimbly, and is nearly always engaged in searching for its food, which is wholly animal. Allied to the lapwing are several forms that have been placed by ornithologists in the genera Hoplopterus, Chettusia, Lobi- •uanellus, Defilippia. In some of them the hind toe, which has already ceased to have any function in the lapwing, is wholly wanting. In others the wings are armed with a tubercle or even a sharp spur on the carpus. Few have any occipital crest, but several have the face ornamented by the outgrowth of a fleshy lobe or lobes. With the exception of North America, they are found in most parts of the world, but perhaps the greater number in Africa. Europe has three species — Hoplopterus spinosus, the spur-winged plover, and Chettusia gregaria and C. leucura; but the first and last are only stragglers from Africa and Asia. (A. N.) LAPWORTH, CHARLES (1842- ), English geologist, was born at Faringdon in Berkshire on the 3oth of September 1842. He was educated partly in the village of Buckland in the same county, and afterwards in the training college at Culham, near Oxford (1862-1864). He was then appointed master in a school connected with the Episcopal church at Galashiels, where he remained eleven years. Geology came to absorb all his leisure time, and he commenced to investigate the Silurian rocks of the Southern Uplands, and to study the graptolites and other fossils which mark horizons in the great series of Lower Palaeozoic rocks. His first paper on the Lower Silurian rocks of Galashiels was published in 1870, and from that date onwards he continued to enrich our knowledge of the southern uplands of Scotland until the publication by the Geological Society of his masterly papers on The Moffat Series (1878) and The Girvan Succession (1882). Meanwhile in 1875 he became an assistant master in the Madras College, St Andrews, and in 1881 professor of geology and mineralogy (afterwards geology and physiography) in the Mason College, now University of Birmingham. In 1882 he started work in the Durness-Eriboll district of the Scottish Highlands, and made out the true succession of the rocks, and interpreted the complicated structure which had baffled most of the previous observers. His results were published in " The Secret of the Highlands" (Geol. Mag., 1883). His subsequent work includes papers on the Cambrian rocks of Nuneaton and the Ordovician rocks of Shropshire. The term Ordovician was introduced by him in 1879 for the strata between the base of the Lower Llandovery formation and that of the Lower Arenig; and it was intended to settle the confusion arising from the use by some writers of Lower Silurian and by others of Upper Cambrian for the same set of rocks. The term Ordovician is now generally adopted. Professor Lapworth was elected F.R.S. in 1888, he received a royal medal in 1891, and was awarded the Wollaston medal by the Geological Society in 1899. He was president of the Geological Society, 1902-1904. His Inter- mediate Text-book of Geology was published in 1899. See article, with portrait and bibliography, in Geol. Mag. (July 1901). LAR, a city of Persia, capital of Laristan, in 27° 30' N., 53° 58' E., 180 m. from Shiraz and 75 from the coast at Bander Lingah. It stands at the foot of a mountain range in an extensive plain covered with palm trees, and was once a flourishing place, but a large portion is in ruins, and the population which early in the 1 8th century numbered 50,000 is reduced to 8000. There are still some good buildings, of which the most prominent are the old bazaar consisting of four arcades each 180 ft. long, 14 broad and 22 high, radiating from a domed centre 30 ft. high, an old stone mosque and many cisterns. The crest of a steep limestone hill immediately behind the town and rising 150 ft. above the plain is crowned by the ruins of a castle formerly deemed im- pregnable. Just below the castle is a well sunk 200 ft. in the LARA— LARCENY 209 rock. The tower-flanked mud wall which surrounds the town is for the most part in ruins. LARA, western state of Venezuela, lying in the angle formed by the parting of the N. and N.E. ranges of the Cordillera de Merida and extending N.E. with converging frontiers to the Caribbean. Pop. (1905 estimate) 272,252. The greater part of its surface is mountainous, with elevated fertile valleys which have a temperate climate. The Tocuyo river rises in the S.W. angle of the state and flows N.E. to the Caribbean with a total length of 287 m. A narrow-gauge railway, the " South-western," owned by British capitalists, runs from the port of Tucacas 55 m. S.W. to Barquisimeto by way of the Aroa copper-mining district. Lara produces wheat and other cereals, coffee, sugar, tobacco, neat cattle, sheep and various mineral ores, including silver, copper, iron, lead, bismuth and antimony. The capital, Barquisi- meto, is one of the largest and most progressive of the inland cities of Venezuela. Carora is also prominent as a commercial centre. Tocuyo (pop. in 1891, 15,383), 40 m. S.W. of Barquisi- meto, is an important commercial and mining town, over 2000 ft. above sea-level, in the midst of a rich agricultural and pastoral region. Yaritagua (pop. about 12,000), 20 m. E. of Barquisimeto, and 1026 ft. above the sea, is known for its cigar manufactories. LARAISH (El Araish), a port in northern Morocco on the Atlantic coast in 35° 13' N., 6° 9' W., 43 m. by sea S. by W. of Tangier, picturesquely situated on the left bank of the estuary of the Wad Lekkus. Pop. 6000 to 7000. The river, being fairly deep inside the bar, made this a favourite port for the Salli rovers to winter in, but the quantity of alluvial soil brought down threatens to close the port. The town is well situated for defence, its walls are in fair condition, and it has ten forts, all supplied with old-fashioned guns. Traces of the Spanish occupation from 1610-1689 are to be seen in the towers whose names are given by Tissot as those of St Stephen, St James and that of the Jews, with the Castle of Our Lady of Europe, now the kasbah or citadel. The most remarkable feature of Laraish is its fine large market-place inside the town with a low colonnade in front of very small shops. The streets, though narrow and steep, are generally paved. Its chief exports are oranges, millet, dra and other cereals, goat-hair and skins, sheepskins, wool and fullers' earth. The wool goes chiefly to Marseilles. The annual value of the trade is from £400,000 to £500,000. In 1780 all the Europeans in Laraish were expelled by Mohammed XVI., although in 1786 the monopoly of its trade had been granted to Holland, even its export of wheat. In 1787 the Moors were still building pirate vessels here, the timber for which came from the neighbouring forest of M'amora. Not far from the town are the remains of what is believed to be a Phoenician city, Shammish, mentioned by Idrisi, who makes no allusion to Laraish. It is not, however, improbable from a passage in Scylax that the site of the present town was occupied by a Libyan settlement. Tradition also connects Laraish with the garden of the Hesperides, ' Arasi being the Arabic for " pleasure-gardens," and the " golden apples " perhaps the familiar oranges. LARAMIE, a city and the county-seat of Albany county, Wyoming, U.S.A., on the Laramie river, 57 m. by rail N.W. of Cheyenne. Pop. (1900) 8207, of whom 1280 were foreign-born; (1905) 7601; (1910) 8237. It is served by the Union Pacific and the Laramie, Hahn's Peak & Pacific railways, the latter extending from Laramie to Centennial (30 m.). The city is situated on the Laramie Plains, at an elevation of 7165 ft., and is hemmed in on three sides by picturesque mountains. It has a public library, a United States Government building and hospitals, and is the seat of the university of Wyoming and of a Protestant Episcopal missionary bishopric. There is a state fish hatchery in the vicinity. The university (part of the public school system of the state) was founded in 1886, was opened in 1887, and embraces a College of Liberal Arts and Graduate School, a Normal School, a College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, an Agricultural Experiment Station (estab- lished by a Federal appropriation), a College of Engineering, a School of Music, a Preparatory School and a Summer School. Laramie is a supply and distributing centre for a live-stock raising and mining region — particularly coal mining, though gold, silver, copper and iron are also found. The Union Pacific Railroad Company has machine shops, repair shops and rolling mills at Laramie, and, a short distance S. of the city, ice-houses and a tie-preserving plant. The manufactures include glass, leather, flour, plaster and pressed brick, the brick being made from shale obtained in the vicinity. The municipality owns and operates the water- works; the water is obtained from large springs about z\ m. distant. Laramie was settled in 1868, by people largely from New England, Michigan, Wisconsin and Iowa, and was named in honour of Jacques Laramie, a French fur trader. It was first chartered as a city in 1868 by the legisla- ture of Dakota, and was rechartered by the legislature of Wyoming in 1873. LARBERT, a parish and town of Stirlingshire, Scotland. Pop. of parish (1901) 6500, of town, 1442. The town is situated on the Carron, 8 m. S. by E. of Stirling by the North British and Caledonian railways, the junction being an important station for traffic from the south by the West Coast route. Coal-mining is the chief industry. The principal buildings are the church, finely placed overlooking the river, the Stirling district asylum and the Scottish National Institution for imbecile children. In the churchyard is a monument to James Bruce, the Abyssinian traveller, who was born and died at Kinnaird House, 25 m. N.E. Two m. N. by W. are the ruins of Torwood Castle and the remains of Torwood forest, to which Sir William Wallace retired after his defeat at Falkirk (1298). Near " Wallace's oak," in which the patriot concealed himself, Donald Cargill (1619-1681), the Covenanter, excommunicated Charles II. and James, duke of York, in 1680. The fragment of an old round building is said to be the relic of one of the very few " brochs," or round towers, found in the Lowlands. LARCENY (an adaptation of Fr. larcin, O. Fr. larrecin, from Lat. latrocinium, theft, lalio, robber), the unlawful taking and carrying away of things personal, with intent to deprive the rightful owner of the same. The term theft, sometimes used as a synonym of larceny, is in reality a broader term, applying to all cases of depriving another of his property whether by removing or withholding it, and includes larceny, robbery, cheating, embezzlement, breach of trust, &c. Larceny is, in modern legal systems, universally treated as a crime, but the conception of it as a crime is not one belonging to the earliest stage of law. To its latest period Roman law regarded larceny or theft (furtum) as a delict prima facie pursued by a civil remedy — the actio furti for a penalty, the vindicatio or condictio for the stolen property itself or its value. In later times, a criminal remedy to meet the graver crimes gradually grew up by the side of the civil, and in the time of Justinian the criminal remedy, where it existed, took precedence of the civil (Cod. iii. 8. 4). But to the last criminal proceedings could only be taken in serious cases, e.g. against stealers of cattle (abigei) or the clothes of bathers (balnearii). The punishment was death, banishment, or labour in the mines or on public works. In the main the Roman law coincides with the English law. The definition as given in the Institutes (iv. i. i) is " furtum est contrectatio rei fraudulosa, vel ipsius rei, vel etiam ejus usus possessionisve," to which the Digest (xlvii. 2. i, 3) adds " lucri faciendi gratia." The earliest English definition, that of Bracton (1506), runs thus: " furtum est secundum leges contrectatio rei alienae fraudulenta cum animo] furandi invito illo domino cujus res ilia fuerit." Bracton omits the " lucri faciendi gratia " of the Roman definition, because in English law the motive is immaterial,1 and the " usus ejus possessionisve," because the definition includes an intent to deprive the owner of his property permanently. The " animo furandi " and " invito domino " of Bracton's definition are expansions for the sake of greater clear- ness. They seem to have been implied in Roman law. Furtum is on the whole a more comprehensive term than larceny. This 1 Thus destruction of a letter by a servant, with a view of sup- pressing inquiries into his or her character, makes the servant guilty of larceny in English law. 210 LARCENY difference no doubt arises from the tendency to extend the bounds of a delict and to limit the bounds of a crime. Thus it was furtum (but it would not be theft at English common law) to use a deposit of pledge contrary to the wishes of the owner, to retain goods found, or to steal a human being, such as a slave or films familias (a special form of furtum called plagium). The latter would be in English law an abduction under certain circumstances but not a theft. One of two married persons could not commit furtum as against the other, but larceny may be so committed in England since the Married Women's Property Act 1882. As a furtum was merely a delict, the obligalio ex delicto could be extinguished by agreement between the parties; this cannot be done in England. In another direction English law is more considerate of the rights of third parties than was Roman. The thief can give a good title to stolen goods; in Roman law he could not do so, except in the single case of a hereditas acquired by usucapio. The development of the law of furtum at Rome is historically interesting, for even in its latest period is found a relic of one of the most primitive theories of law adopted by courts of justice: " They took as their guide the measure of vengeance likely to be exacted by an aggrieved person under the circumstances of the case " (Maine, Ancient Law, ch. x.). This explains the reason of the division of furtum into mani- festum and nee manifestum. The manifest thief was one taken red-handed — " taken with the manner," in the language of old English law. The Twelve Tables denounced the punishment of death against the manifest thief, for that would be the penalty demanded by the indignant owner in whose place the judge stood. The severity of this penalty was afterwards mitigated by the praetor, who substituted for it the payment of quadruple the value of the thing stolen. The same penalty was also given by the praetor in case of theft from a fire or a wreck, or of prevention of search. The Twelve Tables mulcted the non-manifest thief in double the value of the thing stolen. The actions for penalties were in addition to the action for the stolen goods themselves or their value. The quadruple and double penalties still remain in the legislation of Justinian. The search for stolen goods, as it existed in the time of Gaius, was a survival of a period when the injured person was, as in the case of summons (in jus vocalio), his own executive officer. Such a search, by the Twelve Tables, might be conducted in the house of the supposed thief by the owner in person, naked except for a cincture, and carrying a platter in his hand, safeguards apparently against any possi- bility of his making a false charge by depositing some of his own property on his neighbour's premises. This mode of search became obsolete before the time of Justinian. Robbery (bona vi rapta) was violence added to furlum. By the actio vi bonorum raptorum quadruple the value could be recovered if the action were brought within a year, only the value if brought after the expiration of a year. The quadruple value included the stolen thing itself, so that the penalty was in effect only a triple one. It was inclusive, and not cumulative, as in furtum. In England theft or larceny appears to have been very early regarded by legislators as a matter calling for special attention. The pre-Conquest compilations of laws are full of provisions on the subject. The earlier laws appear to regard it as a delict which may be compounded for by payment. Considerable distinctions of person are made, both in regard to the owner and the thief. Thus, by the laws of ^Ethelberht, if a freeman stole from the king he was to restore ninefold, if from a freeman or from a dwelling, threefold. If a theow stole, he had only to make a twofold reparation. In the laws of Alfred ordinary theft was still only civil, but he who stole in a church was punished by the loss of his hand. The laws of Ina named as the penalty death or redemption according to the wer-gild of the thief. By the same laws the thief might be slain if he fled or resisted. Gradually the severity of the punishment increased. By the laws of .flsthelstan death in a very cruel form was inflicted. At a later date the Leges Henrici Primi placed a thief in the king's mercy, and his lands were forfeited. Putting out the eyes and other kinds of mutilation were sometimes the punish- ment. The principle of severity continued down to the century, and until 1827 theft or larceny of certain kinds re- mained capital. Both before and after the Conquest local jurisdiction over thieves was a common franchise of lords of manors, attended with some of the advantages of modern summary jurisdiction. Under the common law larceny was a felony. It was affected by numerous statutes, the main object of legislation being to bring within the law of larceny offences which were not larcenies at common law, either because they were thefts of things of which there could be no larceny at common law, e.g. beasts ferae naturae, title deeds or choses in action, or because the common law regarded them merely as delicts for which the remedy was by civil action, e.g. fraudulent breaches of trust. The earliest act in the statutes of the realm dealing with larceny appears to be the Carlo. Forestae of 1225, by which fine or imprisonment was inflicted for stealing the king's deer. The next act appears to be the statute of Westminster the First (1275), dealing again with stealing deer. It seems as though the beginning of legislation on the subject was for the purpose of protecting the chases and parks of the king and the nobility. A very large number of the old acts are named in the repealing act of 1827. An act of the same date removed the old distinction between grand and petit larceny.1 The former was theft of goods above the value of twelve pence, in the house of the owner, not from the person, or by night, and was a capital crime. It was petit larceny where the value was twelve pence or under, the punishment being imprisonment or whipping. The gradual depreciation in the value of money afforded good ground for Sir Henry Spelman's sarcasm that, while everything else became dearer, the life of man became continually cheaper. The distinction between grand and petit larceny first appears in statute law in the Statute of Westminster the First, c. 15, but it was not created for the first time by that statute. It is found in some of the pre-Conquest codes, as that of ^Ethelstan, and it is recognized in the Leges Henrici Primi. A distinction between simple and compound larceny is still found in the books. The latter is larceny accompanied by circumstances of aggravation, as that it is in a dwelling-house or from the person. The law of larceny is now contained chiefly in the Larceny Act 1861 (which extends to Englandand Ireland), a comprehensive enactment including larceny, embezzlement, fraud by bailees, agents, bankers, factors, and trustees, sacrilege, burglary, housebreaking, robbery, obtaining money by threats or by false pretences, and receiving stolen 'goods, and prescribing procedure, both civil and criminal. There are, however, other acts in force dealing with special cases of larceny, such as an actof Henry VIII. as to stealing the goods of the king, and the Game, Post-Office and Merchant Shipping Acts. There are separate acts providing for larceny by a partner of partner- ship property, and by a husband or wife of the property of the other (Married Women's Property Act 1882). Proceedings against persons subject to naval or military law depend upon the Naval Discipline Act 1866 and the Army Act 1881. There are several acts, both before and after 1861, directing how the property is to be laid in indictments for stealing the goods of counties, friendly societies, trades unions, &c. The principal conditions which must exist in order to constitute larceny are these: (i) there must be an actual taking into the possession of the thief, though the smallest removal is sufficient; (2) there must be an intent to deprive the owner of his property for an indefinite period, and to assume the entire dominion over it, an intent often described in Bracton's words as animus furandi; (3) this intent must exist at the time of taking; (4) the thing taken must be one capable of larceny either at common law or by statute. One or two cases falling under the law of larceny are of special interest. It was held more than once that a servant taking corn to feed his master's horses, but without any intention of applying it for his own benefit, was guilty of larceny. To remedy this hardship, the Misappropriation of Servants Act 1863 was passed to declare such an act not to be felony. The case of appro- priation of goods which have been found has led to some difficulty. It now seems to be the law that in order to constitute a larceny of lost goods there must be a felonious intent at the time of finding, that is, an intent to deprive the owner of them, coupled with reason- able means at the same time of knowing the owner. The mere retention of the goods when the owner has become known to the finder does not make the retention criminal. Larceny of money may be committed when the money is paid by mistake, if the prisoner took it animo furandi. In two noteworthy cases the question was argued before a very full court for crown cases re- served, and in each case there was a striking difference of opinion. In R. v. Middleton, 1873, L.R. 2 C.C.R., 38, the prisoner, a de- positor in a post-office savings bank, received by the mistake of the clerk a larger sum that he was entitled to. The jury found that he had the animus furandi at the time of taking the money, and that he knew it to be the money of the postmaster-general. The majority of the court held it to be larceny. In a case in 1885 (R. v. Ash-well, L.R. 16 Q.B.D. 190), where the prosecutor gave the prisoner a sovereign believing it to be a shilling, and the prisoner 1 This provision was most unnecessarily repeated in the Larceny Act of 1861. LARCH 211 took it under that belief, but afterwards discovered its value and retained it, the court was equally divided as to whether the prisoner was guilty of larceny at common law, but held that he was not guilty of larceny as a bailee. Legislation has considerably affected the procedure in prosecutions for larceny. The inconveniences of the common law rules of interpretation of indictments led to certain amendments of the law, now contained in the Larceny Act, for the purpose of avoiding the frequent failures of justice owing to the strictness with which indictments were construed. Three larcenies of property of the same person within six months may now be charged in one indictment. On an indictment for larceny the prisoner may be found guilty of embezzlement, and vice versa; and if the prisoner be indicted for obtaining goods by false pretences, and the offence turn out to be larceny, he is not entitled to be acquitted of the misdemeanour. A count for receiving may be joined with the count for stealing. In many cases it is unnecessary to allege or prove ownership of the property the subject of the indictment. The act also contains numerous provisions as to venue and the apprehension of offenders. In another direction the powers of courts of Summary Jurisdiction (q.v.) have been extended, in the case of charges of larceny, embezzlement and receiving stolen goods, against children and young persons and against adults plead- ing guilty or waiving their right to trial by jury. The maximum punishment for larceny is fourteen years' penal servitude, but this can only be inflicted in certain exceptional cases, such as horse or cattle stealing and larceny by a servant or a person in the service of the crown or the police. The extreme punishment for simple larceny after a previous conviction for felony is ten years' penal servitude. Whipping may be part of the sentence on boys under sixteen. Scotland. — A vast number of acts of the Scottish parliament dealt with larceny. The general policy of the acts was to make larceny what was not larceny at common law, e.g. stealing fruit, dogs, hawks or deer, and to extend the remedies, e.g. by giving the justiciar authority throughout the kingdom, by making the master in the case of theft by the servant liable to give the latter up to justice, or by allowing the use of firearms against thieves. The general result of legislation in England and Scotland has been to assimilate the law of larceny in both kingdoms. As a rule, what would be larceny in one would be larceny in the other. United States. — The law depends almost entirely upon state legislation, and is in general accordance with that of England. The only acts of Congress bearing on the subject deal with larceny in the army and navy, and with larceny and receiving on the high seas or in any place under the exclusive jurisdiction of the United States, e.g. Alaska. Alaska. — Stealing any goods, chattels, government note, bank note, or other thing in action, books of account, &c., is larceny: punishment, imprisonment for not less than one nor more than ten years if the property stolen is in value over $35. Larceny in any dwelling-house, warehouse, steamship, church, &c., is punishable by imprisonment for not less than one nor more than seven years. Larceny of a horse, mule, ass, bull, steer, cow or reindeer is punish- able by imprisonment for not less than one nor more than fifteen years. Wilfully altering or defacing marks or brands on such animals is larceny (Pen. Code Alaska, § 45, 1899). Arizona. — Appropriating property found without due inquiry for the owner is larceny (Penal Code, § 442). " Dogs are property and of the value of one dollar each within the meaning of the terms ' property ' and ' value ' as used in this chapter " (id. § 448). Pro- perty includes a passage ticket though never issued. Persons stealing property in another state or county, or who receive it knowing it to be stolen and bring it into Arizona, may be convicted and punished as if the offence was committed there (id. § 454). Stealing gas or water from a main is a misdemeanour. Iowa. — It is larceny to steal electricity, gas or water from wires, meters or mains (L. 1903, ch. 132). New Korfc.— Larceny as defined by § 528 of the Penal Code in- cludes also embezzlement, obtaining property by false pretences, and felonious breach of- trust (People v. Dumar, 106 N.Y. 508), but the method of proof required to establish these offences has not been changed. Grand larceny in the first degree is (a) stealing property of any value in the night time; (b) of $25 in value or more at night from a dwelling house, vessel or railway car; (c) of the value of more than $500 in any manner; in the second degree (a) stealing in any manner property of the value of over $25 and under $500; (6) taking from the person property of any value ; (c) stealing any record of a court or other record filed with any public officer. Every other larceny is petit larceny. " Value " of any stock, bond or security having a market value is the amount of money due thereon or what, in any contingency, might be collected thereon; of any passenger ticket the price it is usually sold at. The value of any- thing else not fixed by statute is its market value. Grand larceny, in the first degree, is punishable by imprisonment not exceeding ten years; in the second degree, not exceeding five years. Petit larceny is a misdemeanour (Penal Code, §§ 530-535). Bringing stolen goods into the state knowing them to be stolen is punishable as larceny within the state (id. § 540). A " pay ticket " for removing a load of snow may be the subject of larceny and its value the amount to be paid on it. (People v. Fletcher [1906] no App. D. 231). Kansas— The owner of goods who takes them from a 'railroad company with intent to defeat its lien for transportation charges is guilty of larceny. (Atchison Co. v. Hinsdell [1907] 90 Pac. Rep. 800). Massachusetts. — Larceny includes embezzlement and obtaining money by false pretences. (Rev. L. 1902, ch. 218, § 40.) The failing to restore to or to notify the owner of property removed from premises on fire is larceny (id. ch. 208, § 22). It is larceny to purchase property (payment for which is to be made on or before delivery) by means of a false pretence as to means or ability to pay, provided such pretence is signed by the person to be charged. Indictment for stealing a will need not contain an allegation of value (id. § 29). A person convicted either as accessory or principal of three distinct larcenies shall be adjudged " a common and notorious thief " and may be imprisoned for not more than twenty years (id. 31). On second conviction for larceny of a bicycle, the thief may be im- prisoned for not more than five years. Larceny of things annexed to realty is punishable as if it were a larceny of personal property (id- §§ 33, 35)-. Ohio. — Stealing " anything of value " is larceny (Bates Stats. § 6856). Tapping gas pipes is punishable by fine or imprisonment for not more than thirty days. Stealing timber having " timber dealers' " trade mark, or removing it from a stream, is punishable by a fine of not less than $20. Utah. — It is grand larceny to alter the mark or brand on an animal (L. 1905, ch. 38). Wyoming. — For branding or altering or defacing the brand on cattle with intent to steal, the penalty is imprisonment for not more than five years. It is larceny for a bailee to convert with intent to steal goods left with or found by him (Rev. Stats. §§ 4986, 4989). Washington. — A horse not branded, but under Code § 6861 an " outlaw," the owner being unknown, can be the subject of a larceny, having been held to be property of the state. (State v. Eddy [1907], 90 Pac. Rep. 641). For the third offence of such a larceny the penalty is imprisonment for life (L. 1903, ch. 86). See also EMBEZZLEMENT; CHEATING; FALSE PRETENCES; ROBBERY ; STOLEN GOODS. LARCH (from the Ger. Liirche, M.H.G. Lerche, Lat. larix), a name applied to a small group of coniferous trees, of which the common larch of Europe is taken as the type. The members of the genus Larix are distinguished from the firs, with which they were formerly placed, by their deciduous leaves, scattered singly, as in Abies, on the young shoots of the season, but on all older branchlets growing in whorl-like tufts, each surrounding the extremity of a rudimentary or abortive branch ; they differ from cedars (Cedrus), which also have the fascicles of leaves on arrested branchlets, not only in the deciduous leaves, but in the cones, the scales of which are thinner towards the apex, and are persistent, remaining attached long after the seeds are discharged. The trees of the genus are closely allied in botanic features, as well as in general appearance, so that it is sometimes difficult to assign to them determinate specific characters, and the limit between species and variety is not always very accur- ately defined. Nearly all are natives of Europe, or the northern plains and mountain ranges of Asia and North America, though one (Larix Griffilhii) occurs only on the Himalayas. The common larch (L. emopaea) is, when grown in perfection, a stately tree with tall erect trunk, gradually tapering from root to summit, and horizontal branches springing at irregular intervals from the stem, and in old trees often becoming more or less drooping, but rising again towards the extremities; the branchlets or side shoots, very slender and pendulous, are pretty thickly studded with the spurs each bearing a fascicle of thirty or more narrow linear leaves, of a peculiar bright light green when they first appear in the spring, but becoming of a deeper hue when mature. The yellow stamen-bearing flowers are in sessile, nearly spherical catkins; the fertile ones vary in colour, from red or purple to greenish-white, in different varieties; the erect cones, which remain long on the branches, are above an inch in length and oblong-ovate in shape, with reddish-brown scales somewhat waved on the edges, the lower bracts usually rather longer than the scales. The tree flowers in April or May, and the winged seeds are shed the following autumn. When standing in an open space, the larch grows of a nearly conical 212 LARCH shape, with the lower branches almost reaching the ground, while those above gradually diminish in length towards the top of the trunk, presenting a very symmetrical form; but in dense woods the lower parts become bare of foliage, as with the firs under similar circumstances. When springing up among rocks or on ledges, the stem sometimes becomes much curved, and, with its spreading boughs and pendent branchlets, often forms a striking and picturesque object in alpine passes and steep ravines. In the prevalent European varieties the bark is reddish-grey, and rather rough and scarred in old trees, which are often much lichen-covered. The trunk attains a height of from 80 to 140 ft., with a diameter of from 3 to 5 ft. near the ground, but in close woods is comparatively slender in proportion to its altitude. The larch abounds on the Alps of Switzerland, on which it flourishes at an elevation of 5000 ft., and also on those of Tirol and Savoy, on the CarpatWians, and in most of the hill regions of central Europe; it is not wild on the Apennine Branchlet of Larch (Larix europaea). chain, or the Pyrenees, and in the wild state is unknown in the Spanish peninsula. It forms extensive woods in Russia, but does not extend to Scandinavia, where its absence is somewhat remarkable, as the tree grows freely in Norway and Sweden where planted, and even multiplies itself by self-sown seed, according to F. C. Schiibeler, in the neighbourhood of Trondhjem. In the north-eastern parts of Russia, in the country towards the Petchora river, and on the Ural, a peculiar variety prevails, regarded by some as a distinct species (L. sibirica) ; this form is abundant nearly throughout Siberia, extending to the Pacific coast of Kamchatka and the hills of the Amur region. The Siberian larch has smooth grey bark and smaller cones, approach- ing in shape somewhat to those of the American hackmatack; it seems even hardier than the Alpine tree, growing up to latitude 68°, but, as the inclement climate of the polar shores is neared, dwindling down to a dwarf and even trailing bush. The larch, from its lofty straight trunk and the high quality of its wood, is one of the most important of coniferous trees; its growth is extremely rapid, the stem attaining a large size in from sixty to eighty years, while the tree yields good useful timber at forty or fifty; it forms firm heart wood at an early age, and the sapwood is less perishable than that of the firs, rendering it more valuable in the young state. The wood of large trees is compact in texture, in the best varieties of a deep reddish colour varying to brownish-yellow, but apt to be lighter in tint, and less hard in grain, when grown in rich soils or in low sheltered situations. It is remarkably tough, resisting a rending strain better than any of the fir or pine woods in common use, though not as elastic as some; properly seasoned, it is as little liable to shrink as to split; the boughs being small compared to the trunk, the timber is more free from large knots, and the small knots remain firm and undecayed. The only drawback to these good qualities is a certain liability to warp and bend, unless very carefully seasoned; for this purpose it is recommended to be left floating in water for a year after felling, and then allowed some months to dry slowly and completely before sawing up the logs; barking the trunk in winter while the tree is standing, and leaving it in that state till the next year, has been often advised with the larch as with other timber, but the practical inconveniences of the plan have prevented its adoption on any large scale. When well prepared for use, larch is one of the most durable of coniferous woods. Its strength and toughness render it valuable for naval purposes, to which it is largely applied; its freedom from any tendency to split adapts it for clinker-built boats. It is much em- ployed for house-building; most of the picturesque log-houses in Vaud and the adjacent cantons are built of squared larch trunks, and derive their fine brown tint from the hardened resin that slowly exudes from the wood after long exposure to the summer sun; the wooden shingles, that in Switzerland supply the place of tiles, are also frequently of larch. In Germany it is much used by the cooper as well as the carpenter, while the form of the trunk admirably adapts it for all purposes for which long straight timber is needed. It answers well for fence-posts and river piles; many of the founda- tions of Venice rest upon larch, the lasting qualities of which were well known and appreciated, not only in medieval times, but in the days of Vitruvius and Pliny. The harder and darker varieties are used in the construction of cheap solid furniture, being fine in grain and taking polish better than many more costly woods. A peculiarity of larch wood is the difficulty with which it is ignited, although so resinous; and, coated with a thin layer of plaster, beams and pillars of larch might probably be found to justify Caesar's epithet " igni impenetrabile lignum"; even the small branches are not easily kept alight, and a larch fire in the open needs considerable care. Yet the forests of larch in Siberia often suffer from con- flagration. When these fires occur while the trees are full of sap, a curious mucilaginous matter is exuded from the half-burnt stems; when dry it is of pale reddish colour, like some of the coarser kinds of gum-arabic, and is soluble in water, the solution resembling gum- water, in place of which it is sometimes used ; considerable quantities are collected and sold as " Orenburg gum "; in Siberia and Russia it is occasionally employed as a semi-medicinal food, being esteemed an antiscorbutic. For burning in close stoves and furnaces, larch makes tolerably good fuel, its value being estimated by Hartig as only one-fifth less than that of beech; the charcoal is compact, and is in demand for iron-smelting and other metallurgic uses in some parts of Europe. In the trunk of the larch, especially when growing in climates where the sun is powerful in summer, a fine clear turpentine exists in great abundance; in Savoy and the south of Switzerland, it is collected for sale, though not in such quantity as formerly, when, being taken to Venice for shipment, it was known in commerce as " Venice turpentine." Old trees are selected, from the bark of which it is observed to ooze in the early summer; holes are bored in the trunk, somewhat inclined upward towards the centre of the stem, in which, between the layers of wood, the turpentine is said to collect in small lacunae; wooden gutters placed in these holes convey the viscous fluid into little wooden pails hung on the end of each gutter; the secretion flows slowly all through the summer months, and a tree in proper condition yields from 6 to 8 ft a year, and will continue to give an annual supply for thirty or forty years, being, however, rendered quite useless for timber by subjection to this process. In Tirol, a single hole is made near the root of the tree in the spring; this is stopped with a plug, and the turpentine is removed by a scoop in the autumn ; but each tree yields only from a few ounces to i ft by this process. Real larch turpentine is a thick tenacious fluid, of a deep yellow colour, and nearly trans- parent; it does not harden by time; it contains 15% of the essential oil of turpentine, also resin, succinic, pinic and sylvic acids, and a bitter extractive matter. According to Pereira, much sold under the name of Venice turpentine is a mixture of common resin and oil of turpentine. On the French Alps a sweet exudation is found on the small branchlets of young larches in June and July, resembling manna in taste and laxative properties, and known as Manna de Brianfon or Manna Brigantina ; it occurs in small whitish irregular granular masses, which are removed in the morning before they are too much dried by the sun; this manna seems to differ little in composition from the sap of the tree, which also contains mannite; its cathartic powers are weaker than those of the manna of the manna ash (Fraximus ornus), but it is employed in France for the same purposes. The bark of the larch is largely used in some countries for tanning; it is taken from the trunk only, being stripped from the trees when felled; its value is about equal to that of birch bark; but, according to the experience of British tanners, it is scarcely half as strong as that of the oak. The soft inner bark is occasionally used in Siberia as a ferment, by hunters and others, being boiled and mixed with LARCH 213 rye-meal, and buried in the snow for a short time, when it is em- ployed as a substitute for other leaven, and in making the sour liquor called " quass." In Germany a fungus (Polyporus Lands) grows on the roots and stems of decaying larches, which was formerly in esteem as a drastic purgative. The young shoots of the larch are sometimes given in Switzerland as fodder to cattle. The larch, though mentioned by Parkinson in 1629 as "nursed up "by a few "lovers of variety" as a rare exotic, does not seem to have been much grown in England till early in the i8th century. In Scotland the date of its introduction is a disputed point, but it seems to have been planted at Dunkeld by the 2nd duke of Athole in 1727, and about thirteen or fourteen years later considerable plantations were made at that place, the commence- ment of one of the largest planting experiments on record; it is estimated that 14 million larches were planted on the Athole estates between that date and 1826. The cultivation of the tree rapidly spread, and the larch has become a conspicuous feature of the scenery in many parts of Scotland. It grows as rapidly and attains as large a size in British habitats suited to it as in its home on the Alps, and often produces equally good timber. The larch of Europe is essentially a mountain tree, and requires not only free air above, but a certain moderate amount of moisture in the soil beneath, with, at the same time, perfect drainage, to bring the timber to perfection. Where there is complete freedom from stagnant water in the ground, and abundant room for the spread of its branches to light and air, the larch will flourish in a great variety of soils, stiff clays, wet or mossy peat, and moist alluvium being the chief exceptions; in its native localities it seems partial to the debris of primitive and metamorphic rocks, but is occasionally found growing luxuriantly on calcareous subsoils; in Switzerland it attains the largest size, and forms the best timber, on the northern declivities of the mountains; but in Scotland a southern aspect appears most favourable. The best variety for culture in Britain is that with red female flowers; the light-flowered kinds are said to produce inferior wood, and the Siberian larch does not grow in Scotland nearly as fast as the Alpine tree. The larch is raised from seed in immense numbers in British nurseries; that obtained from Germany is preferred, being more perfectly ripened than the cones of home growth usually are. The seeds are sown in April, on rich ground, which should not be too highly manured ; the young larches are planted out when two years old, or sometimes transferred to a nursery bed to attain a larger size; but, like all conifers, they succeed best when planted young; on the mountains, the seedlings are usually put into a mere slit made in the ground by a spade with a triangular blade, the place being first cleared of any heath, bracken, or tall herbage that might smother the young tree; the plants should be from 3 to 4 ft. apart, or even more, according to the growth intended before thinning, which should be begun as soon as the boughs begin to overspread much; little or no pruning is needed beyond the careful removal of dead branches. The larch is said not to succeed on arable land, especially where corn has been grown, but experience does not seem to support this view; that against the previous occupation of the ground by Scotch fir or Norway spruce is probably better founded, and, where timber is the object, it should not be planted with other conifers. On the Grampians and neighbouring hills the larch will flourish at a greater elevation than the pine, and will grow up to an altitude of 1700 or even 1800 ft.; but it attains its full size on lower slopes. In very dry and bleak localities, the Scotch fir will probably be more successful up to 900 ft. above the sea, the limit of the luxuriant growth of that hardy conifer in Britain; and in moist valleys or on imperfectly drained acclivities Norway spruce is more suitable. The growth of the larch while young is exceedingly rapid; in the south of England it will often attain a height of 25 ft. in the first ten years, while in favourable localities it will grow upwards of 80 ft. in half a century or less; one at Dunkeld felled sixty years after planting was no ft. high; but usually the tree does not increase so rapidly after the first thirty of forty years. Some larches in Scotland rival in size the most gigantic specimens standing in their native woods; a tree at Dalwick, Peeblesshire, attained 5 ft. in diameter; one at Glenarbuck, near the Clyde, grew above 140 ft. high, with a circumference of 13 ft. The annual increase in girth is often considerable even in large trees; the fine larch near the abbey of Dunkeld figured by Strutt in his Sylva Britannica increased 2j ft. between 1796 and 1825, its measure- ment at the latter date being 13 ft., with a height of 97^ ft. In the south of England, the larch is much planted for the supply of hop-poles, though in parts of Kent and Sussex poles formed of Spanish chestnut are regarded as still more lasting. In plantations made with this object, the seedlings are placed very close (from ij to 2 ft. apart), and either cut down all at once, when the required height is attained, or thinned out, leaving the remainder to gain a greater length; the land is always well trenched before planting. The best month for larch planting, whether for poles or timber, is November; larches are sometimes planted in the spring, but the practice cannot be commended, as the sap flows early, and, if a dry period follows, the growth is sure to be checked. The thinnings of the larch woods in the Highlands are in demand for railway sleepers, scaffold poles, and mining timber, and are applied to a variety of agricultural purposes. The tree generally succeeds on the Welsh hills. The young seedlings are sometimes nibbled by the hare and rabbit; and on parts of the highland hills both bark and shoots are eaten in the winter by the roe-deer; larch woods should always be fenced in to keep out the hill-cattle, which will browse upon the shoots in spring. The " woolly aphis," " American blight," or " larch blight " (Eriosoma lands) often attacks the trees in close valleys, but rarely spreads much unless other unhealthy conditions are present. The larch suffers from several diseases caused by fungi ; the most important is the larch-canker caused by the parasit- ism of Peziza Willkommii. The spores germinate on a damp surface and enter the cortex through small cracks or wounds in the protecting layer. The fungus-mycelium will go on growing indefinitely in the cambium layer, thus killing and destroying a larger area year by year. The most effective method of treatment is to cut out the diseased branch or patch as early as possible. Another disease which is sometimes confused with that caused by the Peziza is " heart-rot "; it occasionally attacks larches only ten years old or less, but is more common when the trees have acquired a considerable size, sometimes spreading in a short time through a whole plantation. The trees for a considerable period show little sign of unhealthiness, but eventually the stem begins to swell somewhat near the root, and the whole tree gradually goes off as the disease advances; when cut down, the trunk is found to be decayed at the centre, the " rot " usually com- mencing near the ground. Trees of good size are thus rendered nearly worthless, often showing little sign of unhealthiness till felled. Great difference of opinion exists among foresters as to the cause of this destructive malady; but it is probably the direct result of unsuitable soil, especially soil containing insufficient nourishment. Considerable quantities of larch timber are imported into Britain for use in the dockyards, in addition to the large home supply. The quality varies much, as well as the colour and density; an Italian sample in the museum at Kew (of a very dark red tint) weighs about 24j Ib to the cub. ft., while a Polish specimen, of equally deep hue, is 44 ft I oz. to the same measurement. For the landscape gardener, the larch is a valuable aid in the formation of park and pleasure ground ; but it is never seen to such advantage as when hanging over some tumbling burn or rocky pass among the mountains. A variety with very pendent boughs, known as the " drooping " larch var. pendula, is occasionally met with in gardens. The bark of the larch has been introduced into pharmacy, being given, generally in the form of an alcoholic tincture, in chronic bronchitic affections and internal haemorrhages. It contains, in addition to tannin, a peculiar principle called larixin, which may be obtained in a pure state by distillation from a concentrated infusion of the bark; it is a colourless substance in long crystals, with a bitter and astringent taste, and a faint acid reaction; hence some term it larixinic add. The European larch has long been introduced into the United States, where, in suitable localities, it flourishes as luxuriantly as in Britain. Plantations have been made in America with an economic view, the tree growing much faster, and producing good timber at an earlier age than the native hackmatack (or tamarack), while the wood is less ponderous, and therefore more generally applicable. The genus is represented in the eastern parts of North America by the hackmatack (L. americana), of which there are several varieties, two so well marked that they are by some botanists considered specifically distinct. In one (L. microcarpa) the cones are very small, rarely exceeding | in. in length, of a roundish- oblong shape; the scales are very few in number, crimson in the young state, reddish-brown when ripe; the tree much re- sembles the European larch in general appearance but is of more slender growth; its trunk is seldom more than 2 ft. in diameter and rarely above 80 ft. high; this form is the red larch, the Spinette rouge of the French Canadians. The black larch (L. pendula) has rather larger cones, of an oblong shape, about f in. long, purplish or green in the immature state, and dark brown when ripe, the scales somewhat more numerous, the bracts all shorter than the scales. The bark is dark bluish-grey, smoother than in the red larch, on the trunk and lower boughs often glossy; the branches are more or less pendulous and very slender. 214 The red larch grows usually on higher and drier ground, ranging from the Virginian mountains to the shores of Hudson Bay; the black larch is found often on moist land, and even in swamps. The hackmatack is one of the most valuable timber trees of America; it is in great demand in the ports of the St Lawrence for shipbuilding. It is far more durable than any of the oaks of that region, is heavy and close-grained, and much stronger, as well as more lasting, than that of the pines and firs of Canada. In many parts all the finer trees have been cut down, but large woods of it still exist in the less accessible districts; it abounds especially near Lake St John, Quebec, and in Newfoundland is the prevalent tree in some of the forest tracts; it is likewise common in Maine and Vermont. In the timber and building yards the " red " hackmatack is the kind preferred, the produce, probably, of L. microcarpa; the " grey " is less esteemed; but the varieties from which these woods are obtained cannot always be traced with certainty. Several fine specimens of the red larch exist in English parks, but its growth is much slower than that of L. europaea ; the more pendulous forms of L. pendula are elegant trees for the garden. The hackmatacks might perhaps be grown with advantage in places too wet for the common larch. In western America a larch (L. occidentalis) occurs more nearly resembling L. europaea. The leaves are short, thicker and more rigid than in any of the other larches; the cones are much larger than those of the hackmatacks, egg-shaped or oval in outline; the scales are of a fine red in the immature state, the bracts green and extending far beyond the scales in a rigid leaf-like point. The bark of the trunk has the same reddish tint as that of the common larch of Europe. It is the largest of all larches and one of the most useful timber trees of North America. Some of the trees are 250 ft. high and 6 to 8 ft. in diameter. The wood is the hardest and strongest of all the American conifers; it is durable and adapted for construction work or household furniture. LARCHER, PIERRE HENRI (1726-1812), French classical scholar and archaeologist, was born at Dijon on the I2th of October 1726. Originally intended for the law, he abandoned it for the classics. His (anonymous) translation of Chariton's Chaereas and Callirrhoe (1763) marked him as an excellent Greek scholar. His attack upon Voltaire's Philosophic de Vhistorie (published under the name of 1'Abbe Bazin) created considerable interest at the time. His archaeological and mytho- logical Memoire sur Venus (1775), which has been ranked with similar works of Heyne and Winckelmann, gained him admission to the Academic des Inscriptions (1778). After the imperial university was founded, he was appointed professor of Greek literature (1809) with Boissonade as his assistant. He died on the 22nd of December 1812. Larcher's best work was his translation of Herodotus (1786, new ed. by L. Humbert, 1880) on the preparation of which he had spent fifteen years. The translation itself, though correct, is dull, but the com- mentary (translated into English, London, 1829, new ed. 1844, by W. D. Cooley) dealing with historical, geographical and chronological questions, and enriched by a wealth of illus- tration from ancient and modern authors, is not without value. See J. F. Boissonade, Notice sur la vie et les ecrits de P. L. (1813) ; F. A. Wolf, Literarische Analecten, i. 205; D. A. Wyttenbach, Philomalhia, iii. (1817). LARCIUS (less accurately LARTIUS), TITUS, probably sur- named FLAVUS, a member of an Etruscan family (cf. Lars Tolumnius, Lars Porsena) early settled in Rome. When consul in 501 B.C. he was chosen dictator (the title and office being then introduced for the first time) to command against the thirty Latin cities, which had sworn to reinstate Tarquin in Rome. Other authorities put the appointment three years later, when the plebeians refused to serve against the Latins until they had been released from the burden of their debts. He opposed harsh measures against the Latins, and also inte- rested himself in the improvement of the lot of the plebeians. His brother, Spurius, is associated with Horatius Codes in the defence of the Sublician bridge against the Etruscans. See Livy ii. 10, 18, 21, 29; Dion. Halic. v. 50-77, vi. 37; Cicero, De Re Publica, ii. 32. LARD (Fr. lard, from Lat. laridum, bacon fat, related to Gr. XapiTOs fat, Xap6s dainty or sweet), the melted and strained fat of the common hog. Properly it is prepared from the " leaf " or fat of the bowel and kidneys, but in commerce the term as applied to products which include fat obtained from other parts of the animal and sometimes containing no " leaf " at all. Lard of various grades is made in enormous quantities by the great pork -packing houses at Chicago and elsewhere in LARCHER— LARDNER, N. America. "Neutral lard" is prepared at a temperature of 40°-5o° C. from freshly killed hogs; the finest quality, used for making oleomargarine, is got from the leaf, while the second, employed by biscuit and pastry bakers, is obtained from the fat of the back. Steam heat is utilized in extracting inferior qualities, such as "choice lard" and "prime steam lard," the source of the latter being any fat portion of the animal. Lard is a pure white fat of a butter-like consistence; its specific gravity is about 0-93, its solidifying point about 27°-3o° C., and its melting point 35°-4S°C. It contains about 60% of olein and 40% of palmitin and stearin. Adulteration is common, the substances used including "stearin" both of beef and of mutton, and vegetable oils such as cotton seed oil: indeed, mixtures have been sold as lard that contain nothing but such adulterants. In the pharmacopoeia lard figures as adeps and is employed as a basis for ointments. Benzoated lard, used for the same purpose, is prepared by heating lard with 3% of powdered benzoin for two hours; it keeps better than ordinary lard, but has slightly irritant, properties. Lard oil is the limpid, clear, colourless oil expressed by hydraulic pressure and gentle heat from lard; it is employed for burning and for lubrication. Of the solid residue, lard " stearine," the best qualities are utilized for making oleomargarine, the inferior ones in the manufacture of candles. See J. Lewkowitsch, Oils, Fats and Waxes (London, 1909). LARDNER, DIONYSIUS (1793-1859), Irish scientific writer, was born at Dublin on the 3rd of April 1793. His father, a solicitor, wished his son to follow the same calling. After some years of uncongenial desk work, Lardner entered Trinity College, Dublin, and graduated B.A. in 1817. In 1828 he became professor of natural philosophy and astronomy at University College, London, a position he held till 1840, when he eloped with a married lady, and had to leave the country. After a lecturing tour through the principal cities of the United States, which realized £40,000, he returned to Europe in 1845. He settled at Paris, and resided there till within a few months of his death, which took place at Naples on the 2gth of April 1859. Though lacking in originality or brilliancy, Lardner showed himself to be a successful popularizer of science. He was the author of numerous mathematical and physical treatises on such subjects as algebraic geometry (1823), the differential and integral calculus (1825), the steam engine (1828), besides hand-books on various departments of natural philosophy (1854-1856) ; but it is as the editor of Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia (1830-1844) that he is best remembered. To this scientific library of 134 volumes many of the ablest savants of the day contributed, Lardner himself being the author of the treatises on arithmetic, geometry, heat, hydrostatics and pneumatics, mechanics (in conjunction with Henry Kater) and electricity (in conjunction with C. V. Walker). The Cabinet Library (12 vols., 1830-1832) and the Museum of Science and Art (12 vols., 1854-1856) are his other chief undertakings. A few original papers appear in the Royal Irish Academy's Transactions (1824), in the Royal Society's Proceedings (1831-1836) and in the Astronomical Society's Monthly Notices (1852-1853); and two Reports to the British Association on railway constants (1838, 1841) are from his pen. LARDNER, NATHANIEL (1684-1768), English theologian, was born at Hawkhurst, Kent. After studying for the Presby- terian ministry in London, and also at Utrecht and Leiden, he took licence as a preacher in 1709, but was not successful. In 1713 he entered the family of a lady of rank as tutor and domestic chaplain, where he remained until 1721. In 1724 he was appointed to deliver the Tuesday evening lecture in the Presbyterian chapel, Old Jewry, London, and in 1729 he became assistant minister to the Presbyterian congregation in Crutched Friars. He was given the degree of D.D. by Marischal College, Aberdeen, in 1745. He died at Hawkhurst on the 24th of July 1768. An anonymous volume of Memoirs appeared in 1769; and a life by Andrew Kippis is prefixed to the edition of the Works of Lardner, published in II vols., 8vo in 1788, in 4 vols. 4to in 1817, and IO vols. 8vo in 1827. The full title of his principal work — a work which, though now out of date, entitles its author to be regarded as the founder of modern critical research in the field of early Christian literature— is The Credibility of the Gospel History; or the Principal Facts of the New Testament confirmed by Passages of Ancient Authors, LAREDO— LARES 215 who were contemporary with our Saviour or Ms Apostles, or lived near their time. Part i., in 2 vols. 8vo, appeared in 1727; the publication of part ii., in 12 vols. 8yo, began in 1733 and ended in 1755. In 1730 there was a second edition of part i., and the Additions and Alterations were also published separately. A Supplement, otherwise entitled A History of the Apostles and Evangelists, Writers of the New Testa- ment, was added in 3 vols. (1756-1757), and reprinted in 1760. Other works by Lardner are A Large Collection of Ancient Jewish and Heathen Testimonies to the Truth of the Christian Revelation, with Notes and Observations (4 vols., 4to, 1764-1767); The History of the Heretics of the two first Centuries after Christ, published post- humously in 1780 and a considerable number of occasional sermons. LAREDO, a city and the county-seat of Webb county, Texas, U.S.A., and a sub-port of entry, on the Rio Grande opposite Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, and 150 m. S. of San Antonio. Pop. (1900) 13,429, of whom 6882 were foreign-born (mostly Mexi- cans) and 82 negroes; (1910 census) 14,855. It is served by the International & Great Northern, the National of Mexico, the Texas Mexican and the Rio Grande & Eagle Pass railways, and is connected by bridges with Nuevo Laredo. Among the principal buildings are the U.S. Government Building, the City Hall and the County Court House; and the city's institu- tions include the Laredo Seminary (1882) for boys and girls, the Mercy Hospital, the National Railroad of Mexico Hospital and an Ursuline Convent. Loma Vista Park (65 acres) is a pleasure resort, and immediately W. of Laredo on the Rio Grande is Fort Mclntosh (formerly Camp Crawford), a United States military post. Laredo is a jobbing centre for trade between the United States and Mexico, and is a sub-port of entry in the Corpus Christi Customs District. It is situated in a good farming and cattle-raising region, irrigated by water from the Rio Grande. The principal crop is Bermuda onions; in 1909 it was estimated that 1500 acres in the vicinity were devoted to this crop, the average yield per acre being about 20,000 ft. There are coal mines about 25 m. above Laredo on the Rio Grande, and natural gas was discovered about 28 m. E. in 1908. The manufacture of bricks is an important industry. Laredo was named from the seaport in Spain, and was founded in 1767 as a Mexican town; it originally included what is now Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, and was long the only Mexican town on the left bank of the river. It was captured in 1846 by a force of Texas Rangers, and in 1847 was occupied by U.S. troops under General Lamar. In 1852 it was chartered as a city of Texas. LA REOLE, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Gironde, on the right bank of the Gironde, 38 m. S.E. of Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1906) 3469. La Reole grew up round a monastery founded in the 7th or 8th century, which was reformed in the nth century and took the name of Regula, whence that of the town. A church of the end of the I2th century and some of the buildings (iSth century) are left. There is also a town hall of the I2th and 1 4th centuries. The town fortifications were dismantled by order of Richelieu, but remains dating from the i2th and I4th centuries are to be seen, as well as a ruined chateau built by Henry II. of England. La Reole has a sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, a communal college and an agricultural school. The town is the centre of the district in which the well-known breed of Bazadais cattle is reared. It is an agricultural market and carries on trade in the wine of the region together with liqueur distillery and the manufacture of casks, rope, brooms, &c. LARES (older form Lases), Roman tutelary deities. The word is generally supposed to mean " lords," and identified with Etruscan larth, lar; but this is by no means certain. The attempt to harmonize the Stoic demonology with Roman religion led to the Lares being compared with the Greek " heroes " during the period of Greco-Roman culture, and the word is frequently translated fjp.); but on the north we have no direct record of Sabine speech, nor of any non-Latinian tongue nearer than Tuder and Asculum or earlier than the 4th century B.C. (see UMBRIA, IGUVIUM, PICENUM). We know however, both from tradition and from the archaeo- logical data, that the Safine tribes were in the sth century B.C. migrating, or at least sending off swarms of their younger folk, farther and farther southward into the peninsula. Of the languages they were then displacing we have no explicit record save in the case of Etruscan in Campania, but it may be reason- ably inferred from the evidence of place-names and tribal names, combined with that of the Faliscan inscriptions, that before the Safine invasion some idiom, not remote from Latin, was spoken by the pre-Etruscan tribes down the length of the west coast (see FALISCI; VOLSCI; also ROME: History; LIGURIA; SlCULl). 2. Earliest Roman Inscriptions. — At Rome, at all events, it is clear from the unwavering voice of tradition that Latin was spoken from the beginning of the city. Of the earliest Latin inscriptions found in Rome which were known in 1909, the oldest, the so-called " Forum inscription," can hardly be re- ferred with confidence to an earlier century than the sth; the later, the well-known Duenos ( = later Latin bonus) inscription, certainly belongs to the 4th; both of these are briefly described below (§§ 40, 41). At this date we have probably the period of the narrowest extension of Latin; non-Latin idioms were spoken in Etruria, Umbria, Picenum and in the Marsian and Volscian hills. But almost directly the area begins to expand again, and after the war with Pyrrhus the Roman arms had planted the language of Rome in her military colonies throughout the peninsula. When we come to the 3rd century B.C. the Latin inscriptions begin to be more numerous, and in them (e.g. the oldest epitaphs of the Scipio family) the language is very little removed from what it was in the time of Plautus. 3. The Italic Group of Languages. — For the characteristics and affinities of the dialects that have just been mentioned, see the article ITALY: Ancient Languages and Peoples, and to the separate articles on the tribes. Here it is well to point out that the only one of these languages which is not akin to Latin is Etruscan; on the other hand, the only one very closely resembling Latin is Fah'scan, which with it forms what we may call the Latinian dialect of the Italic group of the Indo-European family of languages. Since, however, we have a far more complete knowledge of Latin than of any other member of the Italic group, this is the most convenient place in which to state briefly the very little than can be said as yet to have been ascertained as to the general relations of Italic to its sister groups. Here, as in many kindred questions, the work of Paul Kretschmer of Vienna (Einleitung in die Geschichte der griechischen Sprache, Gottingen, 1896) marked an important epoch in the historical aspects of linguistic study, as the first scientific attempt to interpret critically the different kinds of evidence which the Indo-European languages give us, not in vocabulary merely, but in phonology, morphology, and especially in their mutual borrowings, and to combine it with the non-linguistic data of tradition and archaeology. A certain number of the results so obtained have met with general acceptance and may be briefly treated here. It is, however, extremely dangerous to draw merely from linguistic kinship deductions as to racial identity, or even as to an original contiguity of habitation. Close re- semblances in any two languages, especially those in their inner structure (morphology), may be due to identity of race, or to long neighbourhood in the earliest period of their development; but they may also be caused by temporary neighbourhood (for a longer or shorter period) , brought about by migrations at a later epoch (or epochs). A particular change in sound or usage may spread over a whole chain of dialects and be in the end exhibited alike by them all, although the time at which it first began was long after their special and distinctive characteristics had become clearly marked. For example, the limitation of the word-accent to the last three syllables of a word in Latin and Oscan (see below) — a phenomenon which has left deep marks on all the Romance languages — demonstrably grew up between the sth and 2nd centuries B.C.; and it is a permissible conjecture that it started from the influence of the Greek colonies in Italy (especially Cumae and Naples), in whose language the same limitation (although with an accent whose actual character was probably more largely musical) had been established some centuries sooner. 4. Position of the Italic Group. — The Italic group, then, when compared with the other seven main " families " of Indo- LATIN LANGUAGE 245 European speech, in respect of their most significant differences, ranges itself thus: (i ) Back-palatal and Velar Sounds.— In point of its treatment of the Indo-European back-palatal and velar sounds, it belongs to the western or centum group, the name of which is, of course, taken from Latin; that is to say, like German, Celtic and Greek, it did not sibilate original k and g, which in Indo-Iranian, Armenian, Slavonic and Albanian have been converted into various types of sibilants (Ind-Eur.* kmtom = Lat. centum, Gr. (ft-carfe, Welsh cant, Eng. hund-(red), but Sans. Isatam, Zend sat»m) ; but, on the other hand, in company with just the same three western groups, and in contrast to the eastern, the Italic languages labialized the original velars (Ind.- Eur. * go<2 = Lat. quod, Osc. pod, Gr. iro«-(air6s), Welsh pwy, Eng. what, but Sans, kds, " who ?"). (ii.) Indo-European Aspirates. — Like Greek and Sanskrit, but in contrast to all the other groups (even to Zend and Armenian), the Italic group largely preserves a distinction between the Indo- European mediae aspiratae and mediae (e.g. between Ind.-Eur. dh and d, the former when initial becoming initially regularly Lat. / as in Lat. fec-l [cf. Umb. feia, "facial "], beside Gr. I-07jic-a [cf. Sans. da-dhd-ti, " he places "], the latter simply d as in domus, Gr. SOMOS). But the aspiratae, even where thus distinctly treated in Italic, became fricatives, not pure aspirates, a character which they only retained in Greek and Sanskrit. (iii.) Indo-European o.— With Greek and Celtic, Latin preserved the Indo-European 5, which in the more northerly groups (Germanic, Balto-Slavonic), and also in Indo-Iranian, and, curiously, in Messapian, was confused with d. The name for olive-oil, which spread with the use of this commodity from Greek (fratFov) to Italic speakers and thence to the north, becoming by regular changes (see below) in Latin first *6laivom, then *6lsivom, and then taken into Gothic and becoming alev, leaving its parent form to change further (not later than 100 B.C.) in Latin to oleum, is a particularly important example, because (o) of the chronological limits which are implied, however roughly, in the process just described, and (b) of the close association in time of the change of o to a with the earlier stages of the " sound-shifting " (of the Indo-European plosives and aspirates) in German; see Kretschmer, Einleit. p. 116, and the authorities he cites. (iv.) Accentuation. — One marked innovation common to the western groups as compared with what Greek and Sanskrit show to have been an earlier feature of the Indo-European parent speech was the development of a strong expiratory (sometimes called stress) accent upon the first syllable of all words. This appears early in the history of Italic, Celtic, Lettish (probably, and at a still later period) in Germanic, though at a period later than the beginning of the " sound-shifting." This extinguished the complex system of Indo- European accentuation, which is directly reflected in Sanskrit, and was itself replaced in Latin and Oscan by another system already mentioned, but not in Latin till it had produced marked effects upon the language (e.g. the degradation of the vowels in compounds as in conficio from con-facio, include from in-claudo). This curious wave of accentual change (first pointed out by Dieterich, Kuhn's Zeitschrift, i., and later by Thurneysen, Revue celtique, vi. 312, Rheinisches Museum, xliii. 349) needs and deserves to be more closely investi- gated from a chronological standpoint. At present it is not clear how far it was a really connected process in all the languages. (See further Kretschmer, op. cit. p. 115, K. Brugmann, Kurze verglei- chende Grammatik (1902-1904), p. 57, and their citations, especially Meyer-Lubke, Die Betonung im Gallischen (1901).) To these larger affinities may be added some important points in which the Italic group shows marked resemblances to other groups. 5. Italic and Celtic. — It is now universally admitted that the Celtic languages stand in a much closer relation than any other group to the Italic. It may even be doubted whether there was any real frontier-line at all between the two groups before the Etruscan invasion of Italy (see ETRURIA: Language; LIGURIA). The number of morphological innovations on the Indo-European system which the two groups share, and which are almost if not wholly peculiar to them, is particularly striking. Of these the chief are the following. (i.) Extension of the abstract-noun stems in -ti- (like Greek $6. with Attic /SAo-is, &c.) by an -n- suffix, as in Lat. mentio (stem menti- on-) =lr. (er-)mitiu (stem miti-n-), contrasted with the same wore without the re-suffix in Sans, mati-, Lat. mens, Ind.-Eur. *mn-ti-. A similar extension (shared also by Gothic) appears in Lat. iuventu-t- O. Ir. oitiu (stem oitiut-) beside the simple -tu- in nouns like senatus (ii.) Superlative formation in -is-mmo- as in Lat. aegerrimus fo *aegr-ismmos, Gallic 04£iffd(iij the name of a town meaning " thi highest. (iii.) Genitive singular of the o-stems (second declension) in -: Lat. agri, O. Ir .(Ogam inscriptions) magi, " of a son." (iv.) Passive and deponent formation in -r, Lat. sequitur = lr sechedar, " he follows." The originally active meaning of this curiou -r suffix was first pointed out by Zimmer (Kuhn's Zeitschrift, 1888 «x. 224), who thus explained the use of the accusative pronouns with these " passive " forms in Celtic; Ir. -m-berar, " I am carried," iterally " folk carry me "; Umb. pir ferar, literally ignem feratur, hough as pir is a neuter word ( = Gr. irup) this example was not so jonvincing. But within a twelvemonth of the appearance of Zimmer's article, an Oscan inscription (Cqnway, Camb. Philol. Society's Proceedings, 1890, p. 16, and Italic Dialects, p. 113) was dis- covered containing the phrase ultiumam (iuvilam) sakraftr, "ulti- mam (imaginem) consecraverint " (or " ultima consecretur ") which demonstrated the nature of the suffix in Italic also. This ariginally active meaning of the -r form (in the third person singular jassive) is the cause of the remarkable fondness for the " im- >ersonal " use of the passive in Latin (e.g.,itur inantiquam silvam, nstead of eunt), which was naturally extended to all tenses of the jassive (wntum est, &c.), so soon as its origin was forgotten. Fuller details of the development will be found in Conway, op. cit. p. 561, and the authorities there cited (very little isadded by K. Brugmann, *Curze vergl. Gramm. 1904, p. 596). (v.) Formation of the perfect passive from the -to- past participle, ^at. monitus (est), &c., Ir. leic-the, " he was left," ro-leiced, "he has seen left." In Latin the participle maintains its distinct adjectival character; in Irish (J. Strachan, Old Irish Paradigms, 1905, p. 50) it ms sunk into a purely verbal form, just as the perfect participles in -us in Umbrian have been absorbed into the future perfect m -ust [entelust, " intenderit " ; benust, " venerit ") with its impersonal passive or third plural active -us(s)so (probably standing for -ussor) as in lenuso, " ventum erit " (or " venerint "). To these must be further added some striking peculiarities in phonology. (vi.) Assimilation of p to a gK in a following syllable as m Lat. quinque = lr. coic, compared with Sans, pdnca, Gr. irivrt, Eng. five, fnd.-Eur. *penqe. (vii.) Finally — and perhaps this parallelism is the most important of all from the historical standpoint — both 'Italic and Celtic are divided into two sub-families which differ, and differ in the same way, in their treatment of the Ind.-Eur. velar tenuis q. In both halves of each group it was labialized to some extent; in one half of each group it was labialized so far as to become p. This is the great line of cleavage (i.) between Latinian (Lat. quod, quando, quinque; Falisc". cuando) and Osco-Umbrian, better called Safine (Osc. pod, Umb. panu- [for *pandd], Osc.-Umb. pompe-, " five," in Osc. 'pfimperias " nonae," Umb. pumpedia-, " fifth day of the month ") ; and (ii.) between Goidelic (Gaelic) '(O. Ir. coic, " five," maq, " son "; modern Irish and Scotch Mac as in MacPherson) and Brythonic (Britannic) (Welsh pump, " five," Ap for map, as in Powel for Ap Howel). The same distinction appears elsewhere; Germanic belongs, broadly described, to the g-group, and Greek, broadly described, to the p-group. The ethnological bearing of the distinction within Italy is considered in the articles SABINI and VOLSCI ; but the wider questions which the facts suggest have as yet been only scantily discussed; see the references for the " Sequanian " dialect of Gallic (in the inscription of Coligny, whose language preserves q) in the article CELTS : Language. From these primitive affinities we must clearly distinguish the numerous words taken into Latin from the Celts of north Italy within the historic period ; for these see especially an interesting study by J. Zwicker, De vocabulis et rebus Gallicis sive Transpadanis apud Vergilium (Leipzig dissertation, 1905). 6. Greek and Italic. — We have seen above (§ 4, i., ii.,iii.) certain broad characteristics which the Greek and the Italic groups of language have in common. The old question of the degree of their affinity may be briefly noticed. There are deep-seated differences in morphology, phonology and vocabulary between the two languages — such as (a) the loss of the forms of the ablative in Greek and of the middle voice in Latin; (b) the decay of the fricatives (5, », j) in Greek and the cavalier treatment of the aspirates in Latin; and (c) the almost total discrepancy of the vocabularies of law and religion in the two languages — which altogether forbid the assumption that the two groups can ever have been completely identical after their first dialectic separation from the parent language. On the other hand, in the first early periods of that dialectic development in the Indo-European family, the precursors of Greek and Italic cannot have been separated by any very wide boundary. To this primitive neighbourhood may be referred such peculiarities as (a) the genitive plural feminine ending in -asom (Gr. -dcoc, later in various dialects -ewv, -Civ, -av; cf. Osc. egmazum "rerum"; Lat. mensarum, with -r- from-*-), (b) the feminine gender of many nouns of the -o- declension, cf. Gr. ^ 66ncope of final syllables in Latin (especially before -s, as in mens, which represents both Gr. pivot and Sans. matis = Ind.-Eur. mntis, Eng. mind) is due also to this law operating on such combinations as bona mens and the like, but this has not yet been clearly shown. In any case the effects of any such phonetic change have been very greatly modified by analogical changes. The Oscan and Umbnan syncope of short vowels before final s seems to be an independent change, at all events in its detailed working. The outbreak of the unconscious affection of slurring final syllables may have been contemporaneous. 13. In post-Plautine Latin words accented on the ante-ante- penult : — (i.) suffered syncope in the short syllable following the accented syllable (bdlincae became bdlneae, pueritia became puertia (Horace), columine, tegimine, &c., became culmine, tegmine, &C., beside the trisyllabic columen, tegimen) unless (ii.) that short vowel was e or i , followed by another vowel (as in pdrietem, mulierem, Puteoli), when, instead of contraction, the accent shifted to the penult, which at a later stage of the language became lengthened, parietem giving Ital. partte, Fr. paroi, Puteoli giving Ital. Pozzuili. The restriction of the accent to the last three syllables was com- pleted by these changes, which did away with all the cases in which it had stood on the fourth syllable. 14. The Law of the Brevis Brevians. — Next must be mentioned another great phonetic change, also dependent upon accent, which had come about before the time of Plautus, the law long known to students as the Brevis Brevians, which may be stated as follows (Exon, Hermathena (1903), xii. 491, following Skutsch in, e.g., Vollmoller's Jahresbericht fur romanische Sprachwissenschaft, i. 33) : a syllable long by nature or position, and preceded by a short syllable, was itself shortened if the word-accent fell immediately before or immediately after it — that is, on the preceding short syllable or on the next following syllable. The sequence of syllables need not be in the same word, but must be as closely connected in utterance as if it were. Thus modo became modo, voluptatem became volu(p)tatem, quid est? became quid est? either the s or the / or both being but faintly pronounced. It is clear that a great number of flexional syllables so shortened would have their quantity immediately restored by the analogy of the same inflexion occurring in words not of this particular shape; thus, for instance, the long vowel of Ama and the like is due to that in other verbs (pulsd, agita) not of iambic shape. So ablatives like modo, sono get back their -5, while in particles like modo, " only," quomodo, " how," the shortened form remains. Conversely, the shortening of the final -a in the nom. sing. fern, of the a-declension (contrast tuna with Gr. xcops) was probably partly due to the influence of common forms like ea, bona, mala, which had come under the law. 15. Effect on Verb Inflexion. — These processes had far-reaching effects on Latin inflexion. The chief of these was the creation of the type of conjugation known as the ca/>io-class. All these verbs were originally inflected like audio, but the accident of their short root- syllable (in such early forms as *fugis, *fuglturus, *fuglsetis, &c., becoming later fugis,fugiturus, fugeretis) brought great parts of their paradigm under this law, and the rest followed suit; but true forms like fugire, cuplre, monri, never altogether died out of the spoken language. St Augustine, for instance, confessed in 387 A.D. (Epist. iii. 5, quoted by Exon, Hermathena (1901), xi. 383,) that he does not know whether cupi or cupiri is the pass. inf. of cupio. Hence we have Ital. fugglre, monre, Fr. fuir, mourir. (See further on this conjugation, C. Exon, I.e., and F. Skutsch, Archiv fur lat. Lexico- graphie, xii. 210, two papers which were written independently.) 16. The question has been raised how far the true phonetic shorten- ing appears in Plautus, produced not by word-accent but by metrical ictus — e.g. whether the reading is to be trusted in such lines as Amph. 761, which gives us dedisse as the first foot (tribrach) of a trochaic line " because the metrical ictus fell on the syllable (fed- " — but this remarkable theory cannot be discussed here. See the articles cited and also F. Skutsch, Forschungen zu Latein. Grammatik und Metrik, i. (1892); C. Exon, Hermathena (1903) xii. p. 492, W. M. Lindsay, Captivi (1900), appendix, In the history of the vowels and diphthongs in Latin we must ' distinguish the changes which came about independently of accent and those produced by the preponderance of accent in another syllable. 17. Vowel Changes independent of Accent. — In the former category the following are those of chief importance: — (i.) i became e (a) when final, as in ant-e beside Gr. ia/rt, tnste besides tnsti-s, contrasted with e.g., the Greek neuter 1£pi (the final -e of the infinitive — regere, &c. — is the -T, of the locative, just as in the so-called ablatives genere, &c.) ; (b) before -r- which has arisen from -s-, as in cineris beside cinis, cinisculus; sero beside Gr. t(a.trr\v, inavTjv) and was'thus confused with the causative -eio (as in moneo, " I make to think," &c.), where the short e is original. So audiui became *audn and thence n ara, beside O. Lat. asa, generis from *geneses, Gr. ytvtos; eram, era for 'esam, *eso, and so in the verbal endings -eram, -era, -erim. But a considerable number of words came into Latin, partly from neigh- bouring dialects, with -s- between vowels, after 350 B.C., when the change ceased, and so show -s-, as rosa (probably from S. Oscan for *rodia " rose-bush " cf. Gr. p6&ov), caseus, " cheese," miser, a term of abuse, beside Gr. /iwapis (probably also borrowed from south Italy), and many more, especially the participles in -sus (Jusus), where the -s- was -ss- at the time of the change of -i- to -r- (so in causa, see above). All attempts to explain the retention of the -s- otherwise must be said to have failed (e.g. the theory of accentual difference in Verner's Law in Italy, or that of dissimilation, given by Brugmann, Kurze vergl. Gram. p. 242). (ii.) sr became br ( = Eng. thr in throw) in pro-ethnic Italic, and this became initially fr- as in frlgus, Gr. #70? (Ind.-Eur. *sngos), but medially -br-, as infunebris, fromfunus, stemfunes-. (iii.) -rs-, Is- became -rr-, -U-, as in ferre, velle, for *fer-se, *vel-se (cf. es-se). (iv.) Before m, n, I, and v, -s- vanished, having previously caused the loss of any preceding plosive or -n-, and the preceding vowel, if short, was lengthened as in primus from *prismos, Paelig. prismu, " prima," beside pris-cus. iumentum from O. Lat. iouxmentum, older *ieugsmentom; cf. Gr. ftvyita, fityov, Lat. iugum, iungo. luna from *leucsna-, Praenest, losna, Zend rao\sna-; cf. Gr. XeGxos, " white-ness " neut. e.g. \tvnos, " white," Lat. luceo. telum from *tens-lpm or *tends-lom, trdnare from *trans-ndre. sevirl from *sex-viri, eveho from *ex-veho, and so e-mitto, e-lido, e-numero, and from these forms arose the proposition e instead of ex. (v.) Similarly -sd- became -d-, as in Idem from is-dem. (vi.) Before n-, m-, /-, initially f- disappeared, as in nubo beside Old Church Slavonic snubiti, " to love, pay court to "; miror beside Sans, smdyate, " laughs," Eng. smi-le; lubricus beside Goth, sliupan, Eng. slip. (b) Latin -.ss- arose from an original -t + /-, -d +<-, -dh +t- (except before -r), as in missus, earlier *mit-tos; tonsus, earlier *tond-tos, but tonstnx from *tond-trix. After long vowels this -ss- became a single -s- some time before Cicero (who wrote caussa [see above], divissio, &c., but probably only pronounced them with -s-,since the-w- came to be written single directly after his time). 26. Of the Indo-European velars the breathed q was usually pre- served in Latin with a labial addition of -u- (as in sequor, Gr. cVo/jai, Goth, saihvan, Eng. see; quod, Gr. iro5-(air<5s), Eng. what); but the voiced Ss remained (as -gu-) only after -n- (unguo beside Ir. imb, " butter ") and (as g) before r, I, and u (as in grains, Gr. (lupin; glans, Gr. fSaXavos; legumen, Gr. Xo/S6s, Xe/SWos). Elsewhere it became r, as in venio, (see § 23, ii.), nudus from *novedos, Eng. naked. Hence bos (Sans, gaus, Eng. cow) must be regarded as a farmer's word borrowed from one of the country dialects (e.g. Sabine) ; the pure Latin would be *vos, and its oblique cases, e.g. ace. *vovem, would be inconveniently close in sound to the word for sheep ovem. 27. The treatment of the Indo-European voiced aspirates (bh dh, gh, s/i)in Latin is one of the most marked characteristics of the language, which separates it from all the other Italic dialects, since the fricative sounds, which represented the Indo-European aspirates in pro-ethnic Italic, remained fricatives medially if they remained at all in that position in Oscan and Umbrian, whereas in Latin they were nearly always changed into voiced explosives. Thus — Ind.-Eur. bh: initially Lat./- (fero; Gr. tfwpai). medially Lat. -6- (tibi; Umb. tefe; Sans. tubhy-(am), " to thee "; the same suffix in Gr. fliri-i, &c.). Ind.-Eur. dh: initially Lat./- (fa-c-ere, fe-c-i; Gr. OtriK (instead of *Ba.Th), WTI-KO). medially -d- (medius; Osc. mefio-; Gr. ukaaot, jieiros from *ne0tps) ; except after u (iubere beside iussus for *iudh-tos; Sans, yddhati, " rouses to battle"); before / (stabulum, but Umb. staflo-, with the suffix of Gr. artpyiflpov, &c.) ; before or after r (verbum: Umb. verfale: Eng. word. Lat. glaber [v. inf]. : Ger. glatt: Eng. glad). Ind.-Eur. gh: initially h- (hurni: Gr. \anal); except before -u- (fundo: Gr. x*(f)a>, x^P«). medially -h- (veho: Gr. txu, &\os; cf. Eng. wagon); except after -n- (fingere: Osc. feiho-, "wall": Gr. 6i.yyA.vw: Ind.-Eur. dheigh-, dhingh-); and before / (flg(u)lus, from the same root). Ind.-Eur g*h: initially /- (formus a.ndfurnus, " oven ", Gr. Otpubs, Biplt-i), cf. Ligurian Bormio, " a place with hot springs," Bormanus, "a god of hot springs"; fendo: Gr. 8dt>u, 4>Acos, irp6a, vela; fragrare beside Gr. 6apaivo/iai. [6a- for ods-, cf. Lat. odor], a re- duplicated verb from a root 6«Aro-). For the " non-labializing velars " (Hostis, concius, claber) refer- ence must be made to the fuller accounts in the handbooks. 28. AUTHORITIES. — This summary account of the chief points in Latin phonology may serve as an introduction to its principles, and give some insight into the phonetic character of the language. For systematic study reference must be made to the standard books, Karl Brugmann, Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der Indo- Germanischen Sprachen (vol. i., Lautlehre, 2nd ed. Strassburg, 1897; Eng. trans, of ed. I by Joseph Wright, Strassburg, 1888) and his Kurze vergleichende Grammatik (Strassburg, 1902) ; these contain still by far the best accounts of Latin; Max Niederman, Precis de phonttique du Latin (Paris, 1906), a very convenient handbook, excellently planned ; F. Sommer, Lateinische, Laut- and Flexionslehre (Heidelberg, 1902), containing many new conjectures; W. M. Lindsay, The Latin Language (Oxford, 1894), translated into German (with corrections) by Nohl (Leipzig, 1897), a most valuable collection of material, especially from the ancient grammarians, but not always accurate in phonology; F. Stolz, vol. i. of a joint Historische Gram- matik d. lat. Sprache by Blase, Landgraf, Stolz and others (Leipzig, 1894); Neue-Wagener, Formenlehre d. lat. Sprache (3 vols., 3rd ed.. LATIN LANGUAGE 249 Leipzig, 1888, foil.); H. J. Roby's Latin Grammar (from Plautus to Suetonius; London, 7th ed., 1896) contains a masterly collection of material, especially in morphology, which is still of great value. W. G. Hale and C. D. Buck's Latin Grammar (Boston, 1903), though on a smaller scale, is of very great importance, as it contains the fruit of much independent research on the part of both authors; in the difficult questions of orthography it was, as late as 1907, the only safe guide. II. MORPHOLOGY In morphology the following are the most characteristic Latin innovations: — 29. In nouns. (i.) The complete loss of the dual number, save for a survival in the dialect of Praeneste (C.I.L. xiv. 2891, = Conway, Ital. Dial. p. 285, where Q. k. Cestio Q. f. seems to be nom. dual) ; so C.I.L. xi. 67065, T. C. Vomanio, see W. Schulze, Lat. Eigennamen, p. 117. (ii.) The introduction of new forms in the gen. sing, of the -o- stems (dominl), of the -a- stems (tnensae) and in the nom. plural of the same two declensions; innovations mostly derived from the pro- nominal declension. (iii.) The development of an adverbial formation out of what was either an instrumental or a locative of the -o- stems, as in longe. And here may be added the other adverbial developments, in -m (palam, sensim) probably accusative, and -Her, which is simply the accusative of Her, " way," crystallized, as is shown especially by the fact that though in the end it attached itself particularly to adjectives of the third declension (molliter), it appears also from adjectives of the second declension whose meaning made their com- bination with iter especially natural, such as longiter, firmitt.r, largiter (cf. English straightway, longivays). The only objections to this derivation which had any real weight (see F. Skutsch, De nomini- bus no- suffixi ope formatis, 1890, pp. 4-7) have been removed by Exon's Law (§ n), which supplies a clear reason why the contracted type constanter arose in and was felt to be proper to Participial adverbs, while firmiter and the like set the type for those formed from adjectives. (iv.) The development of the so-called fifth declension by a re-ad- justment of the declension of the nouns formed with the suffix -ii-: ia- (which appears, for instance, in all the Greek feminine participles, and in a more abstract sense in words like materies) to match the inflexion of two old root-nouns res and dies, the stems of which were originally rej.- (Sans, ras, rayas, cf. Lat. rear) and dieu-. (v.) The disuse of the -ti- suffix in an abstract sense. The great number of nouns which Latin inherited formed with this suffix were either (l) marked as abstract by the addition of the further suffix -on- (as in natio beside the Gr. 7^tii>, TWJ>\&S rb. wra) is strange to Latin, save in poetical imitations of Greek; and so is the freedom of the Sanskrit instrumental, which often covers meanings expressed in Latin by cum, ab, inter. (ii.) The syncretism of the so-called ablative case, which combines the uses of (a) the true ablative which ended in -d (O. Lat. praidad) ; (b) the instrumental sociative (plural forms like domims, the ending being that of Sans, fivais,); and (c) the locative (noct-e, " at night "; itiner-e, " on the road," with the ending of Greek l\iri&-i). The so- called absolute construction is mainly derived from the second of these, since it is regularly attached fairly closely to the subject of the clause in which it stands, and when accompanied by a passive participle most commonly denotes an action performed by that subject. But the other two sources cannot be altogether excluded (orto sole, " starting from sunrise "; campo patente, " on, in sight of, the open plain "). 34. In verbs. (i.) The rich development and fine discrimination of the uses of the subjunctive mood, especially (o) in indirect questions (based on 25° LATIN LANGUAGE direct deliberative questions and not fully developed by the time of Plautus, who constantly writes such phrases as die quis es for the Ciceronian die quis sis) ; (b) after the relative of essential definition (non is sum gui negem) and the circumstantial cum (" at such a time as that "). The two uses (a) and (b) with (c) the common Purpose and Consequence-clauses spring from the " prospective " or " antici- patory " meaning of the mood, (d) Observe further its use in sub- ordinate oblique clauses (irascitur quod abierim, " he is angry because, as he asserts, I went away "). This and all the uses of the mood in oratio obliqua are derived partly from (a) and (b) and partly from the («) Unreal Jussive of past time (Non illi argentum redderem? Non redderes, " Ought I not to have returned the money to him?" " You certainly ought not to have," or, more literally, " You were not to i:). On this interesting chapter of Latin syntax see W.G.Hale's " Cum- constructions " (Cornell University Studies in Classical Philology, No. I, 1887-1889), and The Anticipatory Subjunctive (Chicago, 1894). (ii.) The complex system of oratio obliqua with the sequence of tenses (on the growth of the latter see Con way, Livy II., Appendix ii., Cambridge, 1901). (iii.) The curious construction of the gerundive (ad capiendam urbem), originally a present (and future?) passive participle, but re- stricted in its use by being linked with the so-called gerund (see § 32,6). The use, but probably not the restriction, appears in Oscan and Umbrian. (iv.) The favourite use of the impersonal passive has already been mentioned (§ 5, iv.). 35. The chief authorities for the study of Latin syntax are: Brugmann's Kurze vergl. Grammatik, vol. ii. (see § 28) ; Landgraf's Historische lat. Syntax (vol. ii. of the joint Hist. Gram., see § 28) ; Hale and Buck's Latin Grammar (see § 28) ; Draeger's Historische lat. Syntax, 2 vols. (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1878-1881), useful but not always trustworthy; the Latin sections in Delbruck's Vergleichende Syntax, being the third volume of Brugmann's Grundriss (§ 28). IV. IMPORTATION OF GREEK WORDS 36. It is convenient, before proceeding to describe the develop- ment of the language in its various epochs, to notice briefly the debt of its vocabulary to Greek, since it affords an indication of the steadily increasing influence of Greek life and literature upon the growth of the younger idiom. Corssen (Lat. Aus- sprache, ii. 814) pointed out four different stages in the process, and though they are by no means sharply divided in time, they do correspond to different degrees and kinds of intercourse. (a) The first represents the period of the early intercourse of Rome with the Greek states, especially with the colonies in the south of Italy and Sicily. To this stage belong many names of nations, countries and towns, as Siculi, Tarentum, Graeci, Achivi, Poenus; and also names of weights and measures, articles of industry and terms connected with navigation, as mina, talentum, purpura, patina, ancora, aplustre, nausea. Words like amurca, scutula, pessulus, balineum, tarpessita represent familiarity with Greek customs and bear equally the mark of naturalization. To these may be added names of gods or heroes, like Apollo, Pollux and perhaps Hercules. These all became naturalized Latin words and were modified by the phonetic changes which took place in the Latin language after they had come into it (cf. §§ 9-27 supra), (b) The second stage was probably the result of the closer intercourse re- sulting from the conquest of southern Italy, and the wars in Sicily, and of the contemporary introduction of imitations of Greek litera- ture into Rome, with its numerous references to Greek life and culture. It is marked by the free use of hybrid forms, whether made by the addition of Latin suffixes to Greek stems as ballistarius, hepatarius, subbasilicanus, sycophantiosus, comissan or of Greek suffixes to Latin stems as plagipatidas, pernonides ; or by derivation, as thermopotare, supparasltari; or by composition as ineuscheme, thyrsigerae, flagritnbae, scrophipasci,. The character of many of these words shows that the comic poets who coined them must have been able to calculate upon a fair knowledge of colloquial Greek on the part of a considerable portion of their audience. The most remarkable instance of this is supplied by the burlesque lines in Plautus (Pers. 702 seq.), where Sagaristio describes himself as Vaniloquidorus, Virginisvendonides, Nugipiloquides, Argentumexterebronides, Tedigniloquides, Nummosexpalppnides, Quodsemelarripides, Nunquameripides. During this period Greek words are still generally inflected according to the Latin usage. (c) But with Accius (see below) begins a third stage, in which the Greek inflexion is frequently preserved, e.g. Hectora, Oresten, Ci- thaeron; and from this time forward the practice wavers. Cicero generally prefers the Latin case-endings, defending, e.g., Piraeeum as against Piraeea (ad Alt. vii. 3, 7), but not without some fluctua- tion, while Varro takes the opposite side, and prefers po'emasin to the Ciceronian poematis. By this time also y and z were introduced, and the representation of the Greek aspirates by th, ph, ch, so that words newly borrowed from the Greek could be more faithfully reproduced. This is equally true whatever was the precise nature of the sound which at that period the Greek aspirates had reached in their secular process of change from pure aspirates (as in Eng. ant-hill, &c.) to fricatives (like Eng. th in thin). (See Arnold and Conway, The Restored Pronunciation of Greek and Latin, 4th ed., Cambridge, 1908, p. 21.) (d) A fourth stage is marked by the practice of the Augustan poets, who, especially when writing in imitation of Greek originals, freely use the Greek inflexions, such as Arcades, Tethy, Aegida, Echus, &c. Horace probably always used the Latin form in his Satires and Epistles, the Greek in his Odes. Later prose writers for the most part followed the example of his Odes. It must be added, however, in regard to these literary borrowings that it is not quite clear whether in this fourth class, and even in the unmodified forms in the preceding class, the words had really any living use in spoken Latin. V. PRONUNCIATION This appears the proper place for a rapid survey of the pronuncia- tion1 of the Latin language, as spoken in its best days. 37. CONSONANTS. — (i.) Back palatal. Breathed plosive c, pro- nounced always as k (except that in some early inscriptions — probably none much later, if at all later, than 300 B.C. — the char- acter is used also for g) until about the 7th century after Christ. K went out of use at an early period, except in a few old abbreviations for words in which it had stood before a, e.g., kal. for kalendae. Q, always followed by the consonantal u, except in a few old inscrip- tions, in which it is used for c before the vowel u, e.g. pequnia. X, an abbreviation for cs; xs is, however, sometimes found. Voiced plosive g, pronounced as in English gone, but never as in English gem before about the 6th century after Christ. Aspirate h, the rough breathing as in English. (ii.) Palatal. — The consonantal i, like the English y; it is only in late inscriptions that we find, in spellings like Zanuario, Giove, any definite indication of a pronunciation like the English^'. The precise date of the change is difficult to determine (see Lindsay's Latin Lang. p. 49), especially as we may, in isolated cases, have before us merely a dialectic variation ; see PAELIGNI. (iii.) Lingual. — r as in English, but probably produced more with the point of the tongue. / similarly more dental than in English, s always breathed (as Eng. ce in ice), z, which is only found in the transcription of Greek words in and after the time of Cicero, as dz or zz. (iv.) Dental. — Breathed, t as in English. Voiced, d as in English; but by the end of the 4th century di before a vowel was pronounced like our j (cf. diurnal and journal). Nasal, n as in English ; but also (like the English n) a guttural nasal (ng) before a guttural. Apparently it was very lightly pronounced, and easily fell away before s. (v.) Labial. — Breathed, p as in English. Voiced, b as in English; but occasionally in inscriptions of the later empire v is written for b, showing that in some cases b had already acquired the fricative sound of the contemporary /3 (see § 24, iii.). b before a sharp s was pronounced p, e.g. in urbs. Nasal, m as in English, but very slightly pronounced at the end of a word. Spirant, v like the ou in French out, but later approximating to the -u> heard in some parts of Germany, Ed. Sievers, Grundzuge d. Phonetik, ed. 4, p. 117, i.e. a labial v, not (like the English v) a labio-dental v. (vi.) Labio-dental. — Breathed fricative,/as in English. 38. VOWELS. — a, u, i, as the English ah, oo, ee; d, a sound coming nearer to Eng. aiv than to Eng. d ; e a close Italian e, nearly as the a of Eng. mate, ee of Fr. passee. The short sound of the vowels was not always identical in quality with the long sound, a was pronounced as in the French chatte, « nearly as in Eng. pull, I nearly as in pit, o as in dot, e_ nearly as in pet. The diphthongs were produced by pro- nouncing in rapid succession the vowels of which they were com- posed, according to the above scheme. This gives, au somewhat broader than ou in house; eu like ow in the " Yankee " pronunciation of town; ae like the vowel in hat lengthened, with perhaps somewhat more approximation to the i in wine; oe, a diphthongal sound approximating to Eng. oi; ui, as the French oui. To this it should be added that the Classical Association, acting 1 The grounds for this pronunciation will be found best stated in Postgate, How to pronounce Latin (1907), Arnold and Conway, The Restored Pronunciation of Greek and Latin (4th ed., Cambridge, 1908) ; and in the grammars enumerated in § 28 above, especially the preface to vol. i. of Roby's Grammar. The chief points about c may be briefly given as a specimen of the kind of evidence, (i) In some words the letter following c varies in a manner which makes it impossible to believe that the pronunciation of the c depended upon this, e.g. decumus and decimus, die from Plaut. dtce; (2) if c was prpnounced before e and * otherwise than before a, o and u, it is hard to see why k should not have been retained for the latter use; (3) no ancient writer gives any hint of a varying pronunciation of c; (4) a Greek K is always transliterated by c, and c by K; (5) Laan words containing c borrowed by Gothic and early High German are always spelt with k; (6) the varying pronunciations of ce, ci in the Romance languages are inexplicable except as derived independently from an original he, ki. LATIN LANGUAGE 251 on the advice of a committee of Latin scholars, has recommended for the diphthongs ae and oe the pronunciation of English j (really at) in wine and oi in boil, sounds which they undoubtedly had in the time of Plautus and probably much later, and which for practical use in teaching have been proved far the best. VI. THE LANGUAGE AS RECORDED 39. Passing now to a survey of the condition of the language at various epochs and in the different authors, we find the earliest monument of it yet discovered in a donative inscription on a fibula or brooch found in a tomb of the 7th century B.C. at Praeneste. It runs " Manios med fhefhaked Numasioi," i.e. " Manios made me for Numasios." The use of/ (//;) to denote the sound of Latin / supplied the explanation of the change of the symbol / from its Greek value ( = Eng. w) to its Latin value /, and shows the Chalcidian Greek alphabet in process of adapta- tion to the needs of Latin (see WRITING). The reduplicated perfect, its 3rd sing, ending -ed, the dative masculine in -oi (this is one of the only two recorded examples in Latin), the -s- between vowels (§ 25, i), and the -a- in what was then (see §§ 9, 10) certainly an unaccented syllable and the accusative med, are all interesting marks of antiquity.1 40. The next oldest fragment of continuous Latin is furnished by a vessel dug up in the valley between the Quirinal and the Viminal early in 1880. The vessel is of a dark brown clay, and consists of three small round pots, the sides of which are con- nected together. All round this vessel runs an inscription, in three clauses, two nearly continuous, the third written below; the writing is from right to left, and is still clearly legible; the characters include one sign not belonging to the later Latin alphabet, namely ^ for R, while the M has five strokes and the Q has the form of a Koppa. The inscription is as follows: — " iovesat deivos qoi med mitat, nei ted endo cosmis virco sied, asted noisi opetoitesiai pacari vois. dvenos med feced en manom einom duenoi ne med malo statod." The general style of the writing and the phonetic peculiarities make it fairly certain that this work must have been produced not later than 300 B.C. Some points in its interpretation are still open to doubt,2 but the probable interpretation is — " Deos iurat ille (or iurant ill!) qui me mittat (or mittant) ne in te Virgo (i.e. Proserpina) comis sit, nisi quidem optimo (?) Theseae (?) pacari vis. Duenos me fecit contra Manum, Dueno autem ne per me malum stato ( = imputetur, imponatur)." " He (or they) who dispatch me binds the gods (by his offer- ing) that Proserpine shall not be kind to thee unless thou wilt make terms with (or " for ") Opetos Thesias (?). Duenos made me against Manus, but let no evil fall to Duenos on my account." 41. Between these two inscriptions lies in point of date the famous stele discovered in the Forum in 1899 (G. Boni, Notiz. d. scan, May 1899). The upper half had been cut off in order to make way for a new pavement or black stone blocks (known to archaeologists as the niger lapis} on the site of the comitium, just to the north-east of the Forum in front of the Senate House. The inscription was written lengthwise along the (pyramidal) stele from foot to apex, but with the alternate lines in reverse directions, and one line not on the full face of any one of the four sides, but up a roughly-flattened fifth side made by slightly broadening one of the angles. No single sentence is complete and the mutilated fragments have given rise to a whole literature of conjectural " restorations." 1 The inscription was first published by Helbig and Dummler in Mittheilungen des deutschen archdol. Inst. Rom. ii. 40; since in C.I.I., xiv. 4123 and Conway, Italic Dial. 280, where other refer- ences will be found. 2 This inscription was first published by Dressel, Annali dell' Inst. Archeol. Romano (1880), p. 158, and since then by a multitude of commentators. The view of the inscription as a curse, translating a Greek cursing-formula, which has been generally adopted, was first put forward by R. S. Conway in the American Journal of Philology, x. (1889), 453; see further his commentary Italic Dialects, p. 329, and since then G. Hempl, Trans. Amer. Philol. Assoc. xxxiii. (1902), 150, whose interpretation of .iouesat = iurat and Opetoi Tesiai has been here adopted, and who gives other references. R. S. Conway examined it in situ in company with F. Skutsch in 1903 (cf. his article in Vollmoller's Jahresbericht, vi. 453), and the only words that can be regarded as reasonably certain are regei (regi) on face 2, kalatorem and iouxmenta on face 3, and ioueslod (iusto) on face 4.* The date may be said to be fixed by the variation of the sign form between (-Hand y/\ (with Q for r) and other alphabetic indications which suggest the 5th century B.C. It has been suggested also that the reason for the destruction of the stele and the repave- ment may have been either (i) the pollution of the comitium by the Gallic invasion of 390 B.C., all traces of which, on their departure, could be best removed by a repaving; or (2) perhaps more probably, the Augustan restorations (Studniczka, Jahreshejt d. Osterr. Institut, 1903, vi. 129 ff.). (R. S. C.) 42. Of the earlier long inscriptions the most important would be the Columna Rostrata, or column of Gaius Duilius (g.n.)> erected to commemorate his victory over the Carthaginians in 260 B.C., but for the extent to which it has suffered from the hands of restorers. The shape of the letters plainly shows that the inscription, as we have it, was cut in the time of the empire. Hence Ritschl and Mommsen pointed out that the language was modified at the same time, and that, although many archaisms have been retained, some were falsely introduced, and others replaced by more modern forms The most noteworthy features in it are — C always written for G (CESET —gessit), single for double consonants (clases-classes), d retained in the ablative (e.g., in altod marid), o for u in inflexions (piimps, ezfociont = exfugiunt), e for i (navebos = navibus, exemel = exemit); of these the first is probably an affected archaism, G having been introduced some time before the assumed date of the inscription. On the other hand, we have praeda where we should have expected praida ; no final consonants are dropped ; and the forms -es, -eis and -is for the accusative plural are interchanged capriciously. The doubts hence arising preclude the possibility of using it with confidence as evidence lor the state of the language in the 3rd century B.C. 43. Of unquestionable genuineness and the greatest value are the Scipionum Elogia. inscribed on stone coffins, found in the monument of the Scipios outside the Capene gate (C.I.L.1 i. 32). The earliest of the family whose epitaph has been preserved is L. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus (consul 298 B.C.), the latest C. Cornelius Scipio Hispanus (praetor in 139 B.C.); but there are good reasons for believing with Ritschl that the epitaph of the first was not contemporary, but was somewhat later than that of his son (consul 259 B.C.). This last may therefore be taken as the earliest specimen of any length of Latin and it was written at Rome; it runs as follows: — honcoino . ploirume . cosentiont . r[omai] duonoro . optumo . fuise . uiro [virorum] luciom . scipione . filips . barbati co]nsol . censor . aidilis . hie . fuet a \pud vos] he c . cepit . Corsica . aleriaque . urbejm] de det . tempestatebus. aide . mereto[d votam], The archaisms in this inscription are — (i) the retention of o for u in the inflexion of both nouns and verbs; (2) the diphthongs oi ( = later «) and ai ( = later ae) ; (3) -et for -it, hec for hie, and -ebus for -ibus; (4) duon- tor ban; and (5) the dropping of a final m in every case except in Luciom, a variation which is a marked characteristic of the language of this period. 44. The oldest specimen of the Latin language preserved to us in any literary source is to be found in two fragments of the Carmina Saliaria (Varro, De ling. Lat. vii. 26, 27), and one in Terentianus Scaurus, but they are unfortunately so corrupt as to give us little real information (see B. Maurenbrecher, Carminum Saliarium reliquiae, Leipzig, 1894; G. Hempl, American Philol. Assoc. Transactions, xxxi., 1900, 184). Rather better evidence is supplied in the Carmen Fratrum Arvalium, which was found in 1778 engraved on one of the numerous tablets recording the transactions of the college of the Arval brothers, dug up on the site of their grove by the Tiber, 5 m. from the city of Rome; but this also has been so corrupted in its oral tradition that even its general meaning is by no means clear (C.I.L.1 i. 28; Jordan, Krit. Beitrdge, pp. 203-211). 45. The text of the Twelve Tables (451-450 B.C.), if preserved in its integrity, would have been invaluable as a record of antique Latin; but it is known to us only in quotations. R. Schoell, whose edition and commentary (Leipzig, 1866) is the most complete, notes the following traces, among others, of an 'archaic syntax: (i) both the subject and the object of the verb are often left to be understood from the context, e.g. ni it anlestamino, igitur, em capita; (2) the imperative is used even for permissions, " si volet, plus dato," " if he choose, he may give him more "; (3) the subjunctive is apparently never used in conditional, 3 The most important writings upon it are those of Domenico Comparetti, Iscriz. arcaica del Foro Romano (Florence-Rome, 1900) ; Hiilsen, Berl. philolog. Wochenschrift (1899), No. 40; and Thurney- sen, Rheinisches Museum (Neue Folge), iii. 2. Prof. G. Tropea gives a Cronaca della discussions in a series of very useful articles in the Rivista di storia antica (Messina, 1900 and 1901). Skutsch's article already cited puts the trustworthy results in an exceedingly brief compass. 252 LATIN LANGUAGE only in final sentences, but the future perfect is common; (4) the connexion between sentences is of the simplest kind, and conjunctions are rare. There are, of course, numerous isolated archaisms of form and meaning, such as calirilur, pacunt, endo, escit. Later and less elaborate editions are contained in Fontes luris Romani, by Bruns-Mommsen-Gradenwitz (1892); and P. Girard, Textes de droit remain (1895). 46. Turning now to the language of literature we may group the Latin authors as follows: — * I. Ante-Classical (240-80 B.C.). — Naevius (? 269-204), Plautus (254-184), Ennius (230-169), Cato the Elder (234-149), Terentius (? 195-159), Pacuvius (220-132), Accius (170-94), Lucilius (? 168-103). II. Classical — Golden Age (80 B.C.-A.D. 14). — Varro (116-28), Cicero (106-44), Lucretius (99-55), Caesar (102-44), Catullus (87-? 47), Sallust (86-34), Virgil (70-19), Horace (65-8), Pro- pertius (? 50- ?), Tibullus (? 54-? 18), Ovid (43 B.C.-A.D. 18), Livy (59 B.C.-A.D. 18). III. Classical — Silver Age (A.D. 14-180). — Velleius (? 19 B.C.— ? A.D. 31), M. Seneca (d. c. A.D. 30), Persius (34-62), Petronius ^d. 66), Lucan (39-65), L. Seneca (d. A.D. 65), Plinius major (23-A.D. 79), Martial (40-101), Quintilian (42-118), Pliny the Younger (61-? 113), Tacitus (? 60-? 118), Juvenal (? 47-? 138), Suetonius (75-160), Pronto, (c. 90-170). 47. Naevius and Plautus. — In Naevius we find archaisms proportionally much more numerous than in Plautus, especially in the retention of the original length of vowels, and early forms of inflexion, such as the genitive in -as and the ablative in -d. The number of archaic words preserved is perhaps due to the fact that so large a proportion of his fragments have been preserved only by the grammarians, who cited them for the express purpose of explaining these. Of the language of Plautus important features have already been mentioned (§§ 10-16); for its more general characteristics see PLAUTUS. 48. Ennius. — The language of Ennius deserves especial study because of the immense influence which he exerted in fixing the literary style. He first established the rule that in hexameter verse all vowels followed by two consonants (except in the case of a mute and a liquid), or a double consonant, must be treated as lengthened by position. The number of varying quantities is also much diminished, and the elision of final -m becomes .the rule, though not without exceptions. On the other hand he very commonly retains the original length of verbal terminations (esset, faciel) and of nominatives in or and a, and elides final s before an initial consonant. In declension he never uses -ae as the genitive, but -ai or -as; the older and shorter form of the gen. plur. is -um in common; obsolete forms of pronouns are used, as mis, olli, sum ( = eum), sas, sos, sapsa; and in verbal inflexion there are old forms like morimur (§ i5),/0Amu (f 17, vi.), potestur (cf. § 5, iv.). Some experiments in the way of tmesis (saxo cere comminuit-brum) and apocope (divum domus altisonum cael, replel te laelificum gau) were happily regarded as failures, and never came into real use. His syntax is simple and straight- forward, with the occasional pleonasmslof a rude style, and con- junctions are comparatively rare. From this time forward the literary language of Rome parted company with the popular dialect. Even to the classical writers Latin was in a certain sense a dead language. Its vocabulary was not identical with that of ordinary life. Now and again a writer would lend new vigour to his style by phrases and constructions drawn from homely speech. But on the whole, and in ever-increasing measure, the language of literature was the language of the schools, adapted to foreign models. The genuine current of Italian speech is almost lost to view with Plautus and Terence, and reappears clearly only in the semi-barbarous products of the early Romance literature. 49. Pacuvius, Accius and Lucilius. — Pacuvius is noteworthy especially for his attempt to introduce a free use of compounds after the fashion of the Greek, which were felt in the classical 1 For further information see special articles on these authors, and LATIN LITERATURE. times to be unsuited to the genius of the Latin language, Quintilian censures severely his line — Nerei repandirostrum incurvicervicum pecus. Accius, though probably the greatest of the Roman tragedians, is only preserved in comparatively unimportant fragments. We know that he paid much attention to grammar and ortho- graphy; and his language is much more finished than that of Ennius. It shows no marked archaisms of form, unless the infinitive in -ier is to be accounted as such. Lucilius furnishes a specimen of the language of the period, free from the restraints of tragic diction and the imitation of Greek originals. Unfortunately the greater part of his fragments are preserved only by a grammarian whose text is exceptionally corrupt; but they leave no doubt as to the justice of the criticism passed by Horace on his careless and " muddy " diction. The urbanitas which is with one accord conceded to him by ancient critics seems to indicate that his style was free from the taint of provincial Latinity, and it may be regarded as reproducing the language of educated circles in ordinary life; the numerous Graecisms and Greek quotations with which it abounds show the familiarity of his readers with the Greek language and literature. Varro ascribes to him the gracile genus dicendi, the distinguishing features of which were venustas and subtilitas. Hence it appears that his numerous archaisms were regarded as in no way in- consistent with grace and precision of diction. But it may be remembered that Varro was himself something of an archaizer, and also that the grammarians' quotations may bring this aspect too much into prominence. Lucilius shares with the comic poets the use of many plebeian expressions, the love for diminutives, abstract terms and words of abuse; but occasionally he borrows from the more elevated style of Ennius forms like simitu ( = simul), noenu ( = non),/acw/ ( = facile), and the genitive in -ai, and he ridicules the contemporary tragedians for their zetemalia, their high-flown diction and sesquipedalia verba, which make the characters talk " not like men but like portents, flying winged snakes." In his ninth book he discusses questions of grammar, and gives some interesting facts as to the tendencies of the language. For instance, when he ridicules a praetor urbanus for calling himself pretor, we see already the intrusion of the rustic degradation of ae into e, which afterwards became universal. He shows a great command of technical language, and (partly owing to the nature of the fragments) a7ra£ Xey6juej/a are very numerous. 50. Cato. — The treatise of Cato the elder, De re rustica, would have afforded invaluable material, but it has unfortunately come down to us in a text greatly modernized, which is more of interest from the point of view of literature than of language. We find in it, however, instances of the accusative with uti, of the old imperative praefamino and of the fut. sub. servassis, prohibessis and such interesting subjunctive constructions as data bubus bibant omnibus, " give all the oxen (water) to drink." 51. Growth of Latin Prose. — It is unfortunately impossible to trace the growth of Latin prose diction through its several stages with the same clearness as in the case of poetry. The fragments of the earlier Latin prose writers are too scanty for us to be able to say with certainty when and how a formed prose style was created. But the impulse to it was undoubtedly given in the habitual practice of oratory. The earliest orators, like Cato, were distinguished for strong common sense, biting wit and vigorous language, rather than for any graces of style; and probably personal aucloritas was of far more account than rhetoric both in the law courts and in the assemblies of the people. The first public speaker, according to Cicero, who aimed at a polished style and elaborate periods was M. Aemilius Lepidus Porcina, in the middle of the 2nd century B.C.2 On his model the Gracchi and Carbo fashioned themselves, and, if we may judge from the fragments of the orations of C. Gracchus which are preserved, there were few traces of archaism remaining. A more perfect example of the urbanitas at which good speakers aimed was supplied by a famous speech of C. Fannius against C. Gracchus, 1 Cicero also refers to certain scripta dulcissima of the son of Scipio Africanus Maior, which must have possessed some merits of style. LATIN LANGUAGE 253 which Cicero considered the best oration of the time. No small part of the urbanitas consisted in a correct urban pronunciation; and the standard of this was found in the language of the women of the upper classes, such as Laelia and Cornelia. In the earliest continuous prose work which remains to us the four books De Rhetorica ad Herennium, we find the language already almost indistinguishable from that of Cicero. There has been much discussion as to the authorship of this work, now commonly, without very convincing reasons, ascribed to Q. Corni- ficius; but, among the numerous arguments which prove that it cannot have been the work of Cicero, none has been adduced of any importance drawn from the character of the language. It is worth while noticing that not only is the style in itself perfectly finished, but the treatment of the subject of style, elocutio (iv. 12. 17), shows the pains which had already been given to the question. The writer lays down three chief re- quisites— (i) elegantia, (2) compositio and (3) dignitas. Under the first come Latinitas, a due avoidance of solecisms and barbar- isms, and explanatio, clearness, the employment of familiar and appropriate expressions. The second demands a proper arrange- ment; hiatus, alliteration, rhyme, the repetition or displacement of words, and too long sentences are all to be eschewed. Dignity depends upon the selection of language and of sentiments. 52. Characteristics of Latin Prose. — Hence we see that by the time of Cicero Latin prose was fully developed. We may, there- fore, pause here to notice the characteristic qualities of the language at its most perfect stage. The Latin critics were themselves fully conscious of the broad distinction in character between their own language and the Greek. Seneca dwells upon the stately and dignified movement of the Latin period, and uses for Cicero the happy epithet of gradarius. He allows to the Greeks gratia, but claims potentia for his own countrymen. Quintilian (xii. 10. 27 seq.) concedes to Greek more euphony and variety both of vocalization and of accent; he admits that Latin words are harsher in sound, and often less happily adapted to the expression of varying shades of meaning. But he too claims " power " as the distinguishing mark of his own language. Feeble thought may be carried off by the exquisite harmony and subtleness of Greek diction; his countrymen must aim at fulness and weight of ideas if they are not to be beaten off the field. The Greek authors are like lightly moving skiffs; the Romans spread wider sails and are wafted by stronger breezes; hence the deeper waters suit them. It is not that the Latin language fails to respond to the calls made upon it. Lucretius and Cicero concur, it is true, in complaints of the poverty of their native language; but this was only because they had had no prede- cessors in the task of adapting it to philosophic utterance; and the long life of Latin technical terms like qualilas, species, genus, ratio, shows how well the need was met when it arose. H. A. J. Munro has said admirably of this very period: — " The living Latin for all the higher forms of composition, both prose and verse, was a far nobler language than the living Greek. During the long period of Grecian pre-eminence and literary glory, from Homer to Demosthenes, all the manifold forms of poetry and prose which were invented one after the other were brought to such exquisite perfection that their beauty of form and grace of language were never afterwards rivalled by Latin or any other people. But hardly had Demosthenes and Aristotle ceased to live when that Attic which had been gradually formed into such a noble instrument of thought in the hands of Aristophanes, Euripides, Plato and the orators, and had superseded for general use all the other dialects, became at the same time the language of the civilized world and was stricken with a mortal decay. . . . Epicurus, who was born in the same year as Menander, writes a harsh jargon that does not deserve to be called a style; and others of whose writings anything is left entire or in fragments, historians and philosophers alike, Polybius, Chrysippus, Philodemus, are little if any better. When Cicero deigns to translate any of their sentences, see what grace and life he instils into their clumsily expressed thoughts, how satisfying to the ear and taste are the periods of Livy when he is putting into Latin the heavy and uncouth clauses of Polybius ! This may explain what Cicero means when at one time he gives to Greek the preference over Latin, at another to Latin over Greek; in reading Sophocles or Plato he could acknowledge their unrivalled excellence; in trans- lating Panaetius or Philodemus he would feel his own immeasurable superiority." The greater number of long syllables, combined with the paucity of diphthongs and the consequent monotony of vocaliza- tion, and the uniformity of the accent, lent a weight and dignity of movement to the language which well suited the national gravitas. The precision of grammatical rules and the entire absence of dialectic forms from the written literature contributed to maintain the character of unity which marked the Roman republic as com- pared with the multiplicity of Greek states. It was remarked by Francis Bacon that artistic and imaginative nations indulge freely in verbal compounds, practical nations in simple concrete terms. In this respect, too, Latin contrasts with Greek. The attempts made by some of the earlier poets to indulge in novel compounds was felt to be out of harmony with the genius of the language. Composition, though necessarily employed, was kept within narrow limits, and the words thus produced have a sharply defined meaning, wholly unlike the poetical vagueness of some of the Greek compounds. The vocabulary of the language, though receiving accessions from time to time in accordance with practical needs, was rarely enriched by the products of a spontaneous creativeness. In literature the taste of the educated town circles gave the law; and these, trained in the study of the Greek masters of style, required something which should reproduce for them the harmony of the Greek period. Happily the orators who gave form to Latin prose were able to meet the demand without departing from the spirit of their own language.1 53. Cicero and Caesar. — To Cicero especially the Romans owed the realization of what was possible to their language in the way of artistic finish of style. He represents a protest at one and the same time against the inroads of the plebeius sermo, vulgarized by the constant influx of non-Italian provincials into Rome, and the " jargon of spurious and partial culture " in vogue among the Roman pupils of the Asiatic rhetoricians. His essential service was to have caught the tone and style of the true Roman urbanitas, and to have fixed it in extensive and widely read speeches and treatises as the final model of classical prose. The influence of Caesar was wholly in the same direction. His cardinal principle was that every new-fangled and affected expression, from whatever quarter it might come, should be avoided by the writer, as rocks by the mariner. His own style for straightforward simplicity and purity has never been sur- passed; and it is not without full reason that Cicero and Caesar are regarded as the models of classical prose. But, while they fixed the type of the best Latin, they did not and could not alter its essential character. In subtlety, in suggest iveness, in many- sided grace and versatility, it remained far inferior to the Greek. But for dignity and force, for cadence and rhythm, for clearness and precision, the best Latin prose remains unrivalled. It is needless to dwell upon the grammar or vocabulary of Cicero. His language is universally taken as the normal type of Latin; and, as hitherto the history of the language has been traced by marking differences from his usage, so the same method may be followed for what remains. 54. Varro, " the most learned of the ancients," a friend and contemporary of Cicero, seems to have rejected the periodic rhythmical style of Cicero, and to have fallen back upon a more archaic structure. Mommsen says of one passage " the clauses of the sentence are arranged on the thread of the relative like dead thrushes on a string." But, in spite (some would say, because) of his old-fashioned tendencies, his language shows great vigour and spirit. In his Menippean satires he intentionally made free use of plebeian expressions, while rising at times to a real grace and showing often fresh humour. His treatise De Re Rustica, in the form of a dialogue, is the most agreeable of his works, and where the nature of his subject allows it there is 1 The study of the rhythm of the Clausulae, i.e. of the last dozen (or half-dozen) syllables of a period in different Latin authors, has been remarkably developed in the last three years, and is of the highest importance for the criticism of Latin prose. It is only possible to refer to Th. Zielinski's Das Clauselgesetz in Cicero's Reden (St. Petersburg, 1904), reviewed by A. C. Clark in Classical Review, 1905, p. 164, and to F. Skutsch's important comments in Vollmoller's Jahresberichten iiber die Fortschritte der romanischen Philologie (1905) and Glotta (i. 1908, esp. p. 413), also to A. C. Clark's Fontes Prosae Numerosae (Oxford, 1909), The Cursus in Mediaeval and Vulgar Latin (ibid. 1910), and article CICERO. 254 LATIN LANGUAGE much vivacity and dramatic picturesqueness, although the precepts are necessarily given in a terse and abrupt form. His sentences are as a rule co-ordinated, with but few connecting links; his diction contains many antiquated or unique words. 55. Sallust. — In Sallust, a younger contemporary of Cicero, we have the earliest complete specimen of historical narrative. It is probably due to his subject-matter, at least in part, that his style is marked by frequent archaisms; but something must be ascribed to intentional imitation of the earlier chroniclers, which led him to be called priscorum Catonisque •uerborum ineruditissimus fur. His archaisms consist partly of words and phrases used in a sense for which we have only early authorities, e.g. cum animo habere, &c., animos tollere, bene factum, consultor, prosapia, dolus, venenum, obsequela, inquies, sallere, occipere, collibeo, and the like, where we may notice especially the fondness for frequentatives, which he shares with the early comedy; partly in inflections which were growing obsolete, such as senati, solui, comperior (dep.), neglegisset, vis (ace. pi.) nequitur. In syntax his constructions are for the most part those of the contemporary writers. 56. Lucretius is largely archaic in his style. We find im for turn, endo for in, illae, ullae, unae and aliae as genitives, olid for aliud, rabies as a genitive by the side of genitives in -ai, ablatives in -i like colli, orbi, parti, nominatives in s for r, like tolas, iiapos, humos. In verbs there are scatit, fulgit, quaesil, <:onfluxet=confluxisset, recesse = recessisse, induiacere for inicere; simple forms like fligere, lacere, cedere, stinguere for the more usual compounds, the infinitive passive in -ier, and archaic forms from esse like siet, escit, fuat. Sometimes he indulges in tmesis which reminds us of Ennius: inque pediri, disque supata, ordia prima. But this archaic tinge is adopted only for poetical purposes, and as a proof of his devotion to the earlier masters of his art; it does not affect the general substance of his style, which is of the freshest and most vigorous stamp. But the purity of his idiom is not gained by any slavish adherence to a recognized vocabulary: he coins words freely; Munro has noted more than a hundred a7ra£ \fy6neva, or words which he alone among good writers uses. Many of these are formed on familiar models, such as compounds and frequentatives; others are directly borrowed from the Greek apparently with a view to sweetness of rhythm (ii. 412, v. 334, 505); others again (forty or more in number) are compounds of a kind which the classical language refused to adopt, such as silvifragus, terriloquus, perterricrepus. He represents not so much a stage in the history of the language as a protest against the tendencies fashionable in his own time. But his influence was deep upon Virgil, and through him upon all subsequent Latin literature. 57. Catullus gives us the type of the language of the cultivated circles, lifted into poetry by the simple directness with which it is used to express emotion. In his heroic and elegiac poems he did not escape the influence of the Alexandrian school, and his genius is ill suited for long-continued flights; but in his lyrical poems his language is altogether perfect. As Macaulay says: " No Latin writer is so Greek. The simplicity, the pathos, the perfect grace, which I find in the great Athenian models are all in Catullus, and in him alone of the Romans." The language of these poems comes nearest perhaps to that of Cicero's more intimate letters. It is full of colloquial idioms and familiar language, of the diminutives of affection or of playfulness. Greek words are rare, especially in the lyrics, and those which are employed are only such as had come to be current coin. Archaisms are but sparingly introduced; but for metrical reasons he has four instances of the inf. pass., in -ier, and several contracted forms; we find also alls and olid, uni (gen.), and the antiquated letuli and recepso. There are traces of the popular language in the shortened imperatives cave and mane, in the analytic perfect paratam habes, and in the use of unus approaching that of the indefinite article. 58. Horace. — The poets of the Augustan age mark the opening of a new chapter in the history of the Latin language. The influence of Horace was less than that of his friend and con- temporary Virgil; for Horace worked in a field of his own, and, although Statius imitated his lyrics, and Persius and Juvenal, especially the former, his satires, on the whole there are few traces of any deep marks left by him on the language of later writers. In his Satires and Epistles the diction is that of the contemporary urbanitas, differing hardly at all from that of Cicero in his epistles and dialogues. The occasional archaisms, such as the syncope in erepsemus, evasse, surrexe, the infinitives in -ier, and the genitives deum, divum, may be explained as still conversationally allowable, though ceasing to be current in literature; and a similar explanation may account for plebeian terms, e.g. balatro, blatero, giarrio, mutto, iiappa, caldus, soldus, surpite, for the numerous diminutives, and for such pronouns, adverbs, conjunctions and turns of expression as were common in prose, but not found, or found but rarely, in elevated poetry. Greek words are used sparingly, not with the licence which he censures in Lucilius, and in his hexameters are framed according to Latin rules. In the Odes, on the other hand, the language is much more precisely limited. There are practically no archaisms (spargier in Carm. iv. n. 8 is a doubtful exception), or plebeian expressions; Greek inflections are employed, but not with the licence of Catullus; there are no datives in t or sin like T ethyl or Dryasin; Greek constructions are fairly numerous, e.g. the genitive with verbs like regnare, abstinere, desinere, and with adjectives, as integer vitae, the so-called Greek accusative, the dative with verbs of contest, like luctari, decertare, the transitive use of many intransitive verbs in the past participle, as regnatus, triumphatus; and finally there is a " prolative " use of the infinitive after verbs and adjectives, where prose would have employed other constructions, which, though not limited to Horace, is more common with him than with other poets. Compounds are very sparingly employed, and apparently only when sanctioned by authority. His own innovations in voca- bulary are not numerous. About eighty aira£ \eybneva have been noted. Like Virgil, he shows his exquisite skill in the use of language rather in the selection from already existing stores, than in the creation of new resources: tatitum series iuncluraque pallet. But both his diction and his syntax left much less marked traces upon succeeding writers than did those of either Virgil or Ovid. 59. Virgil. — In Virgil the Latin language reached its full maturity. What Cicero was to the period, Virgil was to the hexameter; indeed the changes that he wrought were still more marked, inasmuch as the language of verse admits of greater subtlety and finish than even the most artistic prose. For the straightforward idiomatic simplicity of Lucretius and Catullus he substituted a most exact and felicitous diction, rich with the suggestion of the most varied sources of inspiration. Sometimes it is a phrase of Homer's "conveyed" literally with happy boldness, sometimes it is a line of Ennius, or again some artistic Sophoclean combination. Virgil was equally familiar with the great Greek models of style and with the earlier Latin poets. This learning, guided by an unerring sense of fitness and harmony, enabled him to give to his diction a music which recalls at once the fullest tones of the Greek lyre and the lofty strains of the most genuinely national song. His love of antiquarianism in language has often been noticed, but it never passes into pedantry. His vocabulary and constructions are often such as would have conveyed to his contemporaries a grateful flavour of the past, but they would never have been unintelligible. Forms like iusso, olle or admittier can have delayed no one. In the details of syntax it is difficult to notice any peculiarly Virgilian points, for the reason that his language, like that of Cicero, became the canon, departures from which were accounted irregularities. But we may notice as favourite constructions a free use of oblique cases in the place of the more definite con- struction with prepositions usual in prose, e.g. it clamor caelo, flet noctem, rivis currentia vina, bacchatam iugis Naxon, and many similar phrases; the employment of some substantives as adjectives, like venator canis, and vice versa, as plurimusvolilans; a proleptic use of adjectives, as tristia torquebit; idioms involving ille, atque, deinde, hand, quin, vix, and the frequent occurrence of passive verbs in their earlier reflexive sense, as induor, velar, pascor. LATIN LANGUAGE 255 60. Liiiy. — In the singularly varied and beautiful style of Livy we find Latin prose in rich maturity. To a training in the rhetorical schools, and perhaps professional experience as a teacher of rhetoric, he added a thorough familiarity with con- temporary poetry and with the Greek language; and these attainments have all deeply coloured his language. It is probable that the variety of style naturally suggested by the wide range of his subject matter was increased by a half-unconscious adoption of the phrases and constructions of the different authorities whom he followed in different parts of his work; and the industry of German critics has gone far to demonstrate a conclusion likely enough in itself. Hence perhaps comes the fairly long list of archaisms, especially in formulae (cf . Kiihnast, Liv. Synt. pp. 14-18). These are, however, purely isolated phenomena, which do not affect the general tone. It is different with the poetical constructions and Graecisms, which appear on every page. Of the latter we find numerous instances in the use of the cases, e.g. in genitives like via praedae omissae, oppidum Antiochiae, aequum campi; in datives like quibusdam volentibus erat; in accusatives like iurare calumniam, certare mullam; an especially frequent use of transitive verbs absolutely; and the constant omission of the reflexive pronoun as the subject of an infinitive in reported speech. To the same source must be assigned the very frequent pregnant construction with preposi- tions, an attraction of relatives, and the great extension of the employment of relative adverbs of place instead of relative pronouns, e.g. quo = in quern. Among his poetical characteristics we may place the extensive list of words which are found for the first time in his works and in those of Virgil or Ovid, and perhaps his common use of concrete words for collective, e.g. eques for equitatus, of abstract terms such as remigium, servitia, robora, and of frequentative verbs, to say nothing of poetical phrases like haec ubi dicta ded.it, adversum monlium, &c. Indications of the extended use of the subjunctive, which he shares with con- temporary writers, especially poets, are found in the construction of ante quam, post quam with this mood, even when there is no underlying notion of anticipation, of donee, and of cum meaning " whenever." On the other hand, forsitan and quamms, as in the poets, are used with the indicative in forgetfulness of their original force. Among his individual peculiarities may be noticed the large number of verbal nouns in -tus (for which Cicero prefers forms in -tio) and in -tor, and the extensive use of the past passive participle to replace an abstract substantive, e.g. ex dictatorio imperio concusso. In the arrangement of words Livy is much more free than any previous prose writer, aiming, like the poets, at the most effective order. His periods are con- structed with less regularity than those of Cicero, but they gain at least as much in variety and energy as they lose in uniformity of rhythm and artistic finish. His style cannot be more fitly described than in the language of Quintilian, who speaks of his mira iucundilas and lactea ubertas. 61. Propertius. — The language of Propertius is too distinctly his own to call for detailed examination here. It cannot be taken as a specimen of the great current of the Latin language; it is rather a tributary springing from a source apart, tinging to some slight extent the stream into which it pours itself, but soon ceasing to affect it in any perceptible fashion. " His obscurity, his indirectness and his incoherence " (to adopt the words of J. P. Postgate) were too much out of harmony with the Latin taste for him to be regarded as in any sense representa- tive; sometimes he seems to be hardly writing Latin at all. Partly from his own strikingly independent genius, partly from his profound and not always judicious study of the Alexandrian writers, his poems abound in phrases and constructions which are without a parallel in Latin poetry. His archaisms and Graecisms, both in diction and in syntax, are very numerous; but frequently there is a freedom in the use of cases and pre- positions which can only be due to bold and independent innova- tions. His style well deserves a careful study for its own sake (cf. J. P. Postgate's Introduction, pp. Ivii.-cxxv.) ; but it is of comparatively little significance in the history of the language. 62. Ovid. — The brief and few poems of Tibullus supply only what is given much more fully in the works of Ovid. In these we have the language recognized as that best fitted for poetry by the fashionable circles in the later years of Augustus. The style of Ovid bears many traces of the imitation of Virgil, Horace and Propertius, but it is not less deeply affected by the rhetoric of the schools. His never-failing fertility of fancy and command of diction often lead him into a diffuseness which mars the effect of his best works; according to Quintilian it was only in his (lost) tragedy of Medea that he showed what real excellence he might have reached if he had chosen to control his natural powers. His influence on later poets was largely for evil; if he taught them smoothness of versification and polish of language, he also co-operated powerfully with the practice of recitation to lead them to aim at rhetorical point and striking turns of ex- pression, instead of a firm grasp of a subject as a whole, and due subordination of the several parts to the general impression. Ovid's own influence on language was not great; he took the diction of poetry as he found it, formed by the labours of his predecessors; the conflict between the archaistic and the Graecizing schools was already settled in favour of the latter; and all that he did was to accept the generally accepted models as supplying the material in moulding which his luxuriant fancy could have free play. He has no deviations from classical syntax but those which were coming into fashion in his time (e.g. jorsilan and quamms with the indie., the dative of the agent with passive verbs, the ablative for the accusative of time, the infinitive after adjectives like certus, aptus, &c.), and but few peculiarities in his vocabulary. It is only in the letters from the Pontus that laxities of construction are detected, which show that the purity of his Latin was impaired by his residence away from Rome, and perhaps by increasing carelessness of com- position. 63. The Latin of Daily Life. — While the leading writers of the Ciceronian and Augustan eras enable us to trace the gradual development of the Latin language to its utmost finish as an instrument of literary expression, there are some less important authors who supply valuable evidence of the character of the sermo plebeius. Among them may be placed the authors of the Bellum Africanum and the Bellum Hispaniense appended to Caesar's Commentaries. These are not only far inferior to the exquisite urbanitas of Caesar's own writings; they are much rougher in style even than the less polished Bellum Alexandrinum and De Bella Gallico Liber VIII., which are now with justice ascribed to Hirtius. There is sufficient difference between the two to justify us in assuming two different authors; but both freely employ words and constructions which are at once anti- quated and vulgar. The writer of the Bellum Alexandrinum uses a larger number of diminutives within his short treatise than Caesar in nearly ten times the space; poslquam and ubi are used with the pluperfect subjunctive; there are numerous forms unknown to the best Latin, like trislimonia, exporrigere, cruciabiliter and convulnero; potior is followed by the accusative, a simple relative by the subjunctive. There is also a very common use of the pluperfect for the imperfect, which seems a mark of this plebeius sermo (Nipperdey, Quaest. Caes.pp. 13-30). Another example of what we may call the Latin of business life is supplied by Vitruvius. Besides the obscurity of many of his technical expressions, there is a roughness and looseness in his language, far removed from a literary style; he shares the incorrect use of the pluperfect, and uses plebeian forms like calefaciuntur, faciliter, expertiones and such careless phrases as rogavit Archimedem uti in se sumeret sibi de eo cogitationem. At a somewhat later stage we have, not merely plebeian, but also provincial Latin represented in the Satyricon of Petronius. The narrative and the poems which are introduced into it are written in a style distinguished only by the ordinary peculiarities of silver Latinity; but in the numerous conversations the distinctions of language appropriate to the various speakers are accurately preserved; and we have in the talk of the slaves and provincials a perfect storehouse of words and construc- tions of the greatest linguistic value. Among the unclassical forms and constructions may be noticed masculines like fatus, vinus, balneus, fericulus and lactem (for lac}, striga for strix, gaudimonium and tristimonium, sanguen, manducare, nutricare, molestare, nesapius (sapius = Fr. sage), rostrum (=os), ipsimus ( = master), scordalias, baro, and numerous diminutives like camella, audaculus, potiuncula. 256 LATIN LANGUAGE savunculum, offla, peduclus, corcillum, with constructions such as maledicere and persuadere with the accusative, and adiutare with the dative, and the deponent forms pudeatur and ridetur. Of especial interest for the Romance languages are astrum (desastre), berbex (brebis), botellus (boyau), improperare, muttus, nattfragare. Suetonius (Aug. c. 87) gives an interesting selection of plebeian words employed in conversation by Augustus, who for the rest was something of a purist in his written utterances: ponit assidue et pro slulto baceolum, et pro pullo pulleiaceum, et pro cerrito vacerrosum, et vapide se habere pro male, et betizare pro languere, quod vulgo lachani- zare dicitur. The inscriptions, especially those of Pompeii, supply abundant evidence of the corruptions both of forms and of pronunciation common among the vulgar. It is not easy always to determine whether a mutilated form is evidence of a letter omitted in pro- nunciation, or only in writing; but it is clear that the ordinary man habitually dropped final m, s, and t, omitted n before s, and pro- nounced i like e. There are already signs of the decay of ae to e, which later on became almost universal. The additions to our vocabulary are slight and unimportant (cf. Corpus Inscr. Lat. iv., with Zangemeister's Indices). 64. To turn to the language of literature. In the dark days of Tiberius and the two succeeding emperors a paralysis seemed to have come upon prose and poetry alike. With the one ex- ception of oratory, literature had long been the utterance of a narrow circle, not the expression of the energies of national life; and now, while all free speech in the popular assemblies was silenced, the nobles were living under a suspicious despotism, which, whatever the advantage which it brought to the poorer classes and to the provincials, was to them a reign of terror. It is no wonder that the fifty years after the accession of Tiberius are a blank as regards all higher literature. Velleius Paterculus, Valerius Maximus, Celsus and Phaedrus give specimens of the Latin of the time, but the style of no one of these, classical for the most part in vocabulary, but occasionally approaching the later usages in syntax, calls for special analysis. The elder Seneca in his collection of suasoriae and controversiae supplies examples of the barren quibblings by which the young Romans were trained in the rhetorical schools. A course of instruction, which may have been of service when its end was efficiency in active public life, though even then not without its serious draw- backs, as is shown by Cicero in his treatise De Oratore, became seriously injurious when its object was merely idle display. Prose came to be overloaded with ornament, and borrowed too often the language, though not the genius, of poetry; while poetry in its turn, partly owing to the fashion of recitation, became a string of rhetorical points. 65. Seneca, Persius and Lucan. — In the writers of Nero's age there are already plain indications of the evil effects of the rhetorical schools upon language as well as literature. The leading man of letters was undoubtedly Seneca the younger, "the Ovid of prose"; and his style set the model which it became the fashion to imitate. But it could not commend itself to the judgment of sound critics like Quintilian, who held firmly to the great masters of an earlier time. He admits its brilliance, and the fertility of its pointed reflections, but charges the author justly with want of self-restraint, jerkiness, frequent repetitions and tawdry tricks of rhetoric. Seneca was the worst of models, and pleased by his very faults. In his tragedies the rhetorical elaboration of the style only serves to bring into prominence the frigidity and frequent bad taste of the matter. But his diction is on the whole fairly classical; he is, in the words of Muretus, vetusti sermonis diligentior quam quidam ineplefastidiosi suspicantur. In Persius there is a constant straining after rhetorical effect, which fills his verses with harsh and obscure expressions. The careful choice of diction by which his master Horace makes every word tell is exaggerated into an endeavour to gain force and freshness by the most contorted phrases. The sin of allusiveness is fostered by the fashion of the day for epigram, till his lines are barely intelligible after repeated read- ing. Conington happily suggested that this style was assumed only for satiric purposes, and pointed out that when not writing satire Persius was as simple and unaffected as Horace himself. This view, while it relieves Persius of much of the censure which has been directed against his want of judgment, makes him all the more typical a representative of this stage of silver Latinity. In his contemporary Lucan we have another example of the faults of a style especially attractive to the young, handled by a youth of brilliant but ill-disciplined powers. The Pharsalia abounds in spirited rhetoric, in striking epigram, in high sounding declamation; but there are no flights of sustained imagination, no ripe wisdom, no self-control in avoiding the exaggerated or the repulsive, no mature philosophy of life or human destiny. Of all the Latin poets he is the least Virgilian. It has been said of him that he corrupted the style of poetry, not less than Seneca that of prose. 66. Pliny, Quintilian, Frontinus.—In the elder Pliny the same tendencies are seen occasionally breaking out in the midst of the prosaic and inartistic form in which he gives out the stores of his cumbrous erudition. Wherever he attempts a loftier tone than that of the mere compiler, he falls into the tricks of Seneca. The nature of his encyclopaedic subject matter naturally makes his vocabulary very extensive; but in syntax and general tone of language he does not differ materially from contemporary writers. Quintilian is of interest especially for the sound judg- ment which led him to a true appreciation of the writers of Rome's golden age. He set himself strenuously to resist the tawdry rhetoric fashionable in his own time, and to hold up before his pupils purer and loftier models. His own criticisms are marked by excellent taste, and often by great happiness of expression, which is pointed without being unduly epigrammatic. But his own style did not escape, as indeed it hardly could, the influences of his time; and in many small points his language falls short of classical purity. There is more approach to the simplicity of the best models in Frontinus, who furnishes a striking proof that it was rather the corruption of literary taste than any serious change in the language of ordinary cultivated men to which the prevalent style was due. Writing on practical matters — the art of war and the water-supply of Rome — he goes straight to the point without rhetorical flourishes; and the ornaments of style which he occasionally introduces serve to embellish but not to distort his thought. 67. The Flavian Age. — The epic poets of the Flavian age present a striking contrast to the writers of the Claudian period. As a strained originality was the cardinal fault of the one school, so a tame and slavish following of 'authority is the mark of the other. The general correctness of this period may perhaps be ascribed (with Merivale) partly to the political conditions, partly to the establishment of professional schools. Teachers like Quintilian must have done much to repress extravagance of thought and language; but they could not kindle the spark of genius. Valerius Flaccus, Silius Italicus and Papinius Statius are all correct in diction and in rhythm, and abound in learning; but their inspiration is drawn from books and not from nature or the heart; details are elaborated to the injury of the impression of the whole; every line is laboured, and overcharged with epigrammatic rhetoric. Statius shows by far the greatest natural ability and freshness; but he attempts to fill a broad canvas with drawing and colouring suited only to a miniature. Juvenal exemplifies the tendencies of the language of his time, as moulded by a singularly powerful mind. A careful study of the earlier poets, especially Virgil and Lucan, has kept his language up to a high standard of purity. His style is eminently rhetorical; but it is rhetoric of real power. The concise brevity by which it is marked seems to have been the result of a deliberate attempt to mould his natural diffuseness into the form recognized as most appropriate for satire. In his verses we notice a few metrical peculiarities which represent the pronunciation of his age, especially the shortening of the final -o in verbs, but as a rule they conform to the Virgilian standard. In Martial the tendency of this period to witty epigram finds its most perfect embodiment, combined with finished versification. 68. Pliny the Younger and Tacitus. — The typical prose-writers of this time are Pliny the younger and Tacitus. Some features of the style of Tacitus are peculiar to himself; but on the whole the following statement represents the tendencies shared in greater or less degree by all the writers of this period. The gains lie mainly in the direction of a more varied and occasionally LATIN LITERATURE 257 more effective syntax; its most striking defect is a lack of harmony in the periods, of arrangements in words, of variety in particles arising from the loose connexion of sentences The vocabulary is extended, but there are losses as well as gains. Quintilian's remarks are fully borne out by the evidence of extant authorities: on the one hand, quid quod nihil iam proprium placet, dum parum creditur disertum, quod el alms dixisset (viii. prooem. 24) ; a corruplissimo quoque poetarum figuras seu transla- tiones mutuamur; turn demum ingeniosi scilicet, si ad intelligendos nos opus sit ingenio (ib. 25); sordet omne quod natura dictavit (ib. 26); on the other hand, nunc ulique, cum haec exercitatio procul a veritate seiuncta laboret incredibili verborum fastidio, ac sibi magnam partem sermonis absciderit (viii. 3, 23), multa cotidie ab anliquis ficla moriuntur (ib. 6, 32). A writer like Suetonius therefore did good service in introducing into his writings terms and phrases borrowed, not from the rhetoricians, but from the usage of daily life. 69. In the vocabulary of Tacitus there are to be noted : — 1. Words borrowed (consciously or unconsciously) from the classical poets, especially Virgil, occurring for the most part also in contemporary prose. Of these Drager gives a list of ninety-five (Syntax und Stil des Tacitus, p. 96). 2. Words occurring only, or for the first time, in Tacitus. These are for the most part new formations or compounds from stems already in use, especially verbal substantives in -tor and -sor, -tus and -sus, -tura and -mentum, with new frequentatives. 3. Words used with a meaning (a) not found in earlier prose, but sometimes borrowed from the poets, e.g. componere, " to bury "; scriplura, " a writing"; ferratus "armed with a sword"; (6) peculiar to later writers, e.g. numerosus, "numerous"; famosus, famous"; decollare, "to behead"; imputare, "to take credit for," &c. ; (c) restricted to Tacitus himself, e.g. dispergere = dtvolgare. Generally speaking, Tacitus likes to use a simple verb instead of a compound one, after the fashion of the poets, employs a pluperfect for a perfect, and (like Livy and sometimes Caesar) aims at vividness and variety by retaining the present and perfect subjunctive in indirect speech even after historical tenses. Collective words are followed by a plural far more commonly than in Cicero. The ellipse of a verb is more frequent. The use of the cases approximates to that of the poets, and is even more free. The accusative of limitation is common in Tacitus, though never found in Quintilian. Compound verbs are frequently followed by the accusative where the dative might have been expected; and the Virgilian construction of an accusative with middle and passive verbs is not unusual. The dative of purpose and the dative with a substantive in place of a genitive are more common with Tacitus than with any writer. The ablative of separation is used without a preposition, even with names of countries and with common nouns; the ablative of place is employed similarly without a preposition; the ablative of time has sometimes the force of duration; the instrumental ablative is employed even of persons. A large extension is given to the use of the quantitative genitive after neuter adjectives and pronouns, and even adverbs, and to the genitive with active participles; and the genitive of relation after adjectives is (probably by a Graecism) very freely employed. In regard to prepositions, there are special uses of citra, erga, iuxta and tenus to be noted, and a frequent tendency to interchange the use of a preposition with that of a simple case in corresponding clauses. In subordinate sentences quod is used for " the fact that," and sometimes approaches the later use of "that " ; the infinitive follows many verbs and adjectives that do not admit of this construction in classical prose; the accusative and infinitive are used after negative expressions of doubt, and even in modal and hypothetical clauses. Like Livy, the writers of this time freely employ the subjunctive of repeated action with a relative, and extend its use to relative conjunctions, which he does not. In clauses of comparison and proporticn there is frequently an ellipse of a verb (with nihil aliud quam, ut, tanquam} ; tanquam, quasi and velut are used to imply not comparison but alleged reason; quin and quo-minus are inter- changed at pleasure. Quamquam and quamvis are commonly followed by the subjunctive, even when denoting facts. The free use of the genitive and dative of the gerundive to denote purpose is common in Tacitus, the former being almost limited to him. Livy's practice in the use of participles is extended even beyond the limits to which he restricts it. It has been calculated that where Caesar uses five participial clauses, Livy has sixteen, Tacitus twenty-four. In his compressed brevity Tacitus may be said to be individual ; but in the poetical colouring of his diction, in the rhetorical cast of his sentences, and in his love for picturesqueness and variety he is a true representative of his time. 70. Suetonius. — The language of Suetonius is of interest as giving a specimen of silver Latinity almost entirely free from personal idiosyncrasies; his expressions are regular and straight- forward, clear and business-like; and, while in grammar he xvi. 9 does not attain to classical purity, he is comparatively free from rhetorical affectations. 71. The African Latinity. — A new era commences with the accession of Hadrian (117). As the preceding half century had been marked by the influence of Spanish Latinity (the Senecas, Lucan, Martial, Quintilian), so in this the African style was paramount. This is the period of affected archaisms and pedantic learning, combined at times with a reckless love of innovation and experiment, resulting in the creation of a large number of new formations and in the adoption of much of the plebeian dialect. Pronto and Apuleius mark a strong reaction against the culture of the preceding century, and for evil far more than for good the chain of literary tradition was broken. The language which had been unduly refined and elaborated now relapsed into a tasteless and confused patch-work, without either harmony or brilliance of colouring. In the case of the former the subject matter is no set-off against the inferiority of the style. He deliberately attempts to go back to the obsolete diction of writers like Cato and Ennius. We find compounds like altipendulus, nudiustertianus, toluliloquentia, diminutives such as matercella, anulla, passercula, studiolum, forms like congarrire, disconcinnus, pedetemptius, desideranlissimus (passive), conticinium; gaudeo, oboedio and perfungor are used with an accusative, modestus with a genitive. On the other hand he actually attempts to revive the form asa for ara. In Apuleius the archaic element is only one element in the queer mixture which constitutes his style, and it probably was not intended to give the tone to the whole. Poetical and prosaic phrases, Graecisms, solecisms, jingling assonances, quotations and coinages apparently on the spur of the moment, all appear hi this wonderful medley. There are found such extraordinary genitives as sitire beatitudinis, cenae pignerarer, incoram omnium, foras corporis, sometimes heaped one upon another as fluxos vestium Arsacidas et frugum pauper es Ityraeos et odorum diviles Arabas. Diminutives are coined with reckless freedom, e.g. diutule, longule, mundule amicla et alliuscule sub ipsas papillas succinctula. He confesses himself that he is writing in a language not familiar to him: In urbe Latia advena Studiorum Quiritium indigenam sermonem aerumnabili labore, nullo magislro praeeunte, aggressus excolui; and the general impression of his style fully bears out his confession. Melanchthon is hardly too severe when he says that Apuleius brays like his own ass. The language of Aulus Gellius is much superior in purity; but still it abounds in rare and archaic words, e.g. edulcare, recentari, aeruscator, and in meaningless frequentatives like solitavisse. He has some admirable remarks on the pedantry of those who delighted in obsolete expressions (xi. 7) such as apluda, flocus and bovinator; but his practice falls far short of his theory. 72. The Lawyers. — The style of the eminent lawyers of this period, foremost among whom is Gaius, deserves especial notice as showing well one of the characteristic excellences of the Latin language. It is for the most part dry and unadorned, and in syru^ax departs occasionally from classical usages, but it is clear, terse and exact. Technical terms may cause difficulty to the ordinary reader, but their meaning is always precisely defined; new compounds are employed- whenever the subject requires them, but the capacities of the language rise to the demands made upon it; and the conceptions of jurisprudence have never been more adequately expressed than by the great Romanist jurists. (A. S. W. ; R. S. C.) For the subsequent history of the language see ROMANCE LANGUAGES. LATIN LITERATURE. The germs of an indigenous literature had existed at an early period in Rome and in the country dis- tricts of Italy, and they have an importance as indicating natural wants in the Italian race, which were ultimately satisfied by regular literary forms. The art of writing was first employed in the service of the state and of religion for books of ritual, treaties with other states, the laws of the Twelve Tables and the like. An approach to literature was made in the Annales Maximi, records of private families, funeral orations and in- scriptions on busts and tombs such as those of the Scipios in 258 LATIN LITERATURE [240-80 B. C the Appian Way. In the satisfaction they afforded to the commemorative and patriotic instincts they anticipated an office afterwards performed by the national epics and the works of regular historians. A still nearer approach to literature was probably made in oratory, as we learn from Cicero that the famous speech delivered by Appius Claudius Caecus against concluding peace with Pyrrhus (280 B.C.) was extant in his time. Appius also published a collection of moral maxims and reflections in verse. No other name associated with any form of literature belonging to the pre-literary age has been preserved by tradition. But it was rather in the chants and litanies of the ancient religion, such as those of the Salii and the Fratres Arvales, and the dirges for the dead (neniae), and in certain extemporaneous effusions, that some germs of a native poetry might have been detected; and finally in the use of Saturnian verse, a metre of pure native origin, which by its rapid and lively movement gave expression to the vivacity and quick apprehension of the Italian race. This metre was employed in ritual hymns, which seem to have assumed definite shapes out of the exclamations of a primi- tive priesthood engaged in a rude ceremonial dance. It was also used by a class of bards or itinerant soothsayers known by the name of vales, of whom the most famous was one Marcius, and in the " Fescennine verses," as sung at harvest-homes and weddings, which gave expression to the coarse gaiety of the people and to their strong tendency to personal raillery and satiric comment. The metre was also employed in commemorative poems, accompanied with music, which were sung at funeral banquets in celebration of the exploits and virtues of distin- guished men. These had their origin in the same impulse which ultimately found its full gratification in Roman history, Roman epic poetry, and that form of Roman oratory known aslaudationes, and in some of the Odes of Horace. The latest and probably the most important of these rude and inchoate forms was that of dramatic saturae (medleys), put together without any regular plot and consisting apparently of contests of wit and satiric invective, and perhaps of comments on current events, accom- panied with music (Livy vii. 2). These have a real bearing on the subsequent development of Latin literature. They prepared the mind of the people for the reception of regular comedy. They may have contributed to the formation of the style of comedy which appears at the very outset much more mature than that of serious poetry, tragic or epic. They gave the name and some of the characteristics to that special literary product of the Roman soil, the satura, addressed to readers, not to spectators, which ultimately was developed into pure poetic satire in Lucilius, Horace, Persius and Juvenal, into the prose and verse miscellany of Varro, and into something approaching the prose novel in Petronius. First Period: from 240 to about 80 B.C. The historical event which brought about the greatest change in the intellectual condition of the Romans, and thereby exercised a decisive influence on the whole course of human LMUM culture, was the capture of Tarentum in 272. After Anaroni* . ^-111 i i , cu,. the capture many Greek slaves were brought to Rome, and among them the young Livius Andronicus (c. 284-204), who was employed in teaching Greek in the family of his master, a member of the Livian gens. From that time to learn Greek became a regular part of the education of a Roman noble. The capture of Tarentum was followed by the complete Romanizing of all southern Italy. Soon after came the first Punic war, the principal scene of which was Sicily, where, from common hostility to the Carthaginian, Greek and Roman were brought into friendly relations, and the Roman armies must have become familiar with the spectacles and performances of the Greek theatre. In the year after the war (240), when the armies had returned and the people were at leisure to enjoy the fruits of victory, Livius Andronicus substituted at one of the public festivals a regular drama, translated or adapted from the Greek, for the musical medleys (saturae) hitherto in use. From this time dramatic performances became a regular accompaniment of the public games, and came more and more to encroach on the older kinds of amusement, such as the chariot races. The dramatic work of Livius was mainly of educative value. The same may be said of his translation of the Odyssey, which was still used as a school-book in the days of Horace, and the religious hymn which he was called upon to compose in 207 had no high literary pretensions. He was, however, the first to familiarize the Romans with the forms of the Greek drama and the Greek epic, and thus to determine the main lines which Latin literature followed for more than a century afterwards. His immediate successor, Cn. Naevius (d. c. 200 B.C.), was not, like Livius, a Greek, but either a Roman citizen or, more probably, a Campanian who enjoyed the limited citizenship of a Latin and who had served in the Roman army in the first Punic war. His first appearance as a dramatic author was in 235. He adapted both tragedies and comedies from the Greek, but the bent of his genius, the tastes of his audience, and the condition of the language developed through the active intercourse and business of life, gave a greater impulse to comedy than to tragedy. Naevius tried to use the theatre, as it had been used by the writers of the Old Comedy of Athens, for the purposes of political warfare, and thus seems to have anticipated by a century the part played by Lucilius. But his attacks upon the Roman aristocracy, especially the Metelli, were resented by their objects; and Naevius, after being imprisoned, had to retire in his old age into banishment. He was not only the first in point of time, and according to ancient testimony one of the first in point of merit, among the comic poets of Rome, and in spirit, though not in form, the earliest of the line of Roman satirists, but he was also the oldest of the national poets. Besides cele- brating the success of M. Claudius Marcellus in 222 over the Gauls in a play called Claslidium, he gave the first specimen of the fabttla praelexta in his Alimonium Romuli et Remi, based on the most national of all Roman traditions. Still more important service was rendered by him in his long Saturnian poem on the first Punic war, in which he not only told the story of contem- porary events but gave shape to the legend of the settlement of Aeneas in Latium, — the theme ultimately adopted for the great national epic of Rome. His younger contemporary T. Maccius Plautus (c. 254-184) was the greatest comic dramatist of Rome. He lived and wrote only to amuse his contemporaries, and thus, although more popular in his lifetime and more fortunate than any of the older authors in the ultimate survival of a large number of his works, he is less than any of the great writers of Rome in sympathy with either the serious or the caustic spirit in Latin literature. Yet he is the one extant witness to the humour and vivacity of the Italian temperament at a stage between its early rudeness and rigidity and its subsequent degeneracy. Thus far Latin literature, of which the predominant character- istics are dignity, gravity and fervour of feeling, seemed likely to become a mere vehicle of amusement adapted to all classes of the people in their holiday mood. But a new spirit, which henceforth became predominant, appeared in the time of Plautus. Latin literature ceased to be in close sympathy with the popular spirit, either politically or as a form of amusement, but became the expression of the ideas, sentiment and culture of the aristo- cratic governing class. It was by Q. Ennius (230-169) gnn/us of Rudiae in Messapia, that a new direction was given to Latin literature. Deriving from his birthplace the culture, literary and philosophical, of Magna Graecia, and having gained the friendship of the greatest of the Romans living in that great age, he was of all the early writers most fitted to be the medium of conciliation between the serious genius of ancient Greece and the serious genius of Rome. Alone among the older writers he was endowed with the gifts of a poetical imagination and animated with enthusiasm for a great ideal. First among his special services to Latin literature was the fresh impulse which he gave to tragedy. He turned the eyes of his contemporaries from the commonplace social humours of later Greek life to the contemplation of the heroic age. But he did not thereby denationalize the Roman drama. He animated the heroes of early Greece with the martial spirit of Roman 240-60 B. C.] LATIN LITERATURE 259 soldiers and the ideal magnanimity and sagacity of Roman senators, and imparted weight and dignity to thf language and verse in which their sentiments and thoughts were expressed. Although Rome wanted creative force to add a great series of tragic dramas to the literature of the world, yet the spirit of elevation and moral authority breathed into tragedy by Ennius passed into the ethical and didactic writings and the oratory of a later time. Another work was the Salurae, written in various metres, but chiefly in the trochaic tetrameter. He thus became the inventor of a new form of literature; and, if in his hands the satura was rude and indeterminate in its scope, it became a vehicle by which to address a reading public on matters of the day, or on the materials of his wide reading, in a style not far removed from the language of common life. His greatest work, which made the Romans regard him as the father of their litera- ture, was his epic poem, in eighteen books, the Annales, in which the record of the whole career of Rome was unrolled with idealiz- ing enthusiasm and realistic detail. The idea which inspired Ennius was ultimately realized in both the national epic of Virgil and the national history of Livy. And the metrical vehicle which he conceived as the only one adequate to his great theme was a rude experiment, which was ultimately de- veloped into the stately Virgilian hexameter. Even as a gram- marian he performed an important service to the literary language of Rome, by fixing its prosody and arresting the tendency to decay in its final syllables. Although of his writings only fragments remain, these fragments are enough, along with what we know of him from ancient testimony, to justify us in regarding him as the most important among the makers of Latin literature before the age of Cicero. There is still one other name belonging partly to this, partly to the next generation, to be added to those of the men of original force of mind and character who created Latin litera- ture, that of M. Porcius Cato the Censor (234-149), the younger contemporary of Ennius, whom he brought to Rome. More than Naevius and Plautus he represented the pure native element in that literature, the mind and character of Latium, the plebeian pugnacity, which was one of the great forces in the Roman state. His lack of imagination and his narrow patriotism made him the natural leader of the reaction against the new Hellenic culture. He strove to make literature ancillary to politics and to objects of practical utility, and thus started prose literature on the chief lines that it afterwards followed. Through his industry and vigorous understanding he gave a great impulse to the creation of Roman oratory, history and systematic didactic writing. He was one of the first to publish his speeches and thus to bring them into the domain of literature. Cicero, who speaks of 150 of these speeches as extant in his day, praises them for their acuteness, their wit, their conciseness. He speaks with emphasis of the impres- siveness of Cato's eulogy and the satiric bitterness of his invective. Cato was the first historical writer of Rome to use his native tongue. His Origines, the work of his old age, was written with that thoroughly Roman conception of history which regarded actions and events solely as they affected the continuous and progressive life of a state. Cato felt that the record of Roman glory could not be isolated from the story of the other Italian communities, which, after fighting against Rome for their owa independence, shared with her the task of conquering the world. To the wider national sympathies which stimulated the re- searches of the old censor into the legendary history of the Italian towns we owe some of the most truly national parts of Virgil's Aeneid. In Naevius, Plautus, Ennius and Cato are represented the contending forces which strove for ascendancy in determining what was to be the character of the new literature. The work, begun by them, was carried on by younger contemporaries and successors; by Statius Caecilius (^.220-168), an Insubrian Gaul, in comedy; in tragedy by M. Pacuvius (6.220-132), the nephew of Ennius, called by Cicero the greatest of Roman tragedians; and, in the following generation, by L. Accius (£.170-86), who was more usually placed in this position. The impulse given to oratory by Cato, Ser. Sulpicius Galba and others, and along with it the development of prose composition, went on with increased momentum till the age of Cicero. But the interval between the death of Ennius (169) and the beginning of Cicero's career, while one of progressive advance in the appreciation of literary form and style, was much less distinguished by original force than the time immediately before and after the end of the second Punic war. The one complete survival of the generation after the death of Ennius, the comedy of P. Terentius Afer or Terence (c. 185-159), exemplifies the gain in literary accomplishment and the loss in literary freedom. Ter- ence has nothing Roman or Italian except his pure and idiomatic Latinity. His Athenian elegance affords the strongest contrast to the Italian rudeness of Cato's De Re Rustica. By looking at them together we understand how much the comedy of Terence was able to do to refine and humanize the manners of Rome, but at the same time what a solvent it was of the discipline and ideas of the old republic. What makes Terence an im- portant witness of the culture of his time is ttat he wrote from the centre of the Scipionic circle, in which what was most humane and liberal in Roman statesmanship was combined with the appreciation of what was most vital in the Greek thought and literature of the time. The comedies of Terence may therefore be held to give some indication of the tastes of Scipio, Laelius and their friends in their youth. The influence of Panaetius and Polybius was more adapted to their maturity, when they led the state in war, statesmanship and oratory, and when the humaner teaching of Stoicism began to enlarge the sympathies of Roman jurists. But in the last years during which this circle kept together a new spirit appeared in Roman politics and a new power in Roman literature, — the revolutionary spirit evoked by the Gracchi in opposition to the long-continued ascendancy of the senate, and the new power of Roman satire, which was exercised impartially and unsparingly against both the excesses of the revolutionary spirit and the arrogance and incompetence of the extreme party among the nobles. Roman satire, though in form a legitimate development of the indigenous dramatic satura through the written satura of Ennius and Pacuvius, is really a birth of this time, and its author was the youngest of those admitted into the intimacy of the Scipionic circle, C. Lucilius of Suessa Aurunca (c. 180-103). Among the writers before the age of Cicero he alone deserves to be named with Naevius, Plautus Ennius and Cato as a great originative force in literature. For about thirty years the most important event in Roman literature was the production of the satires of Lucilius, in which the politics, morals, society and letters of the time were criticized with the utmost freedom and pungency, and his own personality was brought immediately and familiarly before his contemporaries. The years that intervened between his death and the beginning of the Ciceronian age are singularly barren in works of original value. But in one direction there was some novelty. The tragic writers had occasionally taken their subjects from Roman life (fabulae praetextae) , and in comedy we find the corresponding togatae of Lucius Afranius and others, in which comedy, while assuming a Roman dress, did not assume the virtue of a Roman matron. The general results of the last fifty years of the first period (130 to 80) may be thus summed up. In poetry we have the satires of Lucilius, the tragedies of Accius and of a 0enera/ few successors among the Roman aristocracy, who results thus exemplified the affinity of the Roman stage to Roman oratory; various annalistic poems intended to serve as continuations of the great poem of Ennius; minor poems of an epigrammatic and erotic character, unimportant anticipations of the Alexandrian tendency operative in the following period; works of criticism in trochaic tetrameters by Porcius Licinus and others, forming part of the critical and grammatical movement which almost from the first accompanied the creative movement in Latin literature, and which may be 130 to 80. 26o LATIN LITERATURE [80-42 B.C. History. regarded as rude precursors of the didactic epistles that Horace devoted to literary criticism. The only extant prose work which may be assigned to the end of this period is the treatise on rhetoric known by the title Ad Herennium (c. 84) a work indicative of the attention bestowed on prose style and rhetorical studies during the last century of the republic, and which may be regarded as a precursor of the oratorical treatises of Cicero and of the work of Quintilian. But the great literary product of this period was oratory, developed indeed with the aid of these rhetorical studies, but Oratory itself the immediate outcome of the imperial interests, the legal conflicts, and the political passions of that time of agitation. The speakers and writers of a later age looked back on Scipio and Laelius, the Gracchi and their con- temporaries, L. Crassus and M. Antonius, as masters of their art. In history, regarded as a great branch of prose literature, it is not probable that much was accomplished, although, with the advance of oratory and grammatical studies, there must have been not only greater fluency of composition but the beginning of a richer and more ornate style. Yet Cicero denies to Rome the existence, before his own time, of any adequate historical literature. Nevertheless it was by the work of a number of Roman chroniclers during this period that the materials of early Roman history were systematized, and the record of the state, as it was finally given to the world in the artistic work of Livy, was extracted from the early annals, state documents and private memorials, combined into a coherent unity, and supplemented by invention and reflection. Amongst these chroniclers may be mentioned L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi (consul 133, censor 108), C. Sempronius Tuditanus (consul 129), Cn. Gellius, C. Fannius (consul 122), L. Coelius Antipater, who wrote a narrative of the second Punic war about 1 20, and Sempronius Asellio, who wrote a history of his own times, have a better claim to be considered historians. There were also special works on antiquities and contemporary memoirs, and autobiographies such as those of M. Aemilius Scaurus, the elder, Q. Lutatius Catulus (consul 102 B.C.), and P. Rutilius Rufus, which formed the sources of future his- torians. (See further ANNALES; and ROME: History, Ancient, § " Authorities." Although the artistic product of the first period of Latin literature which has reached us in a complete shape is limited to the comedies of Plautus and Terence, the influence °^ ^ne 'os'' literature in determining the spirit, form period. and style of the eras of more perfect accomplishment which followed is unmistakable. While humour and vivacity characterize the earlier, and urbanity of tone the later development of comedy, the tendency of serious literature had been in the main practical, ethical, commemorative and satirical. The higher poetical imagination had appeared only in Ennius, and had been called forth in him by sympathy with the grandeur of the national life and the great personal qualities of its repre- sentative men. Some of the chief motives of the later poetry, e.g. the pleasures and sorrows of private life, had as yet found scarcely any expression in Latin literature. The fittest metrical vehicle for epic, didactic, and satiric poetry had been discovered, but its movement was as yet rude and inharmonious. The idiom of ordinary life and social intercourse and the more fervid and elevated diction of oratorical prose had made great progress, but the language of imagination and poetical feeling was, if vivid and impressive in isolated expressions, still incapable of being wrought into consecutive passages of artistic composition. The influences of Greek literature to which Latin literature owed its birth had not as yet spread beyond Rome and Latium. The Sabellian races of central and eastern Italy and the Italo-Celtic and Venetian races of the north, in whom the poetic susceptibility of Italy was most manifest two generations later, were not, until after the Social war, sufficiently in sympathy with Rome, and were probably not as yet sufficiently educated to induce them to contribute their share to the national literature. Hence the end of the Social war, and of the Civil war, which arose out of it, is most clearly a determining factor in Roman literature, and may most appropriately be taken as marking the end of one period and the beginning of another. Second Period: from 80 to 42 B.C. The last age of the republic coincides with the first half of the Golden age of Roman literature. It is generally known as the Ciceronian age from the name of its greatest literary represent- ative, whose activity as as peaker and writer was unremitting during nearly the whole period. It is the age of purest excellence in prose, and of a new birth of poetry, characterized rather by great original force and artistic promise than by perfect accom- plishment. The five chief representatives of this age who still hold their rank among the great classical writers are Cicero, Caesar and Sallust in prose, Lucretius and Catullus in verse. The works of other prose writers, Varro and Cornelius Nepos, have been partially preserved; but these writers have no claim to rank with those already mentioned as creators and masters of literary style. Although literature had not as yet become a trade or profession, an educated reading public already existed, and books and intellectual intercourse filled a large part of the leisure of men actively engaged in affairs. Even oratory was intended quite as much for readers as for the audiences to which it was immediately addressed; and some of the greatest speeches which have come down from that great age of orators were never delivered at all, but were published as manifestoes after the event with the view of influencing educated opinion, and as works of art with the view of giving pleasure to educated taste. Thus the speeches of M.Tullius Cicero (106-43) belong to the domain of literature quite as much as to that of forensic or political oratory. And, although Demosthenes is a cicero master of style unrivalled even by Cicero, the literary interest of most of Cicero's speeches is stronger than that of the great mass of Greek oratory. It is urged with justice that the greater part of Cicero's Defence of Archias was irrelevant to the issue and would not have been listened to by a Greek court of justice or a modern jury. But it was fortunate for the interests of literature that a court of educated Romans could be influenced by the considerations there submitted to them. In this way a question of the most temporary interest, concerning an individual of no particular eminence or importance, has produced one of the most impressive vindications of literature ever spoken or written. Oratory at Rome assumed a new type from being cultivated as an art which endeavoured to produce persuasion not so much by intellectual conviction as by appeal to general human sympathies. In oratory, as in every other intellectual province, the Greeks had a truer sense of the limits and conditions of their art. But command over form is only one element in the making of an orator or poet. The largeness and dignity of the matter with which he has to deal are at least as important. The Roman oratory of the law courts had to deal not with petty questions of disputed property, of fraud, or violence, but with great imperial questions, with matters affecting the well-being of large provinces and the honour and safety of the republic; and no man ever lived who, in these respects, was better fitted than Cicero to be the representative of the type of oratory demanded by the condition of the later republic. To his great artistic accomplishment, perfected by practice and elaborate study, to the power of his patriotic, his moral, and personal sympathies, and his passionate emotional nature, must be added his vivid imagination and the rich and copious stream of his language, in which he had no rival among Roman writers or speakers. It has been said that Roman poetry has produced few, if any, great types of character. But the Verres, Catiline, Antony of Cicero are living and permanent types. The story told in the Pro Cluentio may be true or false, but the picture of provincial crime which it presents is vividly dramatic. Had we only known Cicero in his speeches we should have ranked him with Demosthenes as one who had realized the highest literary ideal. We should think of him also as the creator and master of Latin style — and, moreover, not only as a great orator but as a just and appreciative critic of oratory. But to his services to Roman oratory we have to add his services not indeed 80 — 42 B.C.] LATIN LITERATURE 261 to philosophy but to the literature of philosophy. Though not a philosopher he is an admirable interpreter of those branches of philosophy which are fitted for practical application, and he presents us with the results of Greek reflection vivified by his own human sympathies and his large experience of men. In giving a model of the style in which human interest can best be imparted to abstract discussions, he used his great oratorical gift and art to persuade the world to accept the most hopeful opinions on human destiny and the principles of conduct most conducive to elevation and integrity of character. The Letters of Cicero are thoroughly natural — colloquia absentium amicorum, to use his own phrase. Cicero's letters to Atticus, and to the friends with whom he was completely at his ease, are the most sincere and immediate expression of the thought and feeling of the moment. They let us into the secret of his most serious thoughts and cares, and they give a natural outlet to his vivacity of observation, his wit and humour, his kindliness of nature. It shows how flexible an instrument Latin prose had become in his hand, when it could do justice at once to the ample and vehement volume of his oratory, to the calmer and more rhythmical movement of his philosophical meditation, and to the natural interchange of thought and feeling in the everyday intercourse of life. Among the many rival orators of the age the most eminent were Quintus Hortensius Ortalus and C. Julius Caesar. The Caesar former was the leading representative of the Asiatic or florid style of oratory, and, like other members of the aristocracy, such as C.Memmius arid L. Manlius Torquatus, and like Q. Catulus in the preceding generation, was a kind of dilettante poet and a precursor of the poetry of pleasure, which attained such prominence in the elegiac poets of the Augustan age. Of C. Julius Caesar (102-44) as an orator we can judge only by his reputation and by the testimony of his great rival and adversary Cicero; but we are able to appreciate the special praise of perfect taste in the use of language attributed to him.1 In his Commentaries, by laying aside the ornaments of oratory, he created the most admirable style of prose narrative, the style which presents interesting events in their sequence of time and dependence on the will of the actor, rapidly and vividly, with scarcely any colouring of personal or moral feeling, any oratorical passion, any pictorial illustration. While he shows the persuasive art of an orator by presenting the subjugation of Gaul and his own action in the Civil War in the light most favourable to his claim to rule the Roman world, he is entirely free from the Roman fashion of self-laudation or disparagement of an adversary. The character of the man reveals itself especially in a perfect simplicity of style, the result of the clearest intelligence and the strongest sense of personal dignity. He avoids not only every unusual but every superfluous word; and, although no writing can be more free from rhetorical colouring, yet there may from time to time be detected a glow of sympathy, like the glow of generous passion in Thucydides, the more effective from the reserve with which it betrays itself whenever he is called on to record any act of personal heroism or of devotion to military duty. In the simplicity of his style, the directness of his narrative, the entire absence of any didactic tendency, Caesar presents a Saiiust marked contrast to another prose writer of that age — the historian C. Sallustius Crispus or Sallust (c. 87-36). Like Varro, he survived Cicero by some years, but the tone and spirit in which his works are written assign him to the republican era. He was the first of the purely artistic historians, as distinct from the annalists and the writers of personal memoirs. He imitated the Greek historians in taking particular actions — the Jugurthan War and the Catilinarian Conspiracy — as the subjects of artistic treatment. He wrote also a continuous work, Historiae, treating of the events of the twelve years following the death of Sulla, of which only fragments are preserved. His two extant works are more valuable as artistic studies of the rival parties in the state and of personal character than as trustworthy narratives of facts. His style aims at effectiveness by pregnant expression, sententiousness, archaism. He produces the impression of 1 Latine loqui elegantissime. caring more for the manner of saying a thing than for its truth. Yet he has great value as a painter of historical portraits, some of them those of his contemporaries,and as an author who had been a political partisan and had taken some part in making history before undertaking to write it; and he gives us, from the popular side, the views of a contemporary on the politics of the time. Of the other historians, or rather annalists, who belong to this period, such as Q. Claudius Quadrigarius, Q. Valerius Antias, and C. Licinius Macer, the father of Calvus, we have only frag- ments remaining. The period was also remarkable for the production of works which we should class as technical or scientific rather than literary. The activity of one of these writers was so „ great that he is entitled to a separate mention. This was M. Terentius Varro, the most learned not only of the Romans but of the Greeks, as he has been called. The list of Varro's writings includes over seventy treatises and more than six hundred books dealing with topics of every conceivable kind. His Menippeae Saturae, miscellanies in prose and verse, of which unfortunately only fragments are left, was a work of singular literary interest. Since the Annals of Ennius no great and original poem had appeared. The powerful poetical force which for half a century continued to be the strongest force in literature, and , ' . Lucretius, which created masterpieces of art and genius, first revealed itself in the latter part of the Ciceronian age. The conditions which enabled the poetic genius of Italy to come to maturity in the person of T. Lucretius Carus (96-55) were entire seclusion from public life and absorption in the ideal pleasures of contemplation and artistic production. This isolation from the familiar ways of his contemporaries, while it was, according to tradition and the internal evidence of his poem, destructive to his spirit's health, resulted in a work of genius, unique in character, which still stands forth as the greatest philosophical poem in any language. In the form of his poem he followed a Greek original; and the stuff out of which the texture of his philosophical argument is framed was derived from Greek science; but all that is of deep human and poetical meaning in the poem is his own. While we recognize in the De Rerum Natura some of the most powerful poetry in any language and feel that few poets have penetrated with such passionate sincerity and courage into the secret of nature and some of the deeper truths of human life, we must acknowledge that, as compared with the great didactic poem of Virgil, it is crude and unformed in artistic design, and often rough and unequal in artistic execu- tion. Yet, apart altogether from its independent value, by his speculative power and enthusiasm, by his revelation of the life and spectacle of nature, by the fresh creativeness of his diction and the elevated movement of his rhythm, Lucretius exercised a more powerful influence than any other on the art of his more perfect successors. While the imaginative and emotional side of Roman poetry was so powerfully represented by Lucretius, attention was directed to its artistic side by a younger genera- cutaliu*. tion, who moulded themselves in a great degree on Alexandrian models. Such were Valerius Cato also a dis- tinguished literary critic, and C. Licinius Calvus, an eminent orator. Of this small group of poets one only has survived, fortunately the man of most genius among them, the bosom- friend of Calvus, C. Valerius Catullus (84-54). He too was a new force in Roman literature. He was a provincial by birth, although early brought into intimate relations with members of the great Roman families. The subjects of his best art are taken immediately from his own life — his loves, his friendships, his travels, his animosities, personal and political. His most original 'contribution to the substance of Roma^i literature was that he first shaped into poetry the experience of his own heart, as it had been shaped by Alcaeus and Sappho in the early days of Greek poetry. No poet has surpassed him in the power of vitally reproducing the pleasure and pain of the passing hour, not recalled by idealizing reflection as in Horace, nor overlaid with mythological ornament as in Propertius, but in all the keenness 262 LATIN LITERATURE [AUGUSTAN AGE of immediate impression. He also introduced into Roman literature that personal as distinct from political or social satire which appears later in the Epodes of Horace and the Epigrams of Martial. He anticipated Ovid in recalling the stories of Greek mythology to a second poetical life. His greatest contribution to poetic art consisted in the perfection which he attained in the phalaecian, the pure iambic, and the scazon metres, and in the ease and grace with which he used the language of familiar intercourse, as distinct from that of the creative imagination, of the rostra, and of the schools, to give at once a lifelike and an artistic expression to his feelings. He has the interest of being the last poet of the free republic. In his life and in his art he was the precursor of those poets who used their genius as the interpreter and minister of pleasure; but he rises above them in the spirit of personal independence, in his affection for his friends, in his keen enjoyment of natural and simple pleasures, and in his power of giving vital expression to these feelings. Third Period: Augustan Age, 42 B.C. to A.D. 17. ' . The poetic impulse and culture communicated to Roman literature in the last years of the republic passed on without Influence anv break of continuity into the literature of the ot imperial succeeding age. One or two of the circle of Catullus inxtitu- survived into that age; but an entirely new spirit tions. came over the literature of the new period, and it is by new men, educated indeed under the same literary influences, but living in an altered world and belonging originally to a different order in the state, that the new spirit was expressed. The literature of the later republic reflects the sympathies and prejudices of an aristocratic class, sharing in the conduct of national affairs and living on terms of equality with one another; that of the Augustan age, first in its early serious enthusiasm, and then in the licence and levity of its later development, represents the hopes and aspirations with which the new mon- archy was ushered into the world, and the pursuit of pleasure and amusement, which becomes the chief interest of a class cut off from the higher energies of practical life, and moving in the refining and enervating atmosphere of an imperial court. The great inspiring influence of the new literature was the enthusiasm produced first by the hope and afterwards by the fulfilment of the restoration of peace, order, national glory, under the rule of Augustus. All that the age longed for seemed to be embodied in a nAn who had both in his own person and by inheritance the natural spell which sways the imagination of the world. The sentiment of hero-worship was at all times strong in the Romans, and no one was ever the object of more sincere as well as simulated hero-worship than Augustus. It was not, however, by his equals in station that the first feeling was likely to be entertained. The earliest to give expression to it was Virgil; but the spell was soon acknowledged by the colder and more worldly-wise Horace. The disgust aroused by the anti-national policy of Antony, and the danger to the empire which was averted by the result of the battle of Actium, com- bined with the confidence inspired by the new ruler to reconcile the great families as well as the great body of the people to the new order of things. While the establishment of the empire produced a revival of national and imperial feeling, it suppressed all independent political thought and action. Hence the two great forms of prose literature which drew their nourishment from the struggles of political life, oratory and contemporary history, were arrested in their development. The main course of literature was thus for a time diverted into poetry. That poetry in its most elevated form aimed at being the organ of the new empire and of realizing the national ideals of life and character under its auspices; and in carrying out this aim it sought to recall the great memories of the past. It became also the organ of the pleasures and interests of private life, the chief motives of which were the love of nature and the passion of love. It sought also to make the art and poetry of Greece live a new artistic life. Satire, debarred from comment on political action, turned to social and individual life, and combined with the newly-developed taste for ethical analysis and reflection introduced by Cicero. One great work had still to be done in prose — a retrospect of the past history of the state from an idealizing and romanticizing point of view. For that work the Augustan age, as the end of one great cycle of events and the beginning of another, was eminently suited, and a writer who, by his gifts of imagination and sympathy, was perhaps better fitted than any other man of antiquity for the task, and who through the whole of this period lived a life of literary leisure, was found to do justice to the subject. Although the age did not afford free scope and stimulus to individual energy and enterprise, it furnished more material and social advantages for the peaceful cultivation of letters. The new influence of patronage, which in other times has chilled the genial current of literature, become, in the person of Maecenas, the medium through which literature and the imperial policy were brought into union. Poetry thus acquired the tone of the world, kept in close connexion with the chief source of national life, while it was cultivated to the highest pitch of artistic per- fection under the most favourable conditions of leisure and freedom from the distractions and anxieties of life. The earliest in the order of time of the poets who adorn this age — P. Vergilius Maro or Virgil (70-19) — is also the greatest in genius, the most richly cultivated, and the most virgii. perfect in art. He is the idealizing poet of the hopes and aspirations and of the purer and happier life of which the age seemed to contain the promise. He elevates the present by associating it with tMe past and future of the world, and sanctifies it by seeing in it the fulfilment of a divine purpose. Virgil is the true representative poet of Rome and Italy, of national glory and of the beauty of nature, the artist in whom all the efforts of the past were made perfect, and the unapproach- able standard of excellence to future times. While more richly endowed with sensibility to all native influences, he was more deeply imbued than any of his contemporaries with the poetry, the thought and the learning of Greece. The earliest efforts of his art (the Eclogues) reproduce the cadences, the diction and the pastoral fancies of Theocritus; but even in these imi- tative poems of his youth Virgil shows a perfect mastery of his materials. The Latin hexameter, which in Ennius and Lucretius was the organ of the more dignified and majestic emotions, became in his hands the most perfect measure in which the softer and more luxurious sentiment of nature has been ex- pressed. The sentiment of Italian scenery and the love which the Italian peasant has for the familiar sights and sounds of his home found a voice which never can pass away. In the Georgics we are struck by the great advance in the originality and self-dependence of the artist, in the mature perfection of his workmanship, in the deepening and strengthen- ing of all his sympathies and convictions. His genius still we rks under forms prescribed by Greek art, and under the disadvantage of having a practical and utilitarian aim imposed on it. But he has ever in form so far surpassed his originals that he alone has gained for the pure didactic poem a place among the highest forms of serious poetry, while he has so transmuted his material that, without violation of truth, he has made the whole poem alive with poetic feeling. The homeliest details of the farmer's work are transfigured through the poet's love of nature; through his religious feeling and his pious sympathy with the sanctities of human affection; through his patriotic sympathy with the national greatness; and through the rich allusiveness of his art to everything in poetry and legend which can illustrate and glorify his theme. In the Eclogues and Georgics Virgil is the idealizing poet of the old simple and hardy life of Italy, as the imagination could conceive of it in an altered world. In the Aeneid he is the idealizing poet of national glory, as manifested in the person of Augustus. The epic of national life, vividly conceived but rudely executed by Ennius, was perfected in the years that followed the decisive victory at Actium. To do justice to his idea Virgil enters into rivalry with a greater poet than those whom he had equalled or surpassed in his previous works. And, AUGUSTAN AGE] LATIN LITERATURE 263 though Ije cannot unroll before us the page of heroic action with the power and majesty of Homer, yet by the sympathy with which he realizes the idea of Rome, and by the power with which he has used the details of tradition, of local scenes, of religious usage, to embody it, he has built up in the form of an epic poem the most enduring and the most artistically constructed monument of national grandeur. The second great poet of the time — Q. Horatius Flaccus or Horace (68-8) is both the realist and the idealist of his age. If Horace we want to know the actual lives, manners and ways of thinking of the Romans of the generation succeeding the overthrow of the republic it is in the Satires and partially in the Epistles of Horace that we shall find them. If we ask whatr that time provided to stir the fancy and move the mood of imaginative reflection, it is in the lyrical poems of Horace that we shall find the most varied and trustworthy answer. His literary activity extends over about thirty years and naturally divides itself into three periods, each marked by a distinct character. The first — extending from about 40 to 29 — is that of the Epodes and Satires. In the former he imitates the Greek poet Archilochus, but takes his subjects from the men, women and incidents of the day. Personality is the essence of his Epodes; in the Satires it is used merely as illustrative of general tendencies. In the Satires we find realistic pictures of social life, and the conduct and opinions of the world submitted to the standard of good feeling and common sense. The style of the Epodes is pointed and epigrammatic, that of the Satires natural and familiar. The hexameter no longer, as in Lucilius, moves awk- wardly as if in fetters, but, like the language of Terence, of Catullus in his lighter pieces, of Cicero in his letters to Atticus, adapts itself to the everyday intercourse of life. The next period is the meridian of his genius, the time of his greatest lyrical inspiration, which he himself associates with the peace and leisure secured to him by his Sabine farm. The life of pleasure which he had lived in his youth comes back to him, not as it was in its actual distractions and disappointments, but in the idealiz- ing light of meditative retrospect. He had not only become reconciled to the new order of things, but was moved by his intimate friendship with Maecenas to aid in raising the world to sympathy with the imperial rule through the medium of his lyrical inspiration, as Virgil had through the glory of his epic art. With the completion of the three books of Odes he cast aside for a time the office of the vates, and resumed that of the critical spec- tator of human life, but in the spirit of a moralist rather than a satirist. He feels the increasing languor of the time as well as the languor of advancing years, and seeks to encourage younger men to take up the role of lyrical poetry, while he devotes himself to the contemplation of the true art of living. Self-culture rather than the fulfilment of public or social duty, as in the moral teaching of Cicero, is the aim of his teaching; and in this we recognize the influence of the empire in throwing the individual back on himself. As Cicero tones down his oratory in his moral treatises, so Horace tones down the fervour of his lyrical utter- ances in his Epistles, and thus produces a style combining the ease of the best epistolary style with the grace and concentration of poetry — the style, as it has been called, of " idealized common sense," that of the urbanus and cultivated man of the world who is also in his hours of inspiration a genuine poet. In the last ten years of his life Horace resumed his lyrical function for a time, under pressure of the imperial command, and produced some of the most exquisite and mature products of his art. But his chief activity is devoted to criticism. He first vindicates the claims of his own age to literary pre-eminence, and then seeks to stimulate the younger writers of the day to what he regarded as the manlier forms of poetry, and especially to the tragic drama, which seemed for a short time to give promise of an artistic revival. But the poetry of the latter half of the Augustan age destined to survive did not follow the lines either of lyrical or of dramatic art marked out by Horace. The latest form of poetry adopted from Greece and destined to gain and permanently to hold the ear of the world was the elegy. From the time of Mimnermus this libullus. form seems to have presented itself as the most natural vehicle for the poetry of pleasure in an age of luxury, refinement and incipient decay. Its facile flow and rhythm seem to adapt it to the expression and illustration of personal feeling. It goes to the mind of the reader through a medium of sentiment rather than of continuous thought or imaginative illustration. The greatest masters of this kind of poetry are the elegiac poets of the Augustan age — Tibullus, Propertius and Ovid. Of the ill-fated C. Cornelius Gallus, their predecessor, we have but a single pentameter remaining. Of the three Tibullus (c. 54-19) is the most refined and tender. As the poet of love he gives utterance to the pensive melancholy rather than to the pleasures associated with it. In his sympathy with the life and beliefs of the country people he shows an affinity both to the idyllic spirit and to the piety of Virgil. There is something, too, in his fastidious refinement and in his shrinking from the rough contact of life that reminds us of the English poet Gray. A poet of more strength and more powerful imagination, but of less refinement in his life and less exquisite taste in his art, is Sextus Propertius (c. SQ-C. 15). His youth was a properfius more stormy one than that of Tibullus, and was passed, not like his, among the " healthy woods " of his country estate, but amid all the licence of the capital. His passion for Cynthia, the theme of his most finished poetry, is second only in interest to that of Catullus for Lesbia; and Cynthia in her fascination and caprices seems a more real and intelligible personage than the idealized object first of the idolatry and afterwards of the malediction of Catullus. Pro- pertius is a less accomplished artist and a less equably pleasing writer than either Tibullus or Ovid, but he shows more power of dealing gravely with a great or tragic situation than either of them, and his diction and rhythm give frequent proof of a concentrated force of conception and a corresponding movement of imaginative feeling which remind us of Lucretius. The most facile and brilliant of the elegiac poets and the least serious in tone and spirit is P. Ovidius Naso or Ovid (43 B.C.- A.D. 18). As an amatory poet he is the poet of pleasure and intrigue rather than of tender sentiment or absorbing passion. Though he treated his subject in relation to himself with more levity and irony than real feeling, yet by his sparkling wit and fancy he created a literature of sentiment and adventure adapted to amuse the idle and luxurious society of which the elder Julia was the centre. His power of continuous narrative is best seen in the Metamorphoses, written in hexameters to which he has imparted a rapidity and precision of movement more suited to romantic and picturesque narrative than the weighty self-restrained verse of Virgil. In his Fasti he treats a subject of national interest; it is not, however, through the strength of Roman sentiment but through the power of vividly conceiving and narrating stories of strong human interest that the poem lives. In his latest works — the Tristia and Ex Ponto — he imparts the interest of personal confessions to the record of a unique experience. Latin poetry is more rich in the expression of personal feeling than of dramatic realism. In Ovid we have both. We know him in the intense liveliness of his feeling and the human weakness of his nature more intimately than any other writer of antiquity, except perhaps Cicero. As Virgil marks the point of maturest excellence in poetic diction and rhythm, Ovid marks that of the greatest facility. The Augustan age was one of those great eras in the world like the era succeeding the Persian War in Greece, the Eliza- bethan age in England, and the beginning of the igth Llvy^ century in Europe, in which what seems a new spring of national and individual life calls out an idealizing retrospect of the past. As the present seems full of new life, the past seems rich in glory and the future in hope. The past of Rome had always a peculiar fascination for Roman writers. Virgil in a supreme degree, and Horace, Propertius and Ovid in a less degree, had expressed in their poetry the romance of the past. But it was in the great historical work of T. Livius or Livy (59 B.C.-A.D. 17) that the record of the national life received its Ovid. 264 LATIN LITERATURE [SILVER AGE Charac- teristics of post- Augustan age. most systematic exposition. Its execution was the work of a life prolonged through the languor and dissolution following so soon upon the promise of the new era, during which time the past became glorified by contrast with the disheartening aspect of the present. The value of the work consists not in any power of critical investigation or weighing of historical evidence but in the intense sympathy of the writer with the national ideal, and the vivid imagination with which under the influence of this sympathy he gives life to the events and personages, the wars and political struggles, of times remote from his own. He makes us feel more than any one the majesty of the Roman state, of its great magistracies, and of the august council by which its policy was guided. And, while he makes the words senatus populusque Romanus full of significance for all times, no one realizes with more enthusiasm all that is implied in the- words imperium Romanum, and the great military qualities of head and heart by which that empire was acquired and maintained. The vast scale on which the work was conceived and the thoroughness of artistic execution with which the details are finished are characteristically Roman. The prose style of Rome, as a vehicle for the continuous narration of events coloured by a rich and picturesque imagina- tion and instinct with dignified emotion, attained its perfection in Livy. Fourth Period: The Silver Age, from A.D. 17 to about 130. For more than a century after the death of Augustus Roman literature continues to flow in the old channels. Though drawing from the provinces, Rome remains the centre of the literary movement. The characteristics of the great writers are essentially national, not provincial nor cosmopolitan. In prose the old forms — oratory, history, the epistle, treatises or dialogues on ethical and literary questions — continue to be cultivated. Scientific and practical subjects, such as natural history, architecture, medicine, agriculture, are treated in more elaborate literary style. The old Roman satura is developed into something like the modern prose novel. In the various provinces of poetry, while there is little novelty or inspiration, there is abundance of industry and ambitious effort. The national love of works of large compass shows itself in the production of long epic poems, both of the historic and of the imitative Alexandrian type. The imitative and rhetorical tastes of Rome showed themselves in the composition of exotic tragedies, as remote in spirit and character from Greek as from Roman life, of which the only extant specimens are those attributed to the younger Seneca. The composition of didactic, lyrical and elegiac poetry also was the accomplishment and pastime of an educated dilettante class, the only extant specimens of any interest being some of the Silvae of Statius. The only voice with which the poet of this age can express himself with force and sincerity is that of satire and satiric epigram. We find now only imitative echoes of the old music created by Virgil and others, as in Statius, or powerful declamation, as in Lucan and Juvenal. There is a deterioration in the diction as well as in the music of poetry. The elaborate literary culture of the Augustan age has done something to impair the native force of the Latin idiom. The language of literature, in the most elaborate kind of prose as well as poetry, loses all ring of popular speech. The old oratorical tastes and aptitudes find their outlet in public recitations and the practice of declamation. Forced and distorted expression, exaggerated emphasis, point and antithesis, an affected prettiness, are studied with the view of gaining the applause of audiences who thronged the lecture and recitation rooms in search of temporary excite- ment. Education is more widely diffused, but is less thorough, less leisurely in its method, derived less than before from the purer sources of culture. The precocious immaturity of Lucan 's career affords a marked contrast to the long preparation of Virgil and Horace for their high office. Although there are some works of this so-called Silver Age of considerable and one at least of supreme interest, from the insight they afford into the experience of a century of organized despotism and its effect on the spiritual life of the ancient world, it cannot be doubted that the steady literary decline which characterized the last centuries of paganism was beginning before the death of Ovid and Livy. The influences which had inspired republican and Augustan literature were the artistic impulse derived from a familiarity with the great works of Greek genius, becoming more intimate with every new generation, the spell of Rome over the imagina- tion of the kindred Italian races, the charm of Italy, and the vivid sensibility of the Italian temperament. These influences were certainly much less operative in the first century -of the empire. The imitative impulse, which had much of the character of a creative impulse, and had resulted in the appropriation of the forms of poetry suited to the Roman and Italian character •and of the metres suited to the genius of the Latin language, no longer stimulated to artistic effort. The great sources of Greek poetry were no longer regarded, as they were by Lucretius and Virgil, as sacred, untasted springs, to be approached in a spirit of enthusiasm tempered with reverence. We have the testimony of two men of shrewd common sense and masculine understanding — Martial and Juvenal— to the stale and lifeless character of the art of the Silver Age, which sought to reproduce in the form of epics, tragedies and elegies the bright fancies of the Greek mythology. The idea of Rome, owing to the antagonism between the policy of the government and the sympathies of the class by which literature was favoured and cultivated, could no longer be an inspiring motive, as it had been in the literature of the republic and of the Augustan age. The spirit of Rome appears only as animating the protest of Lucan, the satire of Persius and Juvenal, the sombre picture which Tacitus paints of the annals of the empire. Oratory is no longer an independent voice appealing to sentiments of Roman dignity, but the weapon of the " informers " (delatores) , wielded for their own advancement and the destruc- tion of that class which, even in their degeneracy, retained most sympathy with the national traditions. Roman history was no longer a record of national glory, stimulating the patriotism and flattering the pride of all Roman citizens, but a personal eulogy or a personal invective, according as servility to a present or hatred of a recent ruler was the motive which animated it. The charm of Italian scenes still remained the same, but the fresh and inspiring feeling of nature gave place to the mere sensuous gratification derived from the luxurious and artificial beauty of the country villa. The idealizing poetry of passion, which found a genuine voice in Catullus and the elegiac poets, could not prolong itself through the exhausting licence of suc- cessive generations. The vigorous vitality which gives interest to the personality of Catullus, Propertius and Ovid no longer characterizes their successors. The pathos of natural affection is occasionally recognized in Statius and more rarely in Martial, but it has not the depth of tenderness found in Lucretius and Virgil. The wealth and luxury of successive generations, the monotonous routine of life, the separation of the educated class from the higher work of the world, have produced their enervating and paralysing effect on the mainsprings of poetic and imaginative feeling. New elements, however, appear in the literature of this period. As the result of the severance from the active interests of life, a new interest is awakened in the inner life of the individual. The immorality of Roman society not jj£raiy only affords abundant material to the satirist, but elements. deepens the consciousness of moral evil in purer and more thoughtful minds. To these causes we attribute the patho- logical observation of Seneca and Tacitus, the new sense of purity in Persius called out by contrast with the impurity around him, the glowing if somewhat sensational exaggeration of Juvenal, the vivid characterization of Martial. The literature of no time presents so powerfully the contrast between moral good and evil. In this respect it is truly representative of the life of the age. Another new element is the influence of a new race. In the two preceding periods the rapid diffusion of literary culture following the Social War and the first Civil War was seen to awaken into new life the elements of original genius in Italy and Cisalpine Gaul. In the first century of the empire a similar SILVER AGE] LATIN LITERATURE 265 result was produced by the diffusion of that culture in the Latinized districts of Spain. The fervid temperament of a fresh and vigorous race, which received the Latin discipline just as Latium had twg or three centuries previously received the Greek discipline, revealed itself in the writings of the Senecas, Lucan, Quintilian, Martial and others, who in their own time added literary distinction to the Spanish towns from which they came. The new extraneous element introduced into Roman literature draws into greater prominence the character- istics of the last great representatives of the genuine Roman and Italian spirit — the historian Tacitus and the satirist Juvenal. On the whole this century shows, in form, language and substance, the signs of literary decay. But it is still capable of producing men of original force; it still maintains the tradi- tions of a happier time; it is still, alive to the value of literary culture, and endeavours by minute attention to style to produce new effects. Though it was not one of the great eras in the annals of literature, yet the century which produced Martial, Juvenal and Tacitus cannot be pronounced barren in literary originality, nor that which produced Seneca and Quintilian devoid of culture and literary taste. This fourth period is itself subdivided into three divisions: (1) from the accession of Tiberius to the death of Nero, 68 — the most important part of it being the Neronian age, 54 to 68; (2) the Flavian era, from the death of Nero to the death of Domitian, 96; (3) the reigns of Nerva and Trajan and part of the reign of Hadrian. i. For a generation after the death of Augustus no new original literary force appeared. The later poetry of the Augus- Period tan age had ended in trifling dilettantism, for the from continuance of which the atmosphere of the court Tiberius was no longer favourable. The class by which litera- to Nero. ture wag encourage(j had become both enervated and terrorized. The most remarkable poetical product of the time is the long-neglected astrological poem of Manilius which was written at the beginning of Tiberius's reign. Its vigour and originality have had scanty justice done to them owing to the difficulty of the subject-matter and the style, and the corruptions which still disfigure its text. Very different has been the fate of the Fables of Phaedrus. This slight work of a Macedonian freedman, destitute of national significance and representative in its morality only of the spirit of cosmopolitan individualism, owes its vogue to its easy Latinity and popular subject-matter. Of the prose writers C. Velleius Paterculus, the historian, and Valerius Maximus, the collector of anecdotes, are the most important. A. Cornelius Celsus composed a series of technical handbooks, one of which, upon medicine, has survived. Its purity of style and the fact that it was long a standard work entitle it to a mention here. The traditional culture was still, however, maintained, and the age was rich in grammarians and rhetoricians. The new profession of the delator must have given a stimulus to oratory. A high ideal of culture, literary as well as practical, was realized in Germanicus, which seems to have been transmitted to his daughter Agrippina, whose patronage of Seneca had important results in the next generation. The reign of Claudius was a time in which antiquarian learning, gram- matical studies, and jurisprudence were cultivated, but no important additions were made to literature. A fresh impulse was given to letters on the accession of Nero, and this was partly due to the theatrical and artistic tastes of the young emperor. Four writers of the Neronian age still possess considerable interest, — L. Annaeus Seneca, M. Annaeus Lucanus, A. Persius Flaccus and Petronius Arbiter. The first three represent the spirit of their age by exhibiting the power of the Stoic philosophy as a moral, political and religious force; the last is the most cynical exponent of the depravity of the time. Seneca (c. 5 B.C.- A.D. 65) is less than Persius a pure Stoic, and more of a moralist and pathological observer of man's inner life. He makes the commonplaces of a cosmopolitan philosophy interesting by his abundant illustration drawn from the private and social life of his contemporaries. He has knowledge of the world, the suppleness of a courtier, Spanish vivacity, and the ingenium amoenum attributed to him by Tacitus, the fruit of which is sometimes seen in the " honeyed phrases " mentioned by Petronius — pure aspirations combined with inconsistency of purpose — the inconsistency of one who tries to make the best of two worlds, the ideal inner life and the successful real life in the atmosphere of a most corrupt court. The Pharsalia of Lucan (39-65), with Cato as its hero, is essentially a Stoic mani- festo of the opposition. It is written with the force and fervour of extreme youth and with the literary ambition of a race as yet new to the discipline of intellectual culture, and is charac- terized by rhetorical rather than poetical imagination. The six short Satires of Persius (34-62) are the purest product of Stoicism — a Stoicism that had found in a contemporary, Thrasea, a more rational and practical hero than Cato. But no important writer of antiquity has less literary charm than Persius. In avoiding the literary conceits and fopperies which he satirizes he has recourse to the most unnatural contortions of expression. Of hardly greater length are the seven eclogues of T. Calpurnius Siculus, written at the beginning of the reign of Nero, which are not without grace and facility of diction. Of the works of the time that which from a human point of view is perhaps the most detestable in ancient literature has the most genuine literary quality, the fragment of a prose novel — the Satyricon — of Petronius (d. 66). It is most sincere in its representation, least artificial in diction, most penetrating in its satire, most just in its criticism of art and style. 2. A greater sobriety of tone was introduced both into life and literature with the accession of Vespasian. The time was, however, characterized rather by good sense and industry than by original genius. Under Vespasian C. Plinius Secundus, or Pliny the elder (compiler of the tlaa Natural History, an encyclopaedic treatise, 23-79), is the most important prose writer, and C. Valerius Flaccus Setinus Balbus, author of the Argonautica (d. c. 90), the most important among the writers of poetry. The reign of Domitian, although it silenced the more independent spirits of the time, Tacitus and Juvenal, witnessed more important contributions to Roman literature than any age since the Augustan, — among them the Institutes of Quintilian, the Punic War of Silius Italicus, the epics and the Silvae of Statius, and the Epigrams of Martial. M. Fabius Quintilianus, or Quintilian (c. 3 5-95), is brought forward by Juvenal as a unique instance of a thoroughly successful man of letters, of one not belonging by .birth to the rich or official class, who had risen to wealth and honours through literature. He was well adapted to his time by his good sense and sobriety of judgment. His criticism is just and true rather than subtle or ingenious, and has thus stood the test of the judgment of after-times. The poem of Ti. Catius Silius Italicus (25-101) is a proof of the industry and literary ambition of members of the rich official class. Of the epic poets of the Silver Age P. Papinius Statius (c. 45-96) shows the greatest technical skill and the richest pictorial fancy in the execution of detail; but his epics have no true inspiring motive, and, although the recitation of the Thebaid could attract and charm an audience in the days of Juvenal, it really belongs to the class of poems so unsparingly condemned both by him and Martial. In the Silvae, though many of them have little root in the deeper feelings of human nature, we find occasionally more than in any poetry after the Augustan age something of the purer charm and pathos of life. But it is not in the Silvae, nor in the epics and tragedies of the time, nor in the cultivated criticism of Quintilian that the age of Domitian lives for us. It is in the Epigrams of M. Valerius Martialis or Martial (c. 41-104) that we have a true image of the average sensual frivolous life of Rome at the end of the ist century, seen through a medium of wit and humour, but undistorted by the exaggeration which moral indignation and the love of effect add to the representation of Juvenal. Martial represents his age in his Epigrams, as Horace does his in his Satires and Odes, with more variety and incisive force in his sketches, though with much less poetic charm and serious meaning. We know the daily life, the familiar personages, the outward aspect of Rome in the age of Domitian 266 LATIN LITERATURE [LATER WRITERS better than at any other period of Roman history, and this knowledge we owe to Martial. 3. But it was under Nerva andTrajan that the greatest and most truly representative works of the empire were written. Period of The.4rtna£j and Histories of Cornelius Tacitus (54-1 19), Nerva, with the supplementary Life of Agricola and the Trajan Germania, and the Satires of D. lunius luvenalis or %"driaa Juvenal (<-• 47~I3°)i sum UP f°r posterity the moral experience of the Roman world from the accession of Tiberius to the death of Domitian. The generous scorn and pathos of the historian acting on extraordinary gifts of imaginative insight and characterization, and the fierce indigna- tion of the satirist finding its vent in exaggerating realism, doubtless to some extent warped their impressions; nevertheless their works are the last voices expressive of the freedom and manly virtue of the ancient world. In them alone among the writers of the empire the spirit of the Roman republic seems to revive. The Letters of C. Plinius Caecilius Secundus or Pliny the Younger (6i-c. 115), though they do not contradict the representation of Tacitus and Juvenal regarded as an exposure of the political degradation and moral corruption of prominent individuals and classes, do much to modify the pervadingly tragic and sombre character of their representation. With the death of Juvenal, the most important part of whose activity falls in the reign of Trajan, Latin literature as an original and national expression of the experience, character, and sentiment of the Roman state and empire, and as one of the great literatures of the world, may be considered closed. Later Writers. What remains to describe is little but death and decay. Poetry died first; the paucity of writings in verse is matched by their insignificance. For two centuries after Juvenal there are no names but those of Q. Serenus Sammonicus, with his pharmacopoeia in verse (c. 225), and M. Aurelius Olympius Nemesianus, who wrote a few feeble eclogues and (2 83) a dull piece on the training of dogs for the chase. Towards the middle of the 4th century we have Decimus Magnus Ausonius, a professor of Bordeaux and afterwards consul (379), whose style is as little like that of classical poetry as is his prosody. His Mosella, a detailed description of the river Moselle, is the least unattractive of his works. A little better is his contemporary, Rufius Festus Avienus, who made some free translations of astronomical and geographical poems in Greek. A generation later, in what might be called the expiring effort of Latin poetry, appeared two writers of much greater merit. The first is Claudius Claudianus (c. 400), a native of Alexandria and the court poet of the emperor Honorius and his minister Stilicho. Claudian may be properly styled the last of the poets of Rome. He breathes the old national spirit, and his mastery of classical idiom and versification is for his age extraordinary. Something of the same may be seen in Rutilius Namatianus, a Gaul by birth, who wrote in 416 a description of his voyage from the capital to his native land, which contains the most glowing eulogy of Rome ever penned by an ancient hand. Of the Christian " poets " only Aurelius Prudentius Clemens (c. 348-410) need be mentioned. He was well read in the ancient literature; but the task of embodying- the Christian spirit in the classical form was one far beyond his powers. The vitality of the prose literature was not much greater though its complete extinction was from the nature of the case impossible. The most important writer in the age succeeding Juvenal was the biographer C. Suetonius Tranquillus (c. 75-160), whose work is more valuable for its matter than its manner. His style is simple and direct, but has hardly any other merit. A little later the rise of M. Cornelius Pronto (c. 100-175), a native of Cirta, marks the beginning of an African influence. Pronto, a distinguished orator and intimate friend of the emperor M. Aurelius, broke away from the traditional Latin of the Silver and Golden ages, and took as his models the pre-classical authors. The reaction was shortlived; but the same affectation of antiquity is seen in the writings of Apuleius, Claudian. Suetonius. also an African, who lived a little later than Pronto and was a man of much greater natural parts. In his Metamorphoses, which were based upon a Greek original, he takes the wonderful story of the adventures of Lucius of Madaura, pu ' and interweaves the famous legend of Cupid and Psyche. His bizarre and mystical style has a strange fascination for the reader; but there is nothing Roman or Italian about it. Two epitomists of previous histories may be mentioned: Justinus (of uncertain date) who abridged the history of Pompeius Trogus, an Augustan writer; and P. Annius Florus, who wrote in the reign of Hadrian a rhetorical sketch based upon Livy. The Historia Augusta, which includes the lives of the emperors from Hadrian to Numerianus (117-284), is the work of six writers, four of whom wrote under Diocletian and two under Constantine. It is a collection of personal memoirs of little historical importance, and marked by puerility and poverty of style. Ammianus Marcellinus (c. 330-400) had a higher conception of the historian's function. His narrative of the years 353-378 (all that now remains) is honest and straightfor- ward, but his diction is awkward and obscure. The last pagan prose writer who need be mentioned is Q. Aurelius Symmachus (c. 350-410), the author of some speeches and a collection of letters. All the art of his ornate and courtly periods cannot disguise the fact that there was nothing now for paganism to say. It is in Christian writers alone that we find the vigour of life. The earliest work of Christian apologetics is the Octavius or Minucius Felix, a contemporary of Pronto. It is written in pure Latin and is strongly tinged by classical influences. Quite different is the work of " the fierce Tertullian," Q. Septimius Florens Tertullianus (c. 150-230), a native of Carthage, the most vigorous of the Latin champions of the new faith. His style shows the African revolt of which we have already spoken, and in its medley of archaisms, Graecisms and Hebraisms reveals the strength of the disintegrating forces at work upon the Latin language. A more commanding figure is that of Aurelius Augustinus or St Augustine (354-430), bishop of Hippo, who for comprehensiveness and dialectical power stands out in the same way as Hieronymus or St Jerome (£.331 or 340-420), a native of Stridon in Dalmatia, does for many- sided learning and scholarship. The decline of literature proper was attended by an increased output of grammatical and critical studies. From the time of L. Aelius Stilo Praeconinus, who was the teacher of Varro and Cicero, much interest had been taken in literary and linguistic problems at Rome. Varro under the republic, and M. Verrius Flaccus in the Augustan age, had busied themselves with lexicography and etymology. The grammarian M. Valerius Probus (c. A.D. 60) was the first critical editor of Latin texts. In the next century we have Velius Longus's treatise De Orthographia, and then a much more important work, the Nodes Alticaeoi Aulus Gellius,and (c. 200) a treatise in verse by Terentianus, an African, upon Latin pronunciation, prosody and metre. Somewhat later are the commentators on Terence and Horace, Helenius Aero and Pomponius Porphyrio. The tradition was continued in the 4th century by Nonius Marcellus and C. Marius Victorinus, both Africans; Aelius Donatus, the grammarian and commen- tator on Terence and Virgil, Flavius Sosipater Charisius and Diomedes, and Servius, the author of a valuable commentary on Virgil. Ambrosius Macrobius Theodosius (c. 400) wrote a treatise on Cicero's Somnium Scipionis and seven books of miscellanies (Saturnalia); and Martianus Capella (c. 430), a native of Africa, published a compendium of the seven liberal arts, written in a mixture of prose and verse, with some literary pretensions. The last grammarian who need be named is the most widely known of all, the celebrated Priscianus, who pub- lished his text-book at Constantinople probably in the middle of the sth century. In jurisprudence, which maybe regarded as one of the outlying regions of literature, Roman genius had had some of its greatest triumphs, and, if we take account of the " codes," was active to the end. The most distinguished of the early jurists (whose LATINUS— LATITUDE 267 Jurists. works are lost) were Q. Mucius Scaevola, who died in 82 B.C., and following him Ser. Sulpicius Rufus, who died in 43 B.C. In the Augustan age M. Antistius Labeo and C. Ateius Capito headed two opposing schools in jurispru- dence, Labeo being an advocate of method and reform, and Capito being a conservative and empiricist. The strife, which reflects the controversy between the " analogists " and the " anomalists " in philology, continued long after their death. Salvius Julianus was entrusted by Hadrian with the task of reducing into shape the immense mass of law which had grown up in the edicts of successive praetors — thus taking the first step towards a code. Sex. Pomponius, a contemporary, wrote an important legal manual of which fragments are preserved. The most celebrated handbook, however, is the Institutiones of Gaius, who lived under Antonius Pius — a model of what such treatises should be. The most eminent of all the Roman jurists was Aemilius Papinianus, the intimate friend of Septimius Severus; of his works only fragments remain. Other consider- able writers were the prolific Domitius Ulpianus (c. 215) and Julius Paulus, his contemporary. The last juristical writer of note was Herennius Modestinus (c. 240). But though the line of great lawyers had ceased, the effects of their work remained and are clearly visible long after in the " codes " — the code of Theodosius (438) and the still more famous code of Justinian (529 and 533), with which is associated the name of Tribonianus. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The most full and satisfactory modern account of Latin literature is M. Schanz's Geschichte der romisclien Litteratur. The best in English is the translation by C. C. Warr of W. S. Teuffel and L. Schwabe's History of Roman Literature. ]. W. Mackail's short History of Latin Literature is full of excellent literary and aesthetic criticisms on the writers. C. Lamarre's Histoire de la literature latine (1901, with specimens) only deals with the writers of the republic. W. Y. Sellar's Roman Poets of the Republic and Poets of the Augustan Age, and R. Y. Tyrrell's Lectures on Latin Poetry, will also be found of service. A concise account of the various Latin writers and their works, together with bibliographies, is given in J. E. B. Mayor's Bibliographical Clue to Latin Literature (1879), which is based on a German work by E. Hiibner. See also the separate bibliographies to the articles on individual writers. (W. Y. S.;J. P. P.) LATINUS, in Roman legend, king of the aborigines in Latium, and eponymous hero of the Latin race. In Hesiod (Theogony, 1013) he is the son of Odysseus and Circe, and ruler of the Tyr- senians; in Virgil, the son of Faunus and the nymph Marica, a national genealogy being substituted for the Hesiodic, which probably originated from a Greek source. Latinus was a shadowy personality, invented to explain the origin of Rome and its relations with Latium, and only obtained importance in later times through his legendary connexion with Aeneas and the foundation of Rome. According to Virgil (Aeneid, vii.-xii.), Aeneas, on landing at the mouth of the Tiber, was welcomed by Latinus, the peaceful ruler whose seat of govern- ment was Laurentum, and ultimately married his daughter Lavinia. Other accounts of Latinus, differing considerably in detail, are to be found in the fragments of Cato's Origines (in Servius's commentary on Virgil) and in Dionysius of Halicarnassus; see further authorities in the article by J. A. Hild, in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites. LATITUDE (Lat. latitude, latus, broad), a word meaning breadth or width, hence, figuratively, freedom from restriction, but more generally used in the geographical and astronomical sense here treated. The latitude of a point on the earth's surface is its angular distance from the equator, measured on the curved surface of the earth. The direct measure of this distance being impracticable, it has to be determined by astronomical observa- tions. As thus determined it is the angle between the direction of the plumb-line at the place and the plane of the equator. This is identical with the angle between the horizontal planes at the place and at the equator, and also with the elevation of the celestial pole above the horizon (see ASTRONOMY). Latitude thus determined by the plumb-line is termed astronomical. The geocentric latitude of a place is the angle which the line from the earth's centre to the place makes with the plane of the equator. Geographical latitude, which is used in mapping, is based on the supposition that the earth is an elliptic spheroid of known compression, and is the angle which the normal to this spheroid makes with the equator. It differs from the astro- nomical latitude only in being corrected for local deviation of the plumb-line. The latitude of a celestial object isxthe angle which the line drawn from some fixed point of reference to the object makes with the plane of the ecliptic. Variability of Terrestrial Latitudes. — The latitude of a point on the earth's surface, as above denned, is measured from the equator. The latter is defined by the condition that its plane makes a right angle with the earth's axis of rotation. It follows that if the points in which this axis intersects the earth's surface, i.e. the poles of the earth, change their positions on the earth's surface, the position of the equator will also change, and there- fore the latitudes of places will change also. About the end of the i gth century research showed that there actually was a very minute but measurable periodic change of this kind. The north and south poles, instead of being fixed points on the earth's surface, wander round within a circle about 50 ft. in diameter. The result is a variability of terrestrial latitudes generally. To show the cause of this motion, let BQ represent a section of an oblate spheroid through its shortest axis, PP. We may consider this spheroid to be that of the earth, the ellipticity being greatly exagge- rated. If set in rotation around its axis of figure PP, it will con- tinue to rotate around that axis for an indefinite time. But if, instead of rotating around PP, it rotates around some other axis, RR, making a small angle, POR, with the axis of figure PP; then it has been known since the time of Euler that the axis of rotation RR, if referred to the spheroid regarded as fixed, will gradually rotate round the axis of figure PP in a period de- fined in the following way: — If we put C = the moment of momentum of the spheroid around the axis of figure, and A = the corresponding moment around an axis passing through the equator EQ, then, calling one day the period of rotation of the spheroid, the axis RR will make a revolution around PP in a number of days represented by the fraction C/(C— A). In the case of the earth, this ratio is 1/0-0032813 or 305. It follows that the period in question is 305 days. Up to 1890 the most careful observations and researches failed to establish the periodicity of such a rotation, though there was strong evidence of a variation of latitude. Then S. C. Chandler, from an elaborate discussion of a great number of observations, showed that there was really a variation of the latitude of the points of observation; but, instead of the period being 305 days, it was about 428 days. At first sight this period seemed to be inconsistent with dynamical theory. But a defect was soon found in the latter, the- correction of which reconciled the divergence. In deriving a period of 305 days the earth is regarded as an absolutely rigid body, and no account is taken either of its elasticity or of the mobility of the ocean. A study of the figure will show that the centrifugal force round the axis RR will act on the equatorial protuberance of the rotating earth so as to make it tend in the direction of the arrows. A slight deformation of the earth will thus result; and the axis of figure of the distorted spheroid will no longer be PP, but a line P'P' between PP and RR. As the latter moves round, P'P' will continually follow it through the incessant change of figure pro- duced by the change in the direction of the centrifugal force. Now the rate of motion of RR is determined by the actual figure at the moment. It is therefore less than the motion in an absolutely rigid spheroid in the proportion RP': RP. It is found that, even though the earth were no more elastic than steel, its yielding combined with the mobility of the ocean would make this ratio about 2 : 3, resulting in an increase of the period by one-half, making it about 457 days. Thus this small flexibility is even 268 LATIUM greater than that necessary to the reconciliation of observation with theory, and the earth is shown to be more rigid than steel — a conclusion long since announced by Kelvin for other reasons. Chandler afterwards made an important addition to the subject by showing that the motion was represented by the superposition of two harmonic terms, the first having a period of about 430 days, the other of one year. The result of this superposition is a seven-year period, which makes 6 periods of the 428-day term (428dX6 = 2s68d = 7 years, nearly), and 7 periods of the annual term. Near one phase of this combined period the two com- ponent motions nearly annul each other, so that the variation is then small, while at the opposite phase, 3 to 4 years later, the two motions are in the same direction and the range of variation is at its maximum. The coefficient of the 428-day term seems to be between 0-12" and 0-16"; that of the annual term between 0-06" and o-ii*. Recent observations give smaller values of both than those made between 1890 and 1900, and there is no reason to suppose either to be constant. The present state of the theory may be summed up as follows : — 1. The fourteen-month term is an immediate result of the fact that the axes of rotation and figure of the earth do not strictly coincide, but make with each other a small angle of which the mean value is about 0-15". If the earth remained invariable, without any motion of matter on its surface, the result of this non-coincidence would be the revolution of the one pole round the other in a circle of radius 0-15", or about 15 ft., in a period of about 429 days. This revolution is called the Eulerian motion, after the mathematician who discovered it. But owing to meteorological causes the motion in question is subject to annual changes. These changes arise from two causes — the one statical, the other dynamical. 2. The statical causes are deposits of snow or ice slowly changing the position of the pole of figure of the earth. For example, a deposit of snow in Siberia would bring the equator of figure of the earth a little nearer to Siberia and throw the pole a little way from it, while a deposit on the American continent would have the opposite effect. Owing to the approximate symmetry of the American and Asiatic continents it does not seem likely that the inequality of snowfall would produce an appreciable effect. 3. The dynamical causes are atmospheric and oceanic currents. Were these currents invariable their only effect would be that the Eulerian motion would not take place exactly round the mean pole of figure, but round a point slightly separated from it. But, as a matter of fact, they are subject to an annual variation. Hence the motion of the pole of rotation is also subject to a similar variation. The annual term in the latitude is thus accounted for. Besides Chandler, Albrecht of Berlin has investigated the motion of the pole P. The methods of the two astronomers are in some points different. Chandler has constructed empirical formulae representing the motion, with the results already given, while Albrecht has determined the motion of the pole from observation simply, without trying to represent it either by a formula or by theory. It is noteworthy that the difference between Albrecht's numerical results and Chandler's formulae is generally less than 0-05*. When the fluctuation in the position of the pole was fully confirmed, its importance in astronomy and geodesy led the International Geodetic Association to establish a series of stations round the globe, as nearly as possible on the same parallel of latitude, for the purpose of observing the fluctuation with a greater degree of precision than could be attained by the miscellaneous observations before available. The same stars were to be observed from month to month at each station with zenith-telescopes of similar approved construction. This secures a double observation of each component of the polar motion, from which most of the systematic errors are eliminated. The principal stations are: Carloforte, Italy; Mizusawa, Japan; Gaithersburg, Maryland; and Ukiah, California, all nearly on the same parallel of latitude, 39° 8'. The fluctuations derived from this international work during the last seven years deviate but slightly from Chandler's formulae though they show a markedly smaller value of the annual term. In consequence, the change in the amplitude of the fluctuation through the seven-year period is not so well marked as before 1 900. Chandler's investigations are found in a series of papers published in the Astronomical Journal, vols. xi. to xv. and xviii. Newcomb's explanation of the lengthening of the Eulerian period is found in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society for March 1892. Later volumes of the Astronomical Joiirnal contain discussions of the causes which may produce the annual fluctuation. An elaborate mathematical discussion of the theory is by Vito Volterra: " Sulla teoria dei movimenti del Polo terrestre " in the A stronomische Nachrichten, vol. 138; also, more fully in his memoir " Sur la theorie des variations des latitudes," Acta Mathematica, vol. xxii. The results of the international observations are discussed from time to time by Albrecht in the publications of the International Geodetic Association, and in the Astronomische Nachrichten (see also EARTH, FIGURE OF). (S. N.) LATIUM,1 in ancient geography, the name given to the portion of central Italy which was bounded on the N.W. by Etruria, on the S.W. by the Tyrrhenian Sea, on the S.E. by Campania, on the E. by Samnium and on the N.E. by the mountainous district inhabited by the Sabini, Aequi and Marsi. The name was, however, applied very differently at different times. Latium originally means the land of the Latini, and in this sense, which alone is in use historically, it was a tract of limited extent; but after the overthrow of the Latin confederacy, when the neighbouring tribes of the Rutuli, Hernici, Volsci and Aurunci, as well as the Latini properly so called, were reduced to the condition of subjects and citizens of Rome, the name of Latium was extended to comprise them all. It thus denoted the whole country from the Tiber to the mouth of the Savo, and just included the Mons Massicus, though the boundary was not very precisely fixed (see below). The change thus introduced, though already manifest in the composition of the Latin league (see below) was not formally established till the reign of Augustus, who formed of this larger Latium and Campania taken together the first region of Italy; but it is already recognized by Strabo (v. 3. 2. p. 228), as well as by Pliny, who terms the additional territory thus incorporated Latium Adjectum, while he desig- nates the original Latium, extending from the Tiber to Circeii, as Latium A ntiquum. i. LATIUM ANTIQUUM consisted principally of an extensive plain, now known as the Campagna di Roma, bounded towards the interior by the Apennines, which rise very abruptly from the plains to a height of between 4000 and 5000 ft. Several of the Latin cities, including Tibur and Praeneste, were situated on the terrace-like underfills of these mountains,2 while Cora, Norba and Setia were placed in like manner on the slopes of the Volscian mountains (Monti Lepini), a rugged and lofty limestone range, which runs parallel to the main mass of the Apennines, being separated from them, however, by the valley of the Trerus (Sacco), and forms a continuous barrier from there to Terracina. No volcanic eruptions are known to have taken place in these mountains within the historic period, though Livy sometimes speaks of it " raining stones in the Alban hills " (i. 31, xxxv. 9 — on the latter occasion it even did so on the Aventine). It is asserted, too, that some of the earliest tombs of the necropolis of Alba Longa (q.v.) were found beneath. a stratum of peperino. Earthquakes (not of a violent character within recent centuries, though the ruin of the Colosseum is probably to be ascribed to this cause) are not unknown even at the present day in Rome and in the Alban Hills, and a seismograph has been established at Rocca di Papa. The surface is by no means a uniform plain, but is a broad undulating tract, furrowed throughout by numerous depressions, with precipitous banks, serving as water-courses, though rarely traversed by any considerable stream. As the general level of the plain rises gradually, though almost im- perceptibly, to the foot of the Apennines, these channels by degrees assume the character of ravines of a formidable de- scription. 1 Latium, from the same root as lalus, side; later, brick; irXarfa, flat ; Sans, prath : not connected with latus, wide. 2 In the time of Augustus the boundary of Latium extended as far E. as Treba (Trevi), 12 m. S.E. of Sublaqueum (Subiaco). LATIUM 269 Four main periods may be distinguished in the geological history of Rome and the surrounding district. The hills on the right bank of the Tiber culminating in Monte Mario (455 ft.) belong Geology. to tjje grs,. of these, being of the Pliocene formation ; they consist of a lower bluish-grey clay and an upper group of yellow sands and gravels. This clay since Roman times has supplied the material for brick-making, and the valleys which now separate the different summits (Janiculum, Vatican, Monte Mario) are in considerable measure artificial. On the left bank this clay has been reached at a lower level, at the foot of the Pincian Hill, while in the Campagna it has been found to extend below the later volcanic formations. The latter may be divided into two groups, corresponding to the second and third periods. In the second period volcanic activity occurred at the bottom of the Pliocene sea, and the tufa, which extends over the whole Campagna to a thickness of 300 ft. or more, was formed. At the same time, hot springs, containing abundant carbonate of lime in solution, produced deposits of travertine at various points. In the third, after the Campagna, by a great general uplift, had become a land surface, volcanic energy found an outlet in com- paratively few large craters, which emitted streams of hard lava as well as fragmentary materials, the latter forming sperone (lapis Gabinus) and peperino (lapis Albanus), while upon one of the former, which runs from the Alban Hills to within 2 m. of Rome, the Via Appia was carried. The two main areas near Rome are formed by the group of craters on the north (Bracciano, Bolsena, &c.) and the Alban Hills on the south, the latter consisting of one great crater with a base about 12 m. in diameter, in the centre of which a smaller crater was later on built up (the basin is now known as the Campo di Annibale) with several lateral vents (the Lake of Albano, the Lake of Nemi, &c.). The Alban Mount (Monte Cavo) is almost the highest point on the rim of the inner crater, while Mount Algidus and Tusculum are on the outer ring wall of the larger (earlier) crater. The fourth period is that in which the various subaerial agencies of abrasion, and especially the streams which drain the mountain chain of the Apennines, have produced the present features of the Cam- pagna, a plain furrowed by gullies and ravines. The communities which inhabited the detached hills and projecting ridges which later on formed the city of Rome were in a specially favourable position. These hills (especially the Palatine, the site of the original settle- ment) with their naturally steep sides, partly surrounded at the base by marshes and situated not far from the confluence of the Anio with the Tiber, possessed natural advantages not shared by the other primitive settlements of the district; and their proximity to one another rendered it easy to bring them into a larger whole. The volcanic materials available in Rome and its neighbourhood were especially useful in building. The tufa, sperone and peperino were easy to quarry, and could be employed by those who possessed com- paratively elementary tools, while travertine, which came into use later, was an excellent building stone, and the lava (selce) served for paving stones and as material for concrete. The strength of the renowned Roman concrete is largely due to the use of pozzolana (see PUTEOLI), which also is found in plenty in the Campagna. Between the volcanic tract of the Campagna and the sea there is a broad strip of sandy plain, evidently formed merely by the accumu- lation of sand from the sea, and constituting a barren tract, still covered almost entirely with wood as it was in ancient times, except for the almost uninterrupted line of villas along the ancient coast- line, which is now marked by a line of sandhills, some £ m. or more inland (see LAVINIUM, TIBER). This long belt of sandy shore extends without a break for a distance of above 30 m. from the mouth of the Tiber to the promontory of Antium (Porto d'Anzio), a low rocky headland, projecting out into the sea, and forming the only con- siderable angle in this line of coast. Thence again a low sandy shore of similar character, but with extensive shore lagoons which served in Roman times and serve still for fish-breeding, extends for about 24 m. to the foot of the Monte Circeo (Circeius Mons, q.v.). The region of the Pomptine Marshes (q.v.) occupies almost the whole tract between the sandy belt on the sea-shore and the Volscian mountains, extend- ing from the southern foot of the Alban Hills below Velletri to the sea near Terracina. The district sloping down from Velletri to the dead level of the Pontine (Pomptine) Marshes has not, like the western and northern slopes of the Alban Hills, drainage towards the Tiber. aage. -pne sut,soil too is differently formed : the surface consists of very absorbent materials, then comes a stratum of less permeable tufa or peperino (sometimes clay is present), and below that again more permeable materials. In ancient, and probably pre-Roman, times this district was drained by an elaborate system of cuniculi, small drainage tunnels, about 5 ft. high and 2 ft. wide, which ran, not at the bottom of the valleys, where there were sometimes streams already, and where, in any case, erosion would have broken through their roofs, but along their slopes, through the less permeable tufa, their object being to drain the hills on each side of the valleys. They had probably much to do with the relative healthiness of this district in early times. Some of them have been observed to be earlier in date than the Via Appia (312 B.C.). They were studied in detail by R. de la Blanchere. When they fell into desuetude, malaria gained the upper hand, the lack of drainage providing breeding-places for the malarial mosquito. Remains of similar drainage channels exist in many parts of the Campagna Romana and of southern Etruria at points where the natural drainage was not sufficient, and especially in cultivated or inhabited hills (though it was not necessary here, as in the neighbourhood of Velletri, to create a drainage system, as streams and rivers were already present as natural collectors) and streams very frequently pass through them at the present day. The drainage channels which were dug for the various crater lakes in the neighbourhood of Rome are also interest- ing in this regard. That of the Alban Lake is the most famous; but all the other crater lakes are similarly provided. As the drainage by cuniculi removed the moisture in the subsoil, so the drainage of the lakes by emissaria, outlet channels at a low level, prevented the permeable strata below the tufa from becoming impregnated with moisture which they would otherwise have derived from the lakes of the Alban Hills. The slopes below Velletri, on the other hand, derive much of their moisture from the space between the inner and outer ring of the Alban volcano, which it was impossible to drain: and this in turn receives much moisture from the basin of the extinct inner crater.1 Numerous isolated palaeolithic objects of the Mousterian type have been found in the neighbourhood of Rome in the quaternary gravels of the Tiber and Anio; but no certain traces of th^ neolithic period have come to light, as the many **e" flint implements found sporadically round Rome pro- "'s'or'c bably belong to the period which succeeded neolithic (called by Italian archaeologists the eneolithic period) inasmuch as both stone and metal (not, however, bronze, but copper) were in use.2 At Sgurgola, in the valley of the Sacco, a skeleton was found in a rock-cut tomb of this period which still bears traces of painting with cinnabar. A similar rock-cut tomb was found at Mandela, in the Anio valley. Both are outside the limits of the Campagna in the narrower sense; but similar tombs were found (though less accurately observed) in travertine quarries between Rome and Tivoli. Objects of the Bronze age too have only been found sporadically. The earliest cemeteries and hut foundations of the Alban Hills belong to the Iron age, and cemeteries and objects of a similar character have been found in Rome itself and in southern Etruria, especially the characteristic hut-urns. The objects found in these cemeteries show close affinity with those found in the terremare of Emilia, these last being of earlier date, and hence Pigorini and Helbig consider that the Latini were close descendants of the inhabitants of the terremare. On the other hand, the ossuaries of the Villanova type, while they occur as far south as Veil and Caere, have never so far been found on the left bank of the Tiber, in Latium proper (see L. Pigorini in Rendiconti dei Lincei, ser. v. vol. xvi., 1907, p. 676, and xyiii., 1909). We thus have at the beginning of the Iron age two distinct currents of civilization in central Italy, the Latin and that of Villanova. As to the dates to which these are to be attributed, there is not as yet complete accord, e.g. some archae- ologists assign to the nth, others (and with far better reasons) to the 8th century B.C., the earliest tombs of the Alban necropolis and the coeval tombs of the necropolis recently discovered in the Forum at Rome. In this last necropolis cremation seems slightly to precede inhumation in date. For the prehistoric period see Bullettino di paleontologia Italiana, passim, B. Modestov, Introduction a I'histoire romaine (Paris, 1907), and T. E. Peet, The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy (Oxford, 1909). It is uncertain to what extent reliance can be placed upon the traditional accounts of the gradual spread of the sup- remacy of Rome in Latium, and the question cannot be discussed here.3 The list of the thirty communities be- longing to the Latin league, given by Dionysius of Halicarnassus •'See R. de la Blanchere in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites, s.vv. Cuniculus, Emissarium, and the same author's Chapitre d'histoire ponline (Paris, 1889). 2 See G. A. Colini in Bullettino di palentologia Italiana, xxxi. (1905)- 3 The most important results will be found stated at the outset of the articles ROME : History (the chief being that the Plebeians of Rome probably consisted of Latins and the Patricians of Sabines), LIGURIA, SICULI and ARICIA. For the Etruscan dominion in the Latin plain see ETRURIA. Special mention may here be made of one or two points of importance. The legends represent the Latins of the historical period as a fusion of different races, Ligures, Veneti and Siculi among them; the story of the alliance of the Trojan settler Aeneas with the daughter of Latinus, king of the aborigines, and the consequent enmity of the Rutulian prince Turnus, well known to readers of Virgil, is thoroughly typical of the reflection of these distant ethnical phenomena in the surviving traditions. In view of the historical significance of the NO- ethnicon (see SABINI) it is im- portant to observe that the original form of the ethnic adjective no doubt appears in the title of Juppiter Latiaris (not Latinus); and that Virgil's description of the descent of the noble Drances at Latinus's court (Aen. xi. 340) — genus huic materna superbum Nobilitas dabat, incertum de patre ferebat — indicates a very different system of family ties from the famous patria potestas and agnation of the Patrician and Sabine clans. (R. S- C.) Latin League. 2JO LATIUM (v. 61), is, however, of great importance. It is considered by Th. Mommsen (Roman History, i. 448) that it dates from about the year 370 B.C., to which period belong the closing of the confederacy, no fresh communities being afterwards admitted to it, and the consequent fixing of the boundaries of Latium. The list is as follows: Ardeates, Aricini, Bovillani,1 Bubentani, Cabani, Carventani, Circeiates, Coriolani, Corbintes, Corni (probably Corani), Fortinei (?), Gabini, Laurentini, Lavinates, Labicani, Lanuvini, Nomentani, Norbani, Praenestini, Pedani, Querquetulani, Satricani, Scaptini, Setini, Tellenii, Tiburtini, Tolerini, Tuscukni, Veliterni. These communities may be briefly described according to their geographical arrangement. Laurentum and Lavinium, names so conspicuous in the legendary history of Aeneas, were situated in the sandy strip near the sea-coast — the former only 8 m. S.E. of Ostia, which was from the first merely the port of Rome, and never figured as an independent city. Farther S.E. again lay Ardea, the ancient capital of the Rutuli, and some distance beyond that Antium, situated on the sea-coast, which does not occur in the list of Dionysius, and is, in the early annals of Rome, called a Volscian town — even their chief city. On the southern underfalls of the Alban mountains, commanding the plain at the foot, stood Lanuvium and Velitrae; Aricia rose on a neighbouring hill, and Corioli was probably situated on the lower slopes. The village of the Cabani (probably identical with the Cabenses) is possibly to be sought on the site of the modern Rocca di Papa, N. of Monte Cavo. The more important city of Tusculum occupied one of the northern summits of the same group; while opposite to it, in a commanding situation on a lofty offshoot of the Apennines, rose Praeneste, now Palestrina. Bola and Pedum were probably in the same neighbourhood, Labici on an outlying summit (Monte Compatri) of the Alban Hills below Tusculum, and Corbio (probably at Rocca Priora) on a rocky summit east of the same city. Tibur (Tivoli) occupied a height commanding the outlet of the river Anio. Corniculum, farther west, stood on the summit of one of three conical hills that rise abruptly out of the plain at the distance of a few miles from Monte Gennaro, the nearest of the Apennines, and which were thence known as the Monies Corniculani. Nomentum was a few miles farther north, between the Apennines and the Tiber, and close to the Sabine frontier. The boundary between the two nations was indeed in this part very fluctuating. Nearly in the centre of the plain of the Campagna stood Gabii ; Bovillae was also in the plain, but close to the Appian Way, where it begins to ascend the Alban Hills. Several other cities — Tellenae, Scaptia and Querquetulum — mentioned in the list of Dionysius were probably situated in the Campagna, but the site cannot be determined. Satricum, on the other hand, was certainly south of the Alban Hills, between Velitrae and Antium; while Cora, Norba and Setia (all of which retain their ancient names with little modification) crowned the rocky heights which form advanced posts from the Volscian mountains towards the Pontine Marshes. Carventum possibly occupied the site of Rocca Massima N. of Cori, and Tolerium was very likely at Valmontone in the valley of the Sacco (anc. Trerus or Tolerus) . The cities of the Bubentani and Fortinei are quite unknown. A considerable number of the Latin cities had before 370 B.C. either been utterly destroyed or reduced to subjection by Rome, and had thus lost their independent existence. Such were Antemnae and Caenina, both of them situated within a few miles of Rome to the N., the conquest of which was ascribed to Romulus; Fidenae, about 5 m. N. of the city, and close to the Tiber; and Crustumerium, in the hilly tract farther north towards the Sabine frontier. Suessa Pometia also, on the borders of the Pontine Marshes, to which it was said to have given name, was a city of importance, the destruction of which was ascribed to Tarquinius Superbus. In any case it had disappeared before 370 B.C., as it does not occur in the list of the Latin league attribut- able to that date. It is probably to be sought between Velletri and Cisterna. But by far the most important of these extinct cities was Alba, on the lake to which it gave its name, which was, according to universally received tradition, the parent of Rome, as well as of numerous other cities within the limits of Latium, including Gabii, Fidenae, Collatia, Nomentum and other well-known towns. Whether or not this tradition deserves to rank as historical, it appears certain that at a still earlier period there existed a confederacy of thirty towns, of which Alba was the supreme head. A list of those who were wont to participate in the sacrifices on the Alban Mount is given us by Pliny (N.H. iii. 5. 69) under the name of populi albenses, which includes only 1 The MSS. read Qo'XKav&v or /SoiXacajx: the Latin translation has Bolanorum. It is difficult to say which is to be preferred. The list gives only twenty-nine names, and Mommsen proposes to insert Signini. six or at most eight of those found in the list of Dionysius; and these for the most part among the more obscure and least known of the names given by him. Many of the rest are un- known; while the more powerful cities of Aricia, Lanuvium and Tusculum, though situated immediately on the Alban Hills, are not included, and appear to have maintained a wholly independent position. This earlier league was doubtless broken up by the fall of Alba; it was probably the increasing power of the Volsci and Aequi that led to the formation of the later league, including all the more powerful cities of Latium, as well as to the alliance concluded by them with the Romans in the consulship of Spurius Cassius (493 B.C.). Other cities of the Latin league had already (according to the traditional dates) received Latin colonies — Velitrae (494 B.C.), Norba (492), Ardea (442), Labici (418), Circei (393), Satricum (385), Setia (382). The cities of the Latin league continued to hold general meetings or assemblies from time to time at the grove of the Aqua Ferentina, a sanctuary at the foot of the Alban Hills, perhaps in a valley below Marino, while they had also a common place of worship on the summit of the Alban Mount (Monte Cavo), where stood the celebrated temple of Jupiter Latiaris. The participation in the annual sacrifices at this sanctuary was regarded as typical of a Latin city (hence the name " prisci Latini " given to the participating peoples) ; and they continued to be celebrated long after the Latins had lost their independence and been incorporated in the Roman state.3 We are on firmer ground in dealing with the spread of the supremacy of Rome in Latium when we take account of the foundation of new colonies and of the formation of new tribes, processes which as a rule go together. The Su™£macy. information that we have as to the districts in which the sixteen earliest clans (tribus rusticoe)4 were settled shows us that, except along the Tiber, Rome's dominion extended hardly more than 5 m. beyond the city gates (Mommsen, History of Rome, i. 58). Thus, towards the N. and E. we find the towns of Antemnae, Fidenae, Caenina and Gabii;5 on the S.E., towards Alba, the boundary of Roman territory was at the Fossae Cluiliae, 5 m. from Rome, where Coriolanus encamped (Livy ii. 39), and, on the S., towards Laurentum at the 6th mile, where sacrifice to Terminus was made (Ovid, Fasti, ii. 681): the Ambarvalia too were celebrated even in Strabo's day (v. 3. 3. p. 230) at a place called rj0Toi between the sth and 6th mile. The identification (cf. Hiilsen in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencydo- pddie, vi. 2223) of this locality with the grove of the Arval brothers at the 5th mile of the Via Portuensis, to the W. of Rome, and of the Ambarvalia with the festival celebrated by this brotherhood in May of each year, is now generally accepted. But Roman sway must either from the first, or very soon, have extended to Ostia, the port of Rome at the mouth of the Tiber: and it was as the emporium of Latium that Rome acquired her first importance.6 2 Albani, Aesolani (probably E. of Tibur), Accienses, Abolani, Bubetani, Bolani, Cusuetani (Carventani ?), Coriolani, Fidenates, Foreti (Fortinei ?), Hortenses (near Corbio), Latinienses (near Rome itself), Longani, Manates, Macrales, Munienses (Castrimoenienses?), Numinienses, Olliculani, Octulani, Pedani, Poletaurini, Querquetu- lani, Sicani, Sisolenses, Tolerienses, Tutienses (not, one would think, connected with the small stream called Tutia at the 6th mile of the Via Salaria; Liv. xxvi. n), Vimitellari, Velienses, Venetulani, Vitellenses (not far from Corbio). 3 To an earlier stage of the Latin league, perhaps to about 430 B.C. (Mommsen, op. cit. 445 n. 2) belongs the dedication of the grove of Diana by a dictator Latinus, in the name of the people of Tusculum, Aricia, Lanuvium, Laurentum, Cora,Tibur,Suessa Pometia and Ardea. 4 Of the gentes from which these tribes took their names, six entirely disappeared in later days, while the other ten can be traced as patrician — a proof that the patricians were not noble families in origin (Mommsen, Romische Forschungen, i. 106). For the tribes see W. Kubitschek, De Romanarum tribuum origine (Vienna, 1882). 6 We have various traces of the early antagonism to Gabii, e.g. the opposition between ager Romanus and ager Gabinus in the augural law. 6 For the early extension of Roman territory towards the sea, cf. Festus, p. 213, Mull., s.v. " Pectuscum:" Pectuscum Palali dicta est ea regio urbis, quam Romulus obversam posuil, ea parte, in qua plurimum erat agri Romani ad mare versus el qua mollissime adibatur Urbo, cum Etruscorum agrum a Romano Tiberis discluderet, ceterae vicinae civitates colles aliquos haberent oppositos. LATIUM 271 The primitive tribes. The boundary of the Ager Romanus antiquus towards the north-west is similarly fixed by the festival of the Robigalia at the sth milestone of the Via Clodia. Within this area fall the districts inhabited by the earliest tribes, so far as these are known to us. The tribus Romilia was settled on the right bank of the Tiber near the sanctuary of the Arvales, the Galeria perhaps a little farther west on the lower course of the stream now known as Galera, and the Fabia perhaps on the Cremera towards Veii. We know that the pagus Lemonius was on the Via Latina, and that the tribus Pupinia dwelt between Tusculum and the city, while the territory of the Papiria possibly lay nearer Tusculum, as it was to this tribe that the Roman citizens in Tusculum belonged in later days. It is possible that the Camilla was situated in the direction of Tibur, inasmuch as this town was afterwards enrolled in this tribe. The tribus Claudia, probably the last of the 1 6 older tribus rusticae, was according to tradition founded in 504 B.C. Its territory lay beyond the Anio, between Fidenae and Ficulea (Liv. ii. 16; Dion. Hal. v. 40). The locality of the pagi round which the other tribes were grouped is not known to us. With the earliest extensions of the Roman territory coincided the first beginnings of the Roman road system. The road to Ostia may have existed from the first: but after the Latin com- munities on the lower Anip had fallen under the dominion system. Qf Rome| we may well believe that the first portion of the Via Salaria, leading to Antemnae, Fidenae (the fall of which is placed by tradition in 428 B.C.) and Crustumerium, came into existence. The formation (according to the traditional dating in 495 or 471 B.C.) of the tribus Clustumina (the only one of the earlier twenty-one tribes which bears a local name) is both a consequence of an extension of territory and of the establishment of the assembly of the plebs by tribes, for which an inequality of the total number of divisions was desirable (Mommsen, History of Rome, i. 360). The correlative of the Via Salaria was the Via Campana, so called because it led past the grove of the Arvales along the right bank of the Tiber to the Campus Salinarum Romanarum,1 the salt marshes, from which the Via Salaria took its name, inasmuch as it was the route by which Sabine traders came from the interior to fetch the salt. To this period would also belong the Via Ficulensis, leading to Ficulea, and after- wards prolonged to Nomentum, and the Via Collatina, which led to Collatia. Gabii became Roman in fairly early times, though at what period is uncertain, and with its subjugation must have origin- ated the Via Gabina, afterwards prolonged to Praeneste. The Via Latina too must be of very early origin; and tradition places the foundation of the Latin colony at Signia (to which it led) as early as 495 B.C. Not long after the capture of Fidenae, the main outpost of Veil, the chief city itself fell (396 B.C.) and a road (still traceable) was probably made thither. There was also probably a road to Caere in early times, inasmuch as we hear of the flight of the Vestals thither in 389 B.C. The origin of the rest of the roads is no doubt to be connected with the gradual establishment of the Latin league. We find that while the later (long distance) roads bear as a rule the name of their constructor, all the short distance roads on the left bank of the Tiber bear the names of towns which belonged to the league — Nomentum, Tibur, Praeneste, Labici, Ardea, Laurentum — while Ficulea and Collatia do not appear. The Via Pedana, leading to Pedum, is known to us only from an inscription (Bull. Soc. Antiquaires de France, 1905, p. 177) discovered in Tunisia in 1905, and may be of much later origin; it was a branch of the Via Praenestina. There must too have been a road, along the line of the later Via Appia, to Bovillac, Aricia, Lanuvium and Velitrae, going thence to Cora, Norba and Setia along the foot of the Volscian Mountains; while nameless roads, which can still be traced, led direct from Rome to Satricum and to Lavinium. We can trace the advance of the Roman supremacy with greater ease after 387 B.C., inasmuch as from this year (adopting the traditional dating for what it is worth) until 299 B.C. every accession of territory is marked by the foundation of a group of new tribes; the limit of 35 in all was reached in the latter year. In 387, after the departure of the Gauls, southern Etruria was conquered, and four new tribes were formed: Arnensis (probably derived from Aro, mod. Arrone — though the ancient name does not occur in literature — the stream which forms the outlet to the lake of Bracciano, anc. Lacus Sabalinus)? Sabatina (called after this lake), Stellatina (named from the Campus Stellatinus, near Capena; cf. Festus p. 343 Mull.) and Tromentina (which, Festus tells us, was so called from the 1 The ancient name is known from an inscription discovered in 1888. 8 So Kubitschek in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie, ii. 1204. Campus Tromentus, the situation of which we do not know). Four years later were founded the Latin colonies of Sutrium and Nepet. In 358 B.C. Roman preponderance in the Pomptine territory was shown by the formation of the tribus Pomplina and Publilia, while in 338 and 329 respectively Antium and Tarracina became colonies of Roman citizens, the former having been founded as a Latin colony in 494 B.C. After the dissolution of the Latin league which followed upon the defeat of the united forces of the Samnites and of those Latin and Volscian cities which had revolted against Rome, two new tribes, Maecia and Scaptia,3 were created in 332 B.C. in connexion with the distribution of the newly acquired lands (Mommsen, History, i. 462). A further advance in the same direction ending in the capture of Privernum in 329 B.C. is marked by the establishment in 318 B.C. of the tribus Oufentina (from the river Ufens which runs below Setia, mod. Sezze, and Privernum, mod. Piperno, and the tribus Falerna (in the Ager Falernus), while the foundation of the colonies of Cales (334) and Fregellae (328) secured the newly won south Volscian and Campanian territories and led no doubt to a prolongation of the Via Latina. The moment had now come for the pushing forward of another line of communication, which had no doubt reached Tarracina in 329 B.C. but was now definitely constructed (munita) as a permanent military highway as far as Capua in 312 B.C. by Appius Claudius, after whom it was named. To him no doubt is due the direct line of road through the Pontine Marshes from Velitrae to Terracina. Its construction may fairly be taken to mark the period at which the roads of which we have spoken, hitherto probably mere tracks, began to be transformed into real highways. In the same year (312) the colony of Interamna Lirenas was founded, while Luceria, Suessa (Aurunca) and Saticula had been established a year or two previously. Sora followed nine years later. In 299 B.C. further successes led to the establishment of two new tribes — the Teretina in the upper valley of the Trerus (Sacco) and the Aniensis, in the upper valley of the Anio — while to about the same time we must attribute the construction of two new military roads, both secured by fortresses. The southern road, the Via Valeria led to Carsioli and Alba Fucens (founded as Latin colonies respectively in 298 and 303 B.C.), and the northern (afterwards the Via Flaminia4) to Narnia (founded as a Latin colony in 299 B.C.). There is little doubt that the formation of the tribus Quirina (deriving its name possibly from the town of Cures) and the tribus Velina (from the river Velinus, which forms the well-known waterfalls near Terni) is to be connected with the construction of the latter high road, though its date is not certainly known. The further history of Roman supremacy in Italy will be found in the article ROME: History. We notice, however, that the continual warfare in which the Roman state was engaged led to the decadence of the free population of Latium, and that the extension of the empire of Rome was fatal to the prosperity of the territory which immediately sur- rounded the city.6 What had previously, it seems, been a well-peopled region, with peasant proprietors, kept healthy by careful drainage, became in the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. a district consisting in large measure of huge estates (latifundid) owned by the Roman aristocracy, cultivated by gangs of slaves. This led to the disappearance of the agri- cultural population, to a decline in public safety, and to the spread of malaria in many parts; indeed, it is quite possible that it was not introduced into Latium before the 4th century B.C. The evil increased in the later period of the Republic, and many of the old towns of Latium sank into a very decayed condition; with this the continual competition of the provinces as sources of food-supply no doubt had a good deal to do. Cicero 8 Festus tells us (p. 136 Mull.) that the Maecia derived its name " a quodam castro. ' Scaptia was the only member of the Latin league that gave its name to a tribe. 4 See FLAMINIA, VIA and VALERIA, VIA. 6 L. Caetani indeed (Nineteenth Century and After, 1908) attributes the economic decadence of the Roman Campagna to the existence of free trade throughout the Roman empire. LATIUM speaks of Gabii, Labici and Bovillae as places that had fallen into abject poverty, while Horace refers to Gabii and Fidenae as mere " deserted villages," and Strabo as " once fortified towns, but now villages, belonging to private individuals." Many of the smaller places mentioned in the list of Dionysius, or the early wars of the Romans, had altogether ceased to exist, but the statement of Pliny that fifty-three communities (populi) had thus perished within the boundaries of Old Latium is perhaps ex- aggerated. By the end of the Republic a good many parts of Latium were infected, and Rome itself was highly malarious in the warm months (see W. H. S. Jones in Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology, ii. 97, Liverpool, 1909). The emperors Claudius, Nerva and Trajan turned their attention to the district, and under their example and exhortation the Roman aristocracy erected numerous villas within its boundaries, and used them at least for summer residences. During the 2nd century the Campagna seems to have entered on a new era of prosperity. The system of roads radiating in all directions from Rome (see ITALY: History, § B) belonged to a much earlier period; but they were con- nected by a network of crossroads (now mostly abandoned, while the main lines are still almost all in use) leading to the very numerous villas with which the Campagna was strewn (even in districts which till recently were devastated by malaria), and which seem in large measure to belong to this period. Some of these are of enormous extent, e.g. the villa of the Quintilii on the Via Appia, that known as Setta Bassi on the Via Latina, and that of Hadrian near Tibur, the largest of all. When the land tax was introduced into Italy in 292, the first region of Augustus obtained the name of provincia Campania. Later on the name Latium entirely disappeared, and the name Campania extended as far as Veii and the Via Aurelia, whence the medieval and modern name Campagna di Roma. The donation made by Constantine to various churches of Rome of numerous estates belonging to the patrimonium Caesaris in the neighbourhood of Rome was of great historical importance, as being the origin of the territorial dominion of the papacy. His example was followed by others, so that the church property in the Campagna soon became considerable; and, owing to the immunities and privileges which it enjoyed, a certain revival of prosperity ensued. The invasions of the barbarian hordes did great harm, but the formation of centres (domuscultae) in the 8th and 9th centuries was a fact of great importance: the inhabitants, indeed, formed the medieval militia of the papacy. Smaller centres (the colonia — often formed in the remains of an ancient villa — the curtis or curia, the castrum, the casale) grew up later. We may note that, owing to the growth of the temporal power of the popes, there was never a dux Romae dependent on the exarchate of Ravenna, similar to those estab- lished by Narses in the other districts of Italy. The papal influence was also retained by means of the suburban bishoprics, which took their rise as early as the 4th and 5lh centuries. The rise of the democratic commune of i/nrfer Rome ' about 1143 and of the various trade corpora- commuae. tions which we already find in the early nth century led to struggles with the papacy; the commune of Rome made various attempts to exercise supremacy in the Campagna and levied various taxes from the izth century until the i sth. The commune also tried to restrict the power of the barons, who, in the i3th century especially, though we find them feudatories of the holy see from the loth century onwards, threatened to become masters of the whole territory, which is still dotted over with the baronial castles and lofty solitary towers of the rival families of Rome — Orsini, Colonna, Savelli, Conti, Caetani — who ruthlessly destroyed the remains of earlier edifices to obtain materials for their own, and whose castles, often placed upon the high roads, thus following a strategic line to a stronghold in the country, did not contribute to the undisturbed security of traffic upon them, but rather led to their abandonment. On a list of the inhabited centres of the Cam- pagna of the I4th century with the amount of salt (which was 1 The commune of Rome as such seems to have been in existence in 999 at least. tions. a monopoly of the commune of Rome) consumed by each, Tomassetti bases an estimate of the population: this was about equal to that of our own times, but differently distributed, some of the smaller centres having disappeared at the expense of the towns. Several of the popes, as Sixtus IV. and Julius III., made unsuccessful attempts to improve the condition of the Campagna, the former making a serious attempt to revive agriculture as against pasture, while in the latter part of the 1 6th century a line of watch-towers was erected along the coast. In the Renaissance, it is true, falls the erection of many fine villas in the neighbourhood of Rome — not only in the hills round the Campagna, but even in certain places in the lower ground, e.g. those of Julius II. at La Magliana and of Cardinal Trivulzio at Salone, — and these continued to be frequented until the end of the i8th century, when the French P.evolution dealt a fatal blow to the prosperity of the Roman nobility. The 1 7th and i8th centuries, however, mark the worst period of depopulation in the more malarious parts of the Campagna, which seems to have begun in the isth century, though we hear of malaria throughout the middle ages. The most healthy portions of the territory are in the north and east, embracing the slopes of the Apennines which are watered by the Teverone and Sacco; and the most pestilential is the stretch between the Monti Lepini and the sea. The Pontine Marshes (q.v.) included in the latter division, were drained, according to the plan of Bolognini, by Pius VI., who restored the ancient Via Appia to traffic; but though they have returned to pasture and cultivation, their insalubrity is still notorious. The soil in many parts is very fertile and springs are plentiful and abundant: the water is in some cases sulphureous or ferruginous. In summer, indeed, the vast expanse is little better than an arid steppe; but in the winter it furnishes abundant pasture to flocks of sheep from the Apennines and herds of silver-grey oxen and shaggy black horses, and sheep passing in the summer to the mountain pastures. A certain amount of horse-breeding is done, and the government has, as elsewhere in Italy, a certain number of stallions. Efforts have been made since 1882 to cure the waterlogged condition of the marshy grounds. The methods employed have been three — (i.) the cutting of drainage channels and clearing the marshes by pumping, the method principally employed; (ii.) the system of warping, i.e. directing a river so that it may deposit its sedimentary matter in the lower-lying parts, thus levelling them up and consolidating them, and then leading the water away again by drainage; (iii.) the planting of firs and eucalyptus trees, e.g. at Tre Fontane and elsewhere. These efforts have not been without success, though it cannot be affirmed that the malarial Campagna is anything like healthy yet. The regulation of the rivers, more especially of the Tiber, is probably the most efficient method for coping with the problem. Since 1884 the Italian Government have been systematically enclosing, pumping dry, and generally draining the marshes of the Agro Romano, that is, the tracts around Ostia; the Isola Sacra, at the mouth of the Tiber; and Maccarese. Of the whole of the Campagna less than one-tenth comes annually under the plough. In its pictur- esque desolation, contrasting so strongly with its prosperity in Roman times, immediately surrounding a city of over half a million inhabitants, and with lofty mountains in view from all parts of it, it is one of the most interesting districts in the world, and has a peculiar and indefinable charm. The modern province of Rome (forming the compartimento of Lazio) includes also considerable mountain districts, extending as far N.W. as the Lake of Bolsena, and being divided on the N.E. from Umbria by the Tiber, while on the E. it includes a considerable part of the Sabine mountains and Apennines. The ancient district of the Hernicans, of which Alatri is regarded as the centre, is known as the Ciociaria, from a kind of sandals (cioce) worn by the peasants. On the S.E. too a considerable proportion of the group of the Lepini belongs to the province. The land is for the most part let by the proprietors to mercanti di Campagna, who employ a subordinate class of factors (JaUori) to manage their affairs on the spot. LATONA 273 Produce The recent discovery that the malaria which has hitherto rendered parts of the Campagna almost uninhabitable during . H the summer is propagated by the mosquito (Anopheles claviger) marks a new epoch; the most diverse theories as to its origin had hitherto been propounded, but it is now possible to combat it on a definite plan, by draining the marshes, protecting the houses by fine mosquito-proof wire netting (for Anopheles is not active by day), improving the water supply, &c., while for those who have fever, quinine (now sold cheaply by the state) is a great specific. A great improvement is already apparent; and a law carried in 1903 for the Bonifica dell' Agro Romano compels the proprietors within a radius of some 6 m. of Rome to cultivate their lands in a more productive way than has often hitherto been the case, exemption from taxes for ten years and loans at 25% from the government being granted to those who carry on improvements, and those who refuse being expropriated compulsorily. The government further resolved to open roads and schools and provide twelve additional doctors. Much is done in contending against malaria by the Italian Red Cross Society. In 1900 31% of the inhabitants of the Agro Romano had been fever-stricken; since then the figure has rapidly decreased (5-1% in 1905). The wheat crop in 1906 in the Agro Romano was 8,108,500 bushels, the Indian corn 3,314,000 bushels, the wine 12,100,000 gaU°ns and t^e °live oil 1,980,000 gallons, — these last two from the hill districts. The wine production had declined by one-half from the previous year, exportation having fallen off in the whole country. 1907, however, was a year of great overproduction all over Italy. The wine of the Alban hills is famous in modern as in ancient times, but will not as a rule bear exportation. • The forests of the Alban hills and near the coast produce much charcoal and light timber, while the Sabine and Volscian hills have been largely deforested and are now bare limestone rocks. Much of the labour in the winter and spring is furnished by peasants who come down from the Volscian and Hernican mountains, and from Abruzzi, and occupy sometimes caves, but more often the straw or wicker huts which are so characteristic a feature of the Campagna. The fixed population of the Campagna in the narrower sense (as distinct from the hills) is less than 1000. Emigration to America, especially from the Volscian and Hernican towns, is now considerable. 2. LATIUM NOVUM or ADJECTUM, as it is termed by Pliny, com- prised the territories occupied in earlier times by the Volsci and Hernici. It was for the most part a rugged and mountainous country, extending at the back of Latium proper, from the frontier of the Sabines to the sea-coast between Terracina and Sinuessa. But it was not separated from the adjacent territories by any natural frontier or physical boundaries, and it is only by the enumeration of the towns in Pliny according to the division of Italy by Augustus that we can determine its limits. It included the Hernican cities of Anagnia, Ferentinum, Alatrium and Verulae — a group of mountain strongholds on the north side of the valley of the Trerus (Sacco) ; together with the Volscian cities on the south of the same valley, and in that of the Liris, the whole of which, with the exception of its extreme upper end, was included in the Volscian territory. Here were situated Signia, Frusino, Fabrateria, Fregellae, Sora, Arpinum, Atina, Aquinum, Casinum and Interamna; Anxur (Terracina) was the only seaport that properly belonged to the Volscians, the coast from thence to the mouth of the Liris being included in the territory of the Aurunci, or Ausones as they were termed by Greek writers, who possessed the maritime towns of Fundi. Formiae, Caieta and Min- turnae, together with Suessa in the interior, which had replaced their more ancient capital of Aurunca. Sinuessa, on the sea-coast between the Liris (Garigliano) and the Vulturnus, at the foot of the Monte Massico, was the last town in Latium according to the official use of the term and was sometimes assigned to Campania, while Suessa was more assigned to Latium. On the other hand, as Nissen points out (Italische Landeskunde, ii. 554), the Pons Campanus, by which the Via Appia crossed the Savo some 9 m. S.E. of Sinuessa, indicates by its name the position of the old Campanian frontier. In the interior the boundary fell between Casinum and Teanum Sidicinum, at about the tooth milestone of the Via Latina — a fact which led later to the jurisdiction of the Roman courts being extended on every side to the looth mile from the city, and to this being the limit beyond which banishment from Rome was considered to begin. Though the Apennines comprised within the boundaries of Latium do not rise to a height approaching that of the loftiest sum- mits of the central range, they attain to a considerable altitude, and form steep and rugged mountain masses from 4000 to 5000 ft. high. They are traversed by three principal valleys: (l) that of the Anio, now called Teverone, which descends from above Subiaco to Tivoli, where it enters the plain of the Campagna; (2) that of the Trerus (Sacco), which has its source below Palestrina (Praeneste), and flows through a comparatively broad valley that separates the main mass of the Apennines from the Volscian mountains or Monti Lepini, till it joins the Liris below Ceprano; (3) that of the Liris (Garigliano), which enters the confines of New Latium about 20 m. from its source, flows past the town of Sora, and has a very tortuous course from thence to the sea at Minturnae; its lower valley is for the most part of considerable width, and forms a fertile tract of considerable extent, bordered on both sides by hills covered with vines, olives and fruit trees, and thickly studded with towns and villages. It may be observed that, long after the Latins had ceased to exist as a separate people we meet in Roman writers with the phrase of nomen Latinum, used not in an ethnical but a purely political sense, to designate the inhabitants of all those cities on which the Romans had conferred " Latin rights '' (jus Latinum) — an inferior form of the Roman franchise, which had been granted in the first instance to certain cities of the Latins, when they became subjects of Rome, and was afterwards bestowed upon many other cities of Italy, especially the so-called Latin colonies. At a later period the same privileges were extended to places in other countries also — as for instance to most of the cities in Sicily and Spain. All persons en- joying these rights were termed in legal phraseology Latini or Latinae conditionis . AUTHORITIES. — For the topography of Latium, and the local history of its more important cities, the reader may consult Sir W. Gell s Topography of Rome and its Vicinity (2nd ed., I vol., London, 1846); A. Nibby, Analisi storico-topografico-antiquaria della carta dei dintorni di Roma (3 vols., 2nd ed., 1848); J. Westphal, Die romische Kampagne (Berlin, 1829); A. Bormann, Alt-lateinische Chorographie una Stadte-Geschichte (Halle, 1852); M. Zoeller, Latium und Rom (Leipzig, 1878); R. Burn's Rome and the Campagna (London, 1871); H. Dessau, Corp. Inscr. Lat. v. xiv. (Berlin, 1887) (Latium); Th. Mommsen, Corp. Inscr. Lat. vol. x. pp. 498-675 (Berlin, 1883); G. Tomassetti, Della Campagna Romana net medio evo," published in the Archivio della Societa Romana di Storia Patria (Rome, 1874- 1907), and separately (a work dealing with the medieval history and topography of the Campagna in great detail, containing also valuable notices of the classical period) ; by the same author, La Campagna romana (Rome, 1910 foil.) ; R. A. Lanciani, " I Comentari di Frontinp intorno agli acquedotti," Memorie dei Lincei (Rome, 1880), serie iii. vol. v. p. 215 sqq. (and separately), also many articles, and Wander- ings in the Roman Campagna (London, 1909) ; E. Abbate, Guida della provincia di Roma (Rome, 1894, 2 vols.); H. Nissen, Italische Landeskunde, ii. (Berlin, 1902), 557 sqq.; T. Ashby, " The Classical Topography of the Roman Campagna," in Papers of the British School at Rome, i. iii.-v. (London, 1902 foil.). (T. As.) LATONA (Lat. form of Gr. ATJTCO, Leto), daughter of Coeus and Phoebe, mother of Apollo and Artemis. The chief seats of her legend are Delos and Delphi, and the generally accepted tradition is a union of the legends t>f these two places. Leto, pregnant by Zeus, seeks for a place of refuge to be delivered. After long wandering she reaches the barren isle of Delos, which, according to Pindar (Frag. 87, 88), was a wandering rock borne about by the waves till it was fixed to the bottom of the sea for the birth of Apollo and Artemis. In the oldest forms of the legend Hera is not mentioned; but afterwards the wanderings of Leto are ascribed to the jealousy of that goddess, enraged at her amour with Zeus. The foundation of Delphi follows immediately on the birth of the god; and. on the sacred way between Tempe and Delphi the giant Tityus offers violence to Leto, and is immediately slain by the arrows of Apollo and Artemis (Odyssey, xi. 576-581; Apollodorus i. 4) . Such are the main facts of the Leto legend in its common literary form, which is due especially to the two Homeric hymns to Apollo. But Leto is a real goddess, not a mere mythological figure. The honour paid to her in Delphi and Delos might be explained as part of the cult of her son Apollo; but temples to her existed in Argos, in Mantineia and in Xanthus in Lycia; her sacred grove was on the coast of Crete. In Lycia graves are frequently placed under her protection, and she is also known as a goddess of fertility and as Kouparpofos. It is to be observed that she appears far more conspicuously in the Apolline myths than in those which grew round the great centres of Artemis worship, the reason being that the idea of Apollo and Artemis as twins is one of later growth on Greek soil. Lycia, one of the chief seats of the cult of Apollo, where most frequent traces are found of the worship of Leto as the great goddess, was probably the earlier home of her religion. 274 LATOUCHE— LA TOUR D'AUVERGNE In Greek art Leto usually appears carrying her children in her arms, pursued by the dragon sent by the jealous Hera, which is slain by the infant Apollo; in vase paintings especially she is often repre- sented with Apollo and Artemis. The statue of Leto in the Letoon at Argos was the work of Praxiteles. LATOUCHE, HYACINTHE JOSEPH ALEXANDRE THA- BAUD DE [known as HENRI] (1785-1851), French poet and novelist, was born at La Chatre (Indre) on the 2nd of February 1785. Among his works may be distinguished his comedies: Projets de sagesse (1811), and, in collaboration with fimile Deschamps, Selmours de Florian (1818), which ran for a hundred nights; also La Reine d'Espagne (1831), which proved too indecent for the public taste; a novel, Fragoletta: Naples et Paris en J/pp (1829), which attained a success of notoriety; La Vallee aux coups (1833), a volume of prose essays and verse; and two volumes of poems, Les Adieux (1843) and Les Agrestes (1844). Latouche's chief claim to remembrance is that he revealed to the world the genius of Andre Chenier, then only known to a limited few. The remains of the poet's work had passed from the hands of Daunou to Latouche, who had sufficient critical insight instantly to recognize their value. In editing the first selection of Chenier's poems (1819) he made some trifling emendations, but did not, as Beranger afterwards asserted, make radical and unnecessary changes. Latouche was guilty of more than one literary fraud. He caused a licentious story of his own to be attributed to the duchesse de Duras, the irreproachable author of Ourika. He made many enemies by malicious attacks on his contemporaries. The Conslitulionnel was suppressed in 1817 by the government for an obscure political allusion in an article by Latouche. He then undertook the management of the Mercure du XIX' slide, and began a bitter warfare against the monarchy. After 1830 he edited the Figaro, and spared neither the liberal politicians nor the romanticists who triumphed under the monarchy of July. In his turn he was violently attacked by Gustave Planche in the Revue des deux mondes for November 1831. But it must be remembered to the credit of Latouche that he did much to encourage George Sand at the beginning of her career. The last twenty years of his life were spent in retirement at Aulnay, where he died on the gth of March 1851. Sainte-Beuve, in the Causeries du lundi, vol. 3, gives a not too sympathetic portrait of Latouche. See also George Sand in the Siecle for the i8th, igth and 2Oth of July 1851. LA TOUR, MAURICE QUENTIN DE (1704-1788), French pastellist, was born at St Quentin on the sth of September 1704. After leaving Picardy for Paris in 1727 he entered the studio of Spoede — an upright man, but a poor master, rector of the academy of St Luke, who still continued, in the teeth of the Royal Academy, the traditions of the old gild of the master painters of Paris. This possibly contributed to the adoption by La Tour of a line of work foreign to that imposed by an academical training; for pastels, though occasionally used, were not a principal and distinct branch of work until 1720, when Rosalba Camera brought them into fashion with the Parisian world. In 1737 La Tour exhibited the first of that splendid series of a hundred and fifty portraits which formed the glory of the Salon for the succeeding thirty-seven years. In 1 746 he was received into the academy; and in 1751, the following year to that in which he received the title of painter to the king, he was promoted by that body to the grade of councillor. His work had the rare merit of satisfying at once both the taste of his fashionable models and the judgment of his brother artists. His art, consummate of its kind, achieved the task of nattering his sitters, whilst hiding that flattery behind the just and striking likeness which, says Pierre Jean Mariette, he haidly ever missed. His portraits of Rousseau, of Voltaire, of Louis XV., of his queen, of the dauphin and dauphiness, are at once documents and masterpieces unsurpassed except by his life-size portrait of Madame de Pompadour, which, exhibited at the Salon of 1755, became the chief ornament of the cabinet of pastels in the Louvre. The museum of St Quentin also possesses a magnificent collection of works which at his death were in his own hands. La Tour retired to St Quentin at the age of 80, and there he died on the i8th of February 1788. The riches amassed during his long life were freely bestowed by him in great part before his death; he founded prizes at the school of fine arts in Paris and for the town of Amiens, and endowed St Quentin with a great number of useful and charitable institutions. He never married, but lived on terms of warm affection with his brother (who survived him, and left to the town the drawings now in the museum); and his relations to Mile Marie Fel (1713-1789), the celebrated singer, were distinguished by a strength and depth of feeling not common to the loves of the i8th century. See, in addition to the general works on French art, C. Desmeze, M. Q. de La Tour, peintre du rot (1854) ; Champfleury, Les Peintres de Laon et de St Quentin (1855); and " La Tour " in the Collection des artistes celebres (1886); E. and J. de Goncourt, La Tour (1867); Guiffrey and M. Tourneux, Correspondance inedite de M. G. de la Tour (1885); Tourneux, La Tour, biographic critique (1904); and Patoux, L'CEuvre de M. Quentin de la Tour au musee de St Quentin (St Quentin, 1882). LA TOUR D'AUVERGNE, THEOPHILE MALO (1743-1800), French soldier, was born at Carhaix in Brittany on the 23rd of December 1743, the son of an advocate named Corret. His desire for a military career being strongly marked, he was en- abled, by the not uncommon device of producing a certificate of nobility signed by his friends, first to be nominally enlisted in the Maison du Roi, and soon afterwards to receive a commission in the line, under the name of Corret de Kerbaufret. Four years after joining, in 1771, he assumed by leave of the duke of Bouillon the surname of La Tour d'Auvergne, being in fact descended from an illegitimate half-brother of the great Turenne. Many years of routine service with his regiment were broken only by his participation as a volunteer in the due de Crillon's Franco-Spanish expedition to Minorca in 1781. This led to an offer of promotion into the Spanish army, but he refused to change his allegiance. In 1748 he was promoted captain, and in 1791 he received the cross of St Louis. In the early part of the Revolution his patriotism was still more conspicuously displayed in his resolute opposition to the proposals of many of his brother officers in the Angoumois regiment to emigrate rather than to swear to the constitution. In 1792 his lifelong interest in numismatics and questions of language was shown by a work which he published on the Bretons. At this time he was serving under Montesquiou in the Alps, and although there was only outpost fighting he distinguished himself by his courage and audacity, qualities which were displayed in more serious fighting in the Pyrenees the next year. He declined well-earned pro- motion to colonel, and, being broken in health and compelled, owing to the loss of his teeth, to live on milk, he left the army in 1 7^5. On his return by sea to Brittany he was captured by the English and held prisoner for two years. When released, he settled at Passy and published Origines gauloiscs, but in 1797, on the appeal of an old friend whose son had been taken as a conscript, he volunteered as the youth's substitute, and served on the Rhine (1797) and in Switzerland (1798-1799) as a captain. In recognition of his singular bravery and modesty Carnot obtained a decree from the first consul naming LaTour d'Auvergne " first grenadier of France " (27th of April 1800). This led him to volunteer again, and he was killed in action at Oberhausen, near Donauworth, on the 27th of June 1800. La Tour d'Auvergne's almost legendary courage had captivated the imagination of the French soldier, and his memory was not suffered to die. It was customary for the French troops and their allies of the Rhine Confederation under Napoleon to march at attention when passing his burial-place on the battlefield. His heart was long carried by the grenadier company of his regiment, the 46th; after being in the possession of Garibaldi for many years, it was finally deposited in the keeping of the city of Paris in 1883. But the most striking tribute to his memory is paid to-day as it was by order of the first consul in 1800. " His name is to be kept on the pay list and roll of his company. It will be called at all parades and a non-commissioned officer will reply, Mori au champ d'honneur." This custom, with little variation, is still observed in the 46th regiment on all occasions when the colour is taken on parade. L ATREILLE— L AT U K A 275 LATREILLE, PIERRE ANDRE (1762-1833), French natur- alist, was born in humble circumstances at Brives-la-Gaillarde (Correze), on the 2oth of November 1762. In 1778 he entered the college Lemoine at Paris, and on his admission to priestly orders in 1786 he retired to Brives, where he devoted all the leisure which the discharge of his professional duties allowed to the study of entomology. In 1788 he returned to Paris and found means of making himself known to the leading naturalists there. His " Memoire sur les mutilles decouvertes en France," contributed to the Proceedings of the Society of Natural History in Paris, procured for him admission to that body. At the Re- volution he was compelled to quit Paris, and as a priest of conservative sympathies suffered considerable hardship, being imprisoned for some time at Bordeaux. His Precis des caractcres generiques des insectes, disposes dans un ordre naturel, appeared at Brives in 1796. In 1798 he became a corresponding member of the Institute, and at the same time was entrusted with the task of arranging the entomological collection at the recently organized Museum d'Histoire Naturelle (Jardin des Plantes); in 1814 he succeeded G. A. Olivier as member of the Academic des Sciences, and in 1821 he was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour. For some time he acted as professor of zoology in the veterinary school at Alfort near Paris, and in 1830, when the chair of zoology of invertebrates at the Museum was divided after the death of Lamarck, Latreille was appointed professor of zoology of crustaceans, arachnids and insects, the chair of molluscs, worms and zoophytes being assigned to H. M. D. de Blainville. " On me donne du pain quand je n'ai plus de dents," said Latreille, who was then in his sixty-eighth year. He died in Paris on the 6th of February 1833. In addition to the works already mentioned, the numerous works of Latreille include: Hisloire naturelle generate el particuliere des crustaces el insectes (14 vols., 1802-1805), forming part of C. N. S. Sonnini's edition of Buffon; Genera crustaceorum el inseclorum, secundum ordinem naturalem in familias disposita (4 vols., 1806— 1807) ; Considerations generates sur I 'ordre naturel des animaux composant les classes des crustaces, des arachnides, el des insectes ( 1 8 1 o) ; Families naturelles du regne animal, exposees succinctement et dans un ordre analytique (1825); Cours d' entomologie (of which only the first volume appeared, 1831); the whole of the section "Crustaces, Arachnides, Insectes," in G. Cuvier's Regne animal; besides many papers in the Annales du Museum, the Encyclopedic methodique, the Dictionnaire classique d'histoire naturelle and elsewhere. LA TR^MOILLE, an old French family which derives its name from a village (the modern La Trimouille) in the department of Vienne. The family has been known since the middle of the nth century, and since the I4th century its members have been conspicuous in French history. Guy, sire de la Tremoille, standard-bearer of France, was taken prisoner at the battle of Nicopolis (1396), and Georges, the favourite of King Charles VII., was captured at Agincourt (141 5). Louis (2), called the chevalier sans reproche, defeated and captured the duke of Orleans at the battle of Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier (1488), distinguished himself in the wars in Italy, and was killed at Pavia (1525). In 1521 Francois (2) acquired a claim on the kingdom of Naples by his marriage with Anne de Laval, daughter of Charlotte of Aragon. Louis (3) became duke of Thouars in 1563, and his son Claude turned Protestant, was created a peer of France in 1595, and married a daughter of William the Silent in 1 598. To this family belonged the lines of the counts of Joigny, the marquises of Royan and counts of Olonne, and the marquises and dukes of Noirmoutier. LATROBE, CHARLES JOSEPH (1801-1875), Australian governor, was born in London on the 2oth of March 1801. The Latrobes were of Huguenot extraction, and belonged to the Moravian community, of which the father and grandfather of C. J. Latrobe were ministers. His father, Christian Ignatius Latrobe (1758-1836), a musician of some note, did good service in the direction of popularizing classical music in England by his Selection of Sacred Music from the Works of the most Eminent Composers of Germany and Italy (6 vols., 1806-1825). C. J. Latrobe was an excellent mountaineer, and made some important ascents in Switzerland in 1824-1826. In 1832 he went to America with Count Albert Pourtales, and in 1834 crossed the prairies from New Orleans to Mexico with Washington Irving. In 1837 he was invested with a government commission in the West Indies, and two years later was made superintendent of the Port Philip district of New South Wales. When Port Philip was erected into a separate colony as Victoria in 1851, Latrobe became lieutenant-governor. The discovery of gold in that year attracted enormous numbers of immigrants annually. Latrobe discharged the difficult duties of government at this critical period with tact and success. He retired in 1854, became C. B. in 1858 and died in London on the 2nd of December 1875. Beside some volumes of travel he published a volume of poems, The Solace of Song (1837). See Brief Notices of the Latrobe Family (1864), a privately printed translation of an article revised by members of the family in the Moravian Bruderbote (November 1864). LATTEN (from O. Fr. laton, mod. Fr. laiton, possibly connected with Span, /a/a, Ital. /a/to, a lath), a mixed metal like brass, composed of copper and zinc, generally made in thin sheets, and used especially for monumental brasses and effigies. A fine example is in the screen of Henry VII. 's tomb in Westminster Abbey. There are three forms of latten, " black latten," un- polished and rolled, " shaven latten," of extreme thinness, and " roll latten," of the thickness either of black or shaven latten, but with both sides polished. LATTICE LEAF PLANT, in botany, the common name for Ouvirandra fenestralis, an aquatic monocotyledonous plant belonging to the small natural order Aponogetonaceae and a native of Madagascar. It has a singular appearance from the structure of the leaves, which are oblong in shape, from 6 to 1 8 in. long and from 2 to 4 in. broad; they spread horizontally beneath the surface of the water, and are reduced to little more than a lattice-like network of veins. The tuberculate roots are edible. The plant is grown in cultivation as a stove-aquatic. LATUDE, JEAN HENRI, often called DANRY or MASERS DE LATUDE (1725-1805), prisoner of the Bastille, was born at Montagnac in Gascony on the 23rd of March 1725. He received a military education and went to Paris in 1748 to study mathe- matics. He led a dissipated life and endeavoured to curry favour with the marquise de Pompadour by secretly sending her a box of poison and then informing her of the supposed plot against her life. The ruse was discovered, and Mme de Pompadour, not appreciating the humour of the situation, had Latude put in the Bastille on the ist of May 1749. .He was later transferred to Vincennes, whence he escaped in 1750. Retaken and reim- prisoned in the Bastille, he made a second brief escape in 1756. He was transferred to Vincennes in 1764, and the next year made a third escape and was a third time recaptured. He was put in a madhouse by Malesherbes in 1775, and discharged in 1777 on condition that he should retire to his native town. He remained in Paris and was again imprisoned. A certain Mme Legros became interested in him through chance reading of one of his memoirs, and, by a vigorous agitation in his behalf, secured his definite release in 1784. He exploited his long captivity with considerable ability, posing as a brave officer, a son of the marquis de la Tude, and a victim of Pompadour's intrigues. He was extolled and pensioned during the Revolution, and in 1793 the convention compelled the heirs of Mme de Pompadour to pay him 60,000 francs damages. He died in obscurity at Paris on the ist of January 1805. The principal work of Latude is the account of his imprisonment, written in collaboration with an advocate named Thiery, and en- titled Le Despotisme devoile, ou Memoires de Henri Masers de la Tude, detenu pendant trente-cinq ans dans les diverses prisons d'etat (Amster- dam, 1787, ed. Paris, 1889). An Eng. trans, of a portion was published in 1787. The work is full of lies and misrepresentations, but had great vogue at the time of the French Revolution. Latude also wrote essays on all sorts of subjects. See J. F. Barriere, Memoires de Linguet et de Latude (1884); G. Bertin, Notice in edition of the Memoires (1889); F. Funck- Brentano, " Latude," in the Revue des deux mondes (ist October 1889). LATUKA, a tribe of negroid stock inhabiting the mountainous country E. of Gondokoro on the upper Nile. They have received a tinge of Hamitic blood from the Galla people, and have high 276 LAUBAN— LAUD foreheads, large eyes, straight noses and thick but not pouting lips. They are believed by Sir H. H. Johnston to be the original and purest type of the great Masai people, and are assimilated to the Nilotic negro races in customs. Like their neighbours the Bari and Shilluk tribes, they despise clothing, though the important chiefs have adopted Arab attire. Their country is fertile, and they cultivate tobacco, durra and other crops. Their villages are numerous, and some are of considerable size. Tar- angole, for instance, on the Khor Kohs, has upwards of three thousand huts, and sheds for many thousands of cattle. The Latuka are industrious and especially noted for skill as smiths. Emin Pasha stated that the lion was so little dreaded by the Latuka that on one being caught in a leopard trap they hastily set it free. LAUBAN, a town of Germany in the Prussian province of Silesia, is situated in a picturesque valley, at the junction of the lines of railway from Gorlitz and Sorau, 16 m. E. of the former. Pop. (1905) 14,624. Lauban has a Roman Catholic and two Evan- gelical churches, a town hall, dating from 1541, a conventual house of the order of St Magdalene, dating from the i4th century, a municipal library and museum, two hospitals, an orphanage and several schools. Its industrial establishments comprise tobacco, yarn, thread, linen and woollen cloth manufactories, bleaching and dyeing works, breweries and oil and flour mills. Lauban was founded in the loth and fortified in the i3th century; in 1427 and 1431 it was devastated by the Hussites, and in 1640 by the Swedes. In 1761 it was the headquarters of Frederick the Great, and in 1815 it was the last Saxon town that made its submission to Prussia. See Berkel, Geschichte der Stadl Lauban (Lauban, 1896). LAUBE, HEINRICH (1806-1884), German dramatist, novelist and theatre-director, was born at Sprottau in Silesia on the i8th of September 1806. He studied theology at Halle and Breslau (1826-1829), and settled in Leipzig in 1832. Here he at once came into prominence with his political essays, collected under the title Das neue J ahrhundert, in two parts — Polen (1833) and Polilische Brief e (1833) — and with the novel Das junge Europa, in three parts — Die Poeten, Die Krieger, Die Burger — (1833-1837). These writings, in which, after the fashion of Heinrich Heine and Ludwig Borne, he severely criticized the political regime in Germany, together with the part he played in the literary movement known as Das junge Deutschland, led to his being subjected to police surveillance and his works con- fiscated. On his return, in 1834, from a journey to Italy, under- taken in the company of Karl Gutzkow, Laube was expelled from Saxony and imprisoned for nine months in Berlin. In 1836 he married the widow of Professor Hanel of Leipzig; almost immediately afterwards he suffered a year's imprison- ment for his revolutionary sympathies. In 1839 he again settled in Leipzig and began a literary activity as a playwright. Chief among his earlier productions are the tragedies Monaldeschi (1845) and Struensee (1847); the comedies Rokoko, oder die alien H err en (1846); Gottsched und Getter I (1847); and Die Karls- schuler (1847), of which the youthful Schiller is the hero. In 1848 Laube was elected to the national assembly at Frankfort- on-Main for the district of Elbogen, but resigned in the spring of 1849, when he was appointed artistic director of the Hofburg theatre in Vienna. This office he held until 1867, and in this period fall his finest dramatic productions, notably the tragedies Graf Essex (1856) and Montr ose (1859), and his historical romance Der deutsche Krieg (1865-1866, 9 vols.), which graphically pictures a period in the Thirty Years' War. In 1869 he became director of the Leipzig Stadttheater, but returned to Vienna in 1870, where in 1872 he was placed at the head of the new Stadttheater; with the exception of a short interval he managed this theatre with brilliant success until his retirement from public life in 1880. He has left a valuable record of his work in Vienna and Leipzig in the three volumes Das Burgthealer (1868), Das norddeutsche Theater (1872) and Das Wiener Stadt- theater (1875). His pen was still active after his retirement, and in the five years preceding his death, which took place at Vienna on the ist of August 1884, he wrote the romances and novels Die Bohminger (1880), Louison (1881), Der Schatten- Wilhelm (1883), and published an interesting volume of remi- niscences, Erinnerungen, 1841-1881 (1882). Laube's dramas are not remarkable for originality or for poetical beauty; their real and great merit lies in their stage-craft. As a theatre- manager he has had no equal in Germany, and his services in this capacity have assured him a more lasting name in German literary history than his writings. His Gesammelte Schriften (excluding his dramas) were published in 16 vols. (1875-1882); his Dramatische Werke in 13 vols. (1845-1875); a popular edition of the latter in 12 vols. (1880-1892). An edition of Laube's Ausgewdhlte Werke in 10 vols. appeared in 1906 with an introduction by H. H. Houben. See also J. Proelss, Das junge DeutscUand (1892); and H. Bulthaupt, Dramaturgic des Schau- spiels (vol. iii., 6th ed., 1901). L'AUBESPINE, a French family which sprang from Claude de 1'Aubespine, a lawyer of Orleans and bailiff of the abbey of St Euverte in the beginning of the i6th century, and rapidly acquired distinction in offices connected with the law. Sebastien de 1'Aubespine (d. 1582), abbot of Bassefontaine, bishop of Vannes and afterwards of Limoges, fulfilled important diplo- matic missions in Germany, Hungary, England, the Low Coun- tries and Switzerland under Francis I. and his successors. Claude (c. 1500-1567), baron of Chateauneuf-sur-Cher, Sebastien's brother, was a secretary of finance; he had charge of negotiations with England in 1555 and 1559, and was several times commis- sioned to treat with the Huguenots in the king's name. His son Guillaume was a councillor of state and ambassador to England. Charles de 1'Aubespine (1580-1653) was ambassador to Germany, the Low Countries, Venice and England, besides twice holding the office of keeper of the seals of France, from 1630 to 1633, and from 1650 to 1651. The family fell into poor circumstances and became extinct in the ig'th century. (M.P.*) LAUCHSTADT, a town of Germany in the province of Prussian Saxony, on the Laucha, 6 m. N.W. of Merseburg by the railway to Schafstadt. Pop. (1905) 2034. It contains an Evangelical church, a theatre, a hydropathic establishment and several educa- tional institutions, among which is an agricultural school affiliated to the university of Halle. Its industries include malting, vinegar-making and brewing. Lauchstadt was a popular watering-place in the i8th century, the dukes of Saxe-Merseburg often making it their summer residence. From 1789 to 1811 the Weimar court theatrical company gave performances here of the plays of Schiller and Goethe, an attraction which greatly contributed to the well-being of the town. See Maak, Das Goethetheater in Lauchstadt (Lauchstadt, 1905) ; and Nasemann, Bad Lauchstadt (Halle, 1885). LAUD, WILLIAM (1573-1645), English archbishop, only son of William Laud, a clothier, was born at Reading on the 7th of October 1573. He was educated at Reading free school, matricul- ated at St John's college, Oxford, in 1589, gained a scholarship in 1590, a fellowship in 1593, and graduated B.A. in 1594, proceeding to D.D. in 1608. In 1601 he took orders, in 1603 becoming chaplain to Charles Blount, earl of Devonshire. Laud early took up a position of antagonism to the Calvinistic party in the church, and in 1604 was reproved by the authorities for maintaining in his thesis for the degree of B.D. "that- there could be no true church without bishops," and again in 1606 for advocating " popish " opinions in a sermon at St Mary's. If high-church doctrines, however, met with opposition at Oxford, they were relished elsewhere, and Laud obtained rapid advancement. In 1607 he was made vicar of Stanford in North- amptonshire, and in 1608 he became chaplain to Bishop Neile, who in 1610 presented him to the living of Cuxton, when he resigned his fellowship. In 1611, in spite of the influence of Archbishop Abbot and Lord Chancellor Ellesmere, Laud was made president of St John's, and in 1614 obtained in addition the prebend of Buckden, in 1615 the archdeaconry of Hunting- don, and in 1616 the deanery of Gloucester. Here he repaired the fabric and changed the position of the communion table, a matter which aroused great religious controversy, from the centre of the choir to the east end, by a characteristic tactless exercise of power offending the bishop, who henceforth refused to enter the LAUD 277 cathedral. In 1617 he went with the king to Scotland, and aroused hostility by wearing the surplice. In 1621 he became bishop of St David's, when he resigned the presidentship of St John's. In April 1622 Laud, by the king's orders, took part in a con- troversy with Percy, a Jesuit, known as Fisher, the aim of which was to prevent the conversion of the countess of Bucking- ham, the favourite's mother, to Romanism, and his opinions expressed on that occasion show considerable breadth and comprehension. While refusing to acknowledge the Roman Church as the true church, he allowed it to be a true church and a branch of the Catholic body, at the same time emphasizing the perils of knowingly associating with error; and with regard to the English Church he denied that the acceptance of all its articles was necessary. The foundation of belief was the Bible, not any one branch of the Catholic church arrogating to itself infallibility, and when dispute on matters of faith arose, " a lawful and free council, determining according to Scripture, is the best judge on earth." A close and somewhat strange intimacy, considering the difference in the characters and ideals of the two men, between Laud and Buckingham now began, and proved the chief instrument of Laud's advancement. The opportunity came with the old king's death in 1625, for James, with all his pedantry, was too wise and cautious to embark in Laud's rash undertakings, and had already shown a prudent moderation, after setting up bishops in Scotland, in going no further in opposition to the religious feelings of the people. On the ac- cession of Charles, Laud's ambitious activities were allowed free scope. A list of the clergy was immediately prepared by him for the king, in which each name was labelled with an O or a P, distinguishing the Orthodox to be promoted from the Puritans to be suppressed. Laud defended Richard Montague, who had aroused the wrath of the parliament by his pamphlet against Calvinism. His influence soon extended into the domain of the state. He supported the king's prerogative throughout the conflict with the parliament, preached in favour of it before Charles's second parliament in 1626, and assisted in Bucking- ham's defence. In 1626 he was nominated bishop of Bath and Wells, and in July 1628 bishop of London. On the 1 2th of April 1629 he was made chancellor of Oxford University. In the patronage of learning and in the exercise of authority over the morals and education of youth Laud was in his proper sphere, many valuable reforms at Oxford being due to his activity, including the codification of the statutes, the statute by which public examinations were rendered obligatory for uni- versity'degrees, and the ordinance for the election of proctors, the revival of the college system, of moral and religious discipline and order, and of academic dress. He founded or endowed various professorships, including those of Hebrew and Arabic, and the office of public orator, encouraged English and foreign scholars, such as Voss, Selden and Jeremy Taylor, founded the university printing press, procuring in 1633 the royal patent for Oxford, and obtained for the Bodleian library over 1300 MSS., adding a new wing to the building to contain his gifts. His rule at Oxford was marked by a great increase in the number of students. In his own college he erected the new buildings, and was its second founder. Of his chancellorship he himself wrote a history, and the Laudian tradition long remained the great standard of order and good government in the university. Elsewhere he showed his liberality and his zeal for reform. He was an active visitor of Eton and Winchester, and endowed the grammar school at Reading, where he was himself educated. In London he procured funds for the restoration of the dilapidated cathedral of St Paul's. He was far less great as a ruler in the state, showing as a judge a tyrannical spirit both in the star chamber and high- commission court, threatening Felton, the assassin of Bucking- ham, with the rack, and showing special activity in procuring a cruel sentence in the former court against Alexander Leighton in June 1630 and against Henry Sherfield in 1634. His power was greatly increased after his return from Scotland, whither he had accompanied the king, by his promotion to the archbishopric of Canterbury in August 1633. "As for the state indeed," he wrote to Wentworth on this occasion, " I am for Thorough." In 1636 the privy council decided in his favour his claim of jurisdiction as visitor over both universities. Soon afterwards he was placed on the commission of the treasury and on the committee of the privy council for foreign affairs. He was all- powerful both in church and state. He proceeded to impose by authority the religious ceremonies and usages to which he attached so much importance. His vicar-general, Sir Nathaniel Brent, went through the dioceses of his province, noting every dilapidation and every irregularity. The pulpit was no longer to be the chief feature in the church, but the communion table. The Puritan lecturers were suppressed. He showed great hostility to the Puritan sabbath and supported the reissue of the Book of Sports, especially odious to that party, and severely reprimanded Chief Justice Richardson for his interference with the Somerset wakes. He insisted on the use of the prayer-book among the English soldiers in the service of Holland, and forced strict conformity on the church of the merchant adventurers at Delft, endeavouring even to reach the colonists in New England. He tried to compel the Dutch and French refugees in England to unite with the Church of England, advising double taxation and other forms of persecution. In 1634 the justices of the peace were ordered to enter houses to search for persons holding conventicles and bring them before the commissioners. He took pleasure in displaying his power over the great, and in punishing them in the spiritual courts for moral offences. In 1637 he took part in the sentence of the star chamber on Prynne, Bastwick and Burton, and in the same year in the prosecution of Bishop Williams. He urged Strafford in Ireland to carry out the same reforms and severities. He was now to extend his ecclesiastical system to Scotland, where, during his visits the appearance of the churches had greatly displeased him. The new prayer-book and canons were drawn up by the Scottish bishops with his assistance and enforced in the country, and, though not officially connected with the work, he was rightly regarded as its real author. The attack not only on the national religion, but on the national independ- ence of Scotland, proved to be the point at which the system, already strained, broke and collapsed. Laud continued to support Strafford's and the king's arbitrary measures to the last, and spoke in favour of the vigorous continuation of the war on Strafford's side in the memorable meeting of the committee of eight on the 5th of May 1640, and for the employment of any means for carrying it on. " Tried all ways," so ran the notes of his speech, " and refused all ways. By the law of God and man you should have subsistence and lawful to take it." Though at first opposed to the sitting of convocation, after the dissolution of parliament, as an independent body, on account of the opposi- tion it would arouse, he yet caused to be passed in it the new canons which both enforced his ecclesiastical system and assisted the king's divine right, resistance to his power entailing " damna- tion." Laud's infatuated policy could go no further, and the etcetera oath, according to which whole classes of men were to be forced to swear perpetual allegiance to the " government of this church by archbishops, bishops, deans and archdeacons, &c.," was long remembered and derided. His power now quickly abandoned him. He was attacked and reviled as the chief author of the troubles on all sides. In October he was ordered by Charles to suspend the etcetera oath. The same month, when the high commission court was sacked by the mob, he was unable to persuade the star chamber to punish the offenders. On the 1 8th of December he was impeached by the Long Parlia- ment, and on the ist of March imprisoned in the tower. On the 1 2th of May, at Strafford's request, the archbishop appeared at the window of his cell to give him his blessing on his way to execution, and fainted as he passed by. For some time he was left unnoticed in confinement. On the 3ist of May 1643, how- ever, Prynne received orders from the parliament to search his papers, and published a mutilated edition of his diary. The articles of impeachment were sent up to the Lords in October, the trial beginning on the izth of March 1644, but the attempt 278 LAUD— LAUDER, SIR T. D. to bring his conduct under a charge of high treason proving hopeless, an attainder was substituted and sent up to the Lords on the 22nd of November. In these proceedings there was no semblance of respect for law or justice, the Lords yielding (4th of January 1645) to the menaces of the Commons, who arrogated to themselves the right to declare any crimes they pleased high treason. Laud now tendered the king's pardon, which had been granted to him in April 1643. This was rejected, and it was with some difficulty that his petition to be executed with the axe, instead of undergoing the ordinary brutal punishment for high treason, was granted. He suffered death on the loth of January on Tower Hill, asserting his innocence of any offence known to the law, repudiating the charge of " popery," and declaring that he had always lived in the Protestant Church of England. He was buried in the chancel of All Hallows, Barking, whence his body was removed on the 24th of July 1663 to the chapel of St John's College, Oxford. Laud never married. He is described by Fuller as " low of stature, little in bulk, cheerful in countenance (wherein gravity and quickness were all compounded), of a sharp and piercing eye, clear judgment and (abating the influence of age) nrm memory." His personality, on account of the sharp religious antagonisms with which his name is inevitably associated, has rarely been judged with impartiality. His severities were the result of a narrow mind and not of a vindictive spirit, and their number has certainly been exaggerated. His career was distinguished by uprightness, by piety, by a devotion to duty, by courage and consistency. In particular it is clear that the charge of partiality for Rome is unfounded. At the same time the circumstances of the period, the fact that various schemes of union with Rome were abroad, that the missions of Panzani and later of Conn were gathering into the Church of Rome numbers of members of the Church of England who, like Laud himself, were dissatisfied with the Puritan bias which then characterized it, the incident men- tioned by Laud himself of his being twice offered the cardinalate, the movement carried on at the court in favour of Romanism, and the fact that Laud's changes in ritual, however clearly denned and restricted in his own intention, all tended towards Roman practice, fully warranted the suspicions and fears of his contemporaries. Laud's complete neglect of the national senti- ment, in his belief that the exercise of mere power was sufficient to suppress it, is a principal proof of his total lack of true states- manship. The hostility to " innovations in religion," it is generally allowed, was a far stronger incentive to the rebellion against the arbitrary power of the crown, than even the violation of constitutional liberties; and to Laud, therefore, more than to Strafford, to Buckingham, or even perhaps to Charles himself, is especially due the responsibility for the catastrophe. He held fast to the great idea of the catholicity of the English Church, to that conception of it which regards it as a branch of the whole Christian church, and emphasizes its historical continuity and identity from the time of the apostles, but here again his policy was at fault; for his despotic administration not only excited and exaggerated the tendencies to separatism and independentism which finally prevailed, but excluded large bodies of faithful churchmen from communion with their church and from their country. The emigration to Massachusetts in 1629, which continued in a stream till 1640, was not composed of separatists but of episcopalians. Thus what Laud grasped with one hand he destroyed with the other. Passing to the more indirect influence of Laud on his times, we can observe a narrowness of mind and aim which separates him from a man of such high imagination and idealism as Strafford, however closely identified their policies may have been for the moment. The chief feature of Laud's administration is attention to countless details, to the most trivial of which he attached excessive importance, and which are uninspired by any great underlying principle. His view was always essentially material. The one element in the church which to him was all essential was its visibility. This was the source of his intense dislike of the Puritan and Nonconformist conception of the church, which afforded no tangible or definite form. Hence the necessity for outward conformity, and the importance attached to ritual and ceremony, unity in which must be established at all costs, in contrast to dogma and doctrine, in which he showed himself lenient and large-minded, winning over Hales by friendly discussion, and encouraging the publication of Chillingworth's Religion of Protestants. He was not a bigot, but a martinet. The external form was with him the essential feature of religion, preceding the spiritual conception, and in Laud's opinion being the real foundation of it. In his last words on the scaffold he alludes to the dangers and slanders he had endured labouring to keep an uniformity in the external service of God; and Bacon's conception of a spiritual union founded on variety and liberty was one completely beyond his comprehension. This narrow materialism was the true cause of his fatal influence both in church and state. In his own character it produced the somewhat blunted moral sense which led to the few incidents in his career which need moral defence, his per- formance of the marriage ceremony between his first patron Lord Devonshire and the latter's mistress, the divorced wife of Lord Rich, an act completely at variance with his principles; his strange intimacy with Buckingham; his love of power and place. Indistinguishable from his personal ambition was his passion for the aggrandisement of the church and its predominance in the state. He was greatly delighted at the foolish appointment of Bishop Juxon as lord treasurer in 1636. " No churchman had it," he cries exultingly, " since Henry VII. 's time, . . . and now if the church will not hold up themselves under God, I can do no more." Spiritual influence, in Laud's opinion, was not enough for the church. The church as the guide of the nation in duty and godliness, even extending its activity into state affairs as a mediator and a moderator, was not sufficient. Its power must be material and visible, embodied in great places of secular adminis- tration and enthroned in high offices of state. Thus the church, descending into the political arena, became identified with the doctrines of one political party in the state — doctrines odious to the majority of the nation — and at the same time became associated with acts of violence and injustice, losing at once its influence and its reputation. Equally disastrous to the state was the identification of the king's administration with one party in the church, and that with the party in an immense minority not only in the nation but even among the clergy themselves. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — All Laud's works are to be found in the Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology (7 vols.), including his sermons (of no great merit), letters, history of the chancellorship, history of his troubles and trial, and his remarkable diary, the MSS. of the last two works being the property of St John's College. Various modern opinions of Laud's career can be studied in T. Longueville's Life of Laud, by a Romish Recusant (1894) ; Congregational Union Jubilee Lectures, vol. i. (1882); J. B. Mozley's Essay on Laud; Archbishop Laud, by A. C. Benson (1887); Wm. Laud, by W. H. Hutton (1895); Arch- bishop Laud Commemoration, ed. by W. F. Collins (lectures, biblio- graphy, catalogue of exhibits, 1895) ; Hook's Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury; and H. Bell, Archbishop Laud and Priestly Govern- ment (1907). (P. C. Y.) LAUD (Lat. laus), a term meaning praise, now rarely found in this sense except in poetry or hymns. Lauds is the name for the second of the offices of the canonical hours in the Roman breviary, so called from the three laudes or psalms of praise, cxlviii.-cl. which form part of the service (see BREVIARY and HOURS, CANONICAL). LAUDANUM, originally the name given by Paracelsus to a famous medical preparation of his own composed of gold, pearls, &c. (Opera, 1658, i. 492/2), but containing opium as its chief ingredient. The term is now only used for the alcoholic tincture of opium (q.v.). The name was either invented by Paracelsus from Lat. laudare to praise, or was a corrupted form of " ladanum " (Gr. \4i8avov, from Pers. ladan), a resinous juice or gum obtained from various kinds of the Cislus shrub, formerly used medicinally in external applications and as a stomachic, but now only in perfumery and in making fumigating pastilles, &c. LAUDER, SIR THOMAS DICK, Bart. (1784-1848), Scottish author, only son of Sir Andrew Lauder, 6th baronet, was born at Edinburgh in 1784. He succeeded to the baronetcy in 1820. His first contribution to Blackwood's Magazine in 1817, entitled LAUDER, W.— LAUDERDALE, DUKE OF 279 " Simon Roy, Gardener at Dunphail," was by some ascribed to Sir Walter Scott. His paper (1818) on " The Parallel Roads of Glenroy," printed in vol. ix. of the Transactions oj the Royal Society of Edinburgh, first drew attention to the phenomenon in question. In 1825 and 1827 he published two romances, Lochandhn and the Wolj of Badenoch. He became a frequent contributor to Black-wood and also to Tail's Magazine, and in 1 830 he published An A ccount of the Great Floods of A ugust 182(1 in the Province of Moray and adjoining Districts. Subsequent works were Highland Rambles, with Long Tales to Shorten the Way ( 2 vols. 8vo, 1837), Legendary Tales of the Highlands (3 vols. I2mo, 7841), Tour round the Coasts oj Scotland (1842) and Memorial oj the Royal Progress in Scotland (1843). Vol. i. of a Miscellany of Natural History, published in 1833, was also partly prepared by Lauder. He was a Liberal, a,nd took an active interest in politics; he held the office of secretary to the Board of Scottish Manufactures. He died on the 2gth of May 1848. An unfinished series of papers, written for Tail's Magazine shortly before his death, was published under the title Scottish Rivers, with a preface by John Brown, M.D., in 1874. LAUDER, WILLIAM (d. 1771), Scottish literary forger, was born in the latter parj; of the i7th century, and was educated at Edinburgh university, where he graduated in 1695. He applied unsuccessfully for the post of professor of humanity there, in succession to Adam Watt, whose assistant he had been for a time, and also for the keepership of the university library. He was a good scholar, and in 1739, published Poetarum Scotorum Musae Sacrae, a collection of poems by various writers, mostly paraphrased from the Bible. In 1742 Lauder came to London. In 1747 he wrote an article for the Gentleman's Magazine to prove that Milton's Paradise Lost was largely a plagiarism from the Adamus Exul (1601) of Hugo Grotius, the Sarcotis (1654) of J. Masen (Masenius, 1606-1681), and the Poemata Sacra (1633) of Andrew Ramsay (1574-1659). Lauder expounded his case in a series of articles, and in a book (1753) increased the list of plundered authors to nearly a hundred. But his success was short-lived. Several scholars, who had independently studied the alleged sources of Milton's inspiration, proved conclusively that Lauder had not only garbled most of his quotations, but had eve^inserted amongst them extracts from a Latin rendering of Paradise Lost. This led to his exposure, and he was obliged to write a complete confession at the dictation of his former friend Samuel Johnson. After several vain endeavours to clear his character he emigrated to Barbadoes, where he died in 1771. LAUDER, a royal and police burgh of Berwickshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 719. It is situated on the Leader, 29 m. S.E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway's branch line from Fountainhall, of which it is the terminus. The burgh is said to date from the reign of William the Lion (1165-1214); its charter was granted in 1502. In 1482 James III. with his court and army rested here on the way to raise the siege of Berwick. While the nobles were in the church considering grievances, Robert Cochrane, recently created earl of Mar, one of the king's favourites, whose " removal " was at the very moment under discussion, demanded admittance. Archibald Douglas, earl of Angus, opened the door and seized Mar, who was forthwith dragged to Lauder Bridge and there, along with six other obnoxious favourites, hanged in sight of his royal master. It was in connexion with this exploit that Angus acquired the nickname of " Bell-the-cat." The public buildings include a town-hall and a library. The parish church was built in 1673 by the earl of Lauderdale, in exchange for the older edifice, the site of which was required for the enlargement of Thirlestane castle, which, originally a fortress, was then remodelled for a residence. The town is a favourite with anglers. LAUDERDALE, JOHN MAITLAND, DUKE OF (1616-1682), eldest surviving son of John Maitland, 2nd Lord Maitland of Thirlestane (d. 1645), who was created earl of Lauderdale in 1624, and of Lady Isabel Seton, daughter of Alexander, earl of Dunfermline, and great-grandson of Sir Richard Maitland (q.v.), the poet, a member of an ancient family of Berwickshire, was born on the 24th of May 1616, at Lethington. He began public life as a zealous adherent of the Presbyterian cause, took the covenant, sat as an elder in the assembly at St Andrews in July 1643, and was sent to England as a commissioner for the covenant in August, and to attend the Westminster assembly in November. In February 1644 he was a member of the committee of both kingdoms, and on the 2oth of November was one of the com- missioners appointed to treat with the king at Uxbridge, when he made efforts to persuade Charles to agree to the establishment of Presbyterianism. In 1645 he advised Charles to reject the proposals of the Independents, and in 1647 approved of the king's surrender to the Scots. At this period Lauderdale veered round completely to the king's cause, had several inter- views with him. and engaged in various projects for his restora- tion, offering the aid of the Scots, on the condition of Charles's consent to the establishment of Presbyterianism, and on the 26th of December he obtained from Charles at Carisbrooke " the engagement " by which Presbyterianism was to be estab- lished for three years, schismatics were to be suppressed, and the acts of the Scottish parliament ratified, the king in addition promising to admit the Scottish nobles into public employment in England and to reside frequently in Scotland. Returning to Scotland, in the spring of 1648, Lauderdale joined the party of Hamilton in alliance with the English royalists. Their defeat at Preston postponed the arrival of the prince of Wales, but Lauderdale had an interview with' the prince in the Downs in August, and from this period obtained supreme influence over the future king. He persuaded him later to accept the invitation to Scotland from the Argyll faction, accompanied him thither in 1650 and in the expedition into England, and was taken prisoner at Worcester in 1651, remaining in confinement till March 1660. He joined Charles in May 1660 at Breda, and, in spite of the opposition of Clarendon and Monk, was appointed secretary of state. From this time onwards he kept his hold upon the king, was lodged at Whitehall, was " never from the king's ear nor council,"1 and maintained his position against his numerous adversaries by a crafty dexterity in dealing with men, a fearless unscrupulousness, and a robust strength of will, which overcame all opposition. Though a man of considerable learning and intellectual attainment, his character was exception- ally and grossly licentious, and his base and ignoble career was henceforward unrelieved by a single redeeming feature. He abandoned Argyll to his fate, permitted, if he did not assist in, the restoration of episcopacy in Scotland, and after triumphing over all his opponents in Scotland drew into his own hands the whole administration of that kingdom, and proceeded to impose upon it the absolute supremacy of the crown in church and state, restoring the nomination of the lords of the articles to the king and initiating severe measures against the Covenanters. In 1669 he was able to boast with truth that " the king is now master here in all causes and over all persons." His own power was now at its height, and his position as the favourite of Charles, controlled by no considerations of patriotism or statesmanship, and completely independent of the English parliament, recalled the worst scandals and abuses of the Stuart administration before the Civil War. He was a member of the cabal ministry, but took little part in English affairs, and was not entrusted with the first secret treaty of Dover, but gave personal support to Charles in his degrading demands for pen- sions from Louis XIV. On the 2nd of May 1672 he was created duke of Lauderdale and earl of March, and on the 3rd of June knight of the garter. In 1673, on the resignation of James in consequence of the Test Act, he was appointed a commissioner for the admiralty. In October he visited Scotland to suppress the dissenters and obtain money for the Dutch War, and the intrigues organized by Shaftesbury against his power in his absence, and the attacks made upon him in the House of Commons in January 1674 and April 1675, were alike rendered futile by the steady support of Charles and James. On the 25th of June 1674 he was created earl of Guilford and Baron Petersham in the peerage of England. His ferocious measures having failed to suppress the conventicles in Scotland, he summoned to his 1 Pepys's Diary, 2nd of March 1664. 280 LAUENBURG— LAUFF aid in 1677 a band of Highlanders, who were sent into the western country. In consequence, a large party of Scottish nobles came to London, made common cause with the English country faction, and compelled Charles to order the disbandment of the marauders. In May 1678 another demand by the Commons for Lauderdale's removal was thrown out by court influence by one vote. He maintained his triumphs almost to the end. In Scotland, which he visited immediately after this victory in parliament, he overbore all opposition to the king's demands for money. Another address for his removal from the Commons in England was suppressed by the dissolution of parliament on the 26th of May 1679, and a renewed attack upon him, by the Scottish party and Shaftesbury's faction combined, also failed. On the 22nd of June 1679 the last attempt of the unfortunate Covenanters was suppressed at Bothwell Brig. In 1680, however, failing health obliged Lauderdale to resign the place and power for which he had so long successfully struggled. His vote given for the execution of Lord Stafford on the 2gth of November is said also to have incurred the displeasure of James. In 1682 he was stripped of all his offices, and he died in August. Lauderdale married (i) Lady Anne Home, daughter of the ist earl of Home, by whom he had one daughter; and (2) Lady Elizabeth Murray, daughter of the ist earl of Dysart and widow of Sir Lionel Tolle- mache. He left no male issue, consequently his dukedom and his English titles became extinct, but he was succeeded in the earldom by his brother Charles (see below). See Lauderdale Papers Add. MSS. in Brit. Mus., 30 vols., a small selection of which, entitled The Lauderdale Papers, were edited by Osmond Airy for the Camden Society in 188*1-1885; Hamilton Papers published by the same society; " Lauderdale Correspondence with Archbishop Sharp," Scottish Hist. Soc. Publications, vol. 15 (1893); Burnett Lives of the Hamiltons and History of his Own Time; R. Baillie's Letters; S. R. Gardiner's Hist, of the Civil War and of the Commonwealth; Clarendon's Hist, of the Rebellion; and the Quarterly Review, clvii. 407. Several speeches of Lauder- dale are extant. (P. C. Y.) Earls of Lauderdale. Charles Maitland, 3rd earl of Lauderdale (d. 1691), became an ordinary lord of session as Lord Halton in 1669, afterwards assisting his brother, the duke, in the management of public business in Scotland. His eldest son, Richard (1653-1695), became the 4th earl. As Lord Maitland he was lord-justice-general from 1681 to 1684; he was an adherent of James II. and after fighting at the battle of the Boyne he was an exile in France until his death. This earl made a verse translation of Virgil (published 1737). He left no sons, and his brother John (c. 1655-1710) became the 5th earl. John, a sup- porter of William III. and of the union of England and Scotland, was succeeded by his son Charles (c. 1688-1744), who was the grand- father of James, the 8th earl. James Maitland, 8th earl of Lauderdale (1750-1830), was a member of parliament from 1780 until August 1789 when he succeeded his father in the earldom. In the House of Commons he took an active part in debate, and in the House of Lords, where he was a repre- sentative peer for Scotland, he was prominent as an opponent of the policy of Pitt and the English government with regard to France, a country he had visited in 1792. In 1806 he was made a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Lauderdale of Thirlestane and for a short time he was keeper of the great seal of Scotland. By this time the earl, who had helped to found the Society of the Friends of the People in 1792, had somewhat modified his political views; this process was continued, and after acting as the leader of the Whigs in Scotland, Lauderdale' became a Tory and voted against the Reform Bill of 1832. He died on the I3th of September 1839. He wrote an Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of Public Wealth ( 1 804 and 1 8 1 9) , a work which has been translated into French and Italian and which produced a controversy between the author and Lord Brougham ; The Depreciation of the Paper-currency of Great Britain Proved (1812) ; and other writings of a similar nature. He was succeeded by his sons James (1784-1860) and Anthony (1785-1863) as oth and loth earls. Anthony, a naval officer, died unmarried in March 1863, when his barony of the United Kingdom became extinct, but his Scottish earldom devolved upon a cousin, Thomas Maitland (1803— 1878), a grandson of the 7th earl, who became nth earl of Lauder- dale. Thomas, who was an admiral of the fleet, died without sons, and the title passed to Charles Barclay-Maitland (1822-1884), a descendant of the 6th earl. When Charles died unmarried, another of the 6th earl's descendants, Frederick Henry Maitland (b. 1840), became I3th earl of Lauderdale. The earls of Lauderdale are hereditary standard bearers for Scotland. LAUENBURG, a duchy of Germany, formerly belonging with Holstein to Denmark, but from 1865 to Prussia, and now in- cluded in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. It lies on the right bank of the Elbe, is bounded by the territories of Hamburg, Liibeck, Mecklenburg-Strelitz and the province of Hanover, and comprises an area of 453 sq. m. The surface is a slightly undulating plain. The soil, chiefly alluvial, though in some places arenaceous, is generally fertile and well cultivated, but a great portion is covered with forests, interspersed with lakes. By means of the Stecknitz canal, the Elbe, the principal river, is connected with the Trave. The chief agricultural products are timber, fruit, grain, hemp, flax and vegetables. Cattle-breeding affords employment for many of the inhabitants. The railroad from Hamburg to Berlin traverses the country. The capital is Ratzeburg, and there are two other towns, Molln and Lauenburg. The earliest inhabitants of Lauenburg were a Slav tribe, the Polabes, who were gradually replaced by colonists from Saxony. About the middle of the i2th century the country was subdued by the duke of Saxony, Henry the Lion, who founded a bishopric at Ratzeburg, and after Henry's fall in 1180 it formed part of the smaller duchy of Saxony, which was governed by Duke Bernhard. In 1203 it was conquered by Waldemar II., king of Denmark, but in 1227 it reverted to Albert,, a son of its former duke. When Albert died in 1260 Saxony was divided. Lauen- burg, or Saxe-Lauenburg, as it is generally called, became a separate duchy ruled by his son John, and had its own lines of dukes for over 400 years, one of them, Magnus I. (d. 1543), being responsible for the introduction of the reformed teaching into the land. The reigning family, however, became extinct when Duke Julius Francis died in September 1689, and there were at least eight claimants for his duchy, chief among them being John George III., elector of Saxony, and George William, duke of Brunswick-Liineburg-Celle, the ancestors of both these princes having made treaties of mutual succession with former dukes of Saxe-Lauenburg. Both entered the country, but George William proved himself the stronger and occupied Ratzeburg; having paid a substantial sum of money to the elector, he was recognized by the inhabitants as their duke. When he died three years later Lauenburg passed to his nephew, George Louis, elector of Hanover, afterwards king of Great Britain as George I., whose rights were recognized by the emperor Chades Vl.^n 1728. In 1803 the duchy was occupied by the French, and in 1810 it was incorporated with France. It reverted to Hanover after the battle of Leipzig in 1813, and in 1816 was ceded to Prussia, the greater part of it being at once transferred by her to Denmark in exchange for Swedish Pomerania. In 1848, when Prussia made war on Denmark, Lauenburg was occupied at her own request by some Hanoverian troops, and was then administered for three years under the authority of the German confederation, being restored to Denmark in 1851. Definitely incorporated with this country in 1853, it experienced another change of fortune after the short war of 1864 between Denmark on the one side and Prussia and Austria on the other, as by the peace of Vienna (3oth of October 1864) it was ceded with Schleswig and Holstein to the two German powers. By the convention of Gastein (i4th of August 1865) Austria surrendered her claim to Prussia in return for the payment of nearly £300,000 and in September 1865 King William I. took formal possession of the duchy. Lauenburg entered the North German confederation in 1866 and the new German empire in 1870. It retained its constitution and its special privileges until the ist of July 1876, when it was incorporated with the kingdom of Prussia. In 1890 Prince Bismarck received the title of duke of Lauenburg. See P. von Kobbe, Geschichte und Landesbeschreibung des Herzogtums Lauenburg (Altona, 1836-1837); Duve, Mitteilungen zur Kunde der Staatsgeschichte Lauenburgs (Ratzeburg, 1852-1857), and the Archiv des Vereins fur die Geschichte des Herzogtums Lauenburg (Ratzeburg, 1884 seq.). LAUFF, JOSEF (1855- ), German poet and dramatist, was born at Cologne on the i6th of November 1855, the son of a jurist. He was educated at Mtinster in Westphalia, and entering the army served as a lieutenant of artillery at Thorn and sub- sequently at Cologne, where he attained the rank of captain in 1890. In 1898 he was summoned by the German emperor, LAUGHTER— LAUNCH 281 William II., to Wiesbaden, being at the same time promoted to major's rank, in order that he might devote his great dramatic talents to the royal theatre. His literary career began, with the epic poems Jan van Calkrr, ein Malerfied vom Niederrhein (1887, 3rd ed., 1892) and Der Helfensteiner, ein Sang aus dem Bauern-f kriege (3rd ed., 1896). These were followed by Die Overstolzin (5th ed., 1900), Herodias (2nd ed., 1898) and the Geislerin (4th ed., 1902). He also wrote the novels Die Hexe (6th ed., 1900), Regina coeli (a story of the fall of the Dutch Republic) (7th ed., 1904), Die Hauptmannsfrau (8th ed., 1903) and Marie Verwahnen (1903). But he is best known as a dramatist. Beginning with the tragedy Ignez de Castro (1894), he proceeded to dramatize the great monarchs of his country, and, in a Hohenzollern tetralogy, issued Der Burggraf (1897, 6th ed. 1900) and Der Eisenzahn (1900), to be followed by Der grosse Kurfurst (The Great Elector) and Friedrich der Grosse (Frederick the Great). See A. Schroeter, Josef Lauff, Ein litterarisches Zeitbild (1899), and B. Sturm, Josef Lauff (1903). LAUGHTER, the visible and audible expression of mirth, pleasure or the sense of the ridiculous by movements of the facial muscles and inarticulate sounds (see COMEDY, PLAY and HUMOUR). The O. Eng. hleahtor is formed from hleahhan, to laugh, a common Teutonic word; cf. Ger. lachen, Goth, hlahjan, IceL hlaeja, &c. These are in origin echoic or imitative words, to be referred to a Teut. base hlah-, Indo-Eur. kark-, to make a noise; Skeat (Etym. Diet., 1898) connects ultimately Gr. n\w(rvr]ayoi,, cf. Tibull. ii. 5. 63). There is a poem enumerating the ancient virtues of the laurel by J. Passeratius (1594). The last of the plants mentioned above under the name of laurel is the so-called spurge laurel (Daphne Laureola). This and one other species (D. Mezereum), the mezereon, are the sole representatives of the family Thymelaeaceae in Great Britain. The spurge laurel is a small evergreen shrub, with alternate somewhat lanceolate leaves with entire margins. The green flowers are produced in early spring, and form drooping clusters at the base of the leaves. The calyx is four-cleft, and carries eight stamens in two circles of four each within the tube. The pistil forms a berry, green at first, but finally black. The mezereon differs in blossoming before the leaves are produced, while the flowers are lilac instead of green. The bark furnishes the drug Cortex Mezerei, for which that of the spurge laurel is often substituted. Both are powerfully acrid, but the latter is less so than the bark of mezereon. It is now only used as an ingredient of the liquor sarsae composilus concentralus. Of other species in cultivation there are D. Fortunei from China, which has lilac flowers; D. pontica, a native of Asia Minor; D. alpina, from the Italian Alps; D. collina, south European; and D, Cneorum, the garland flower or trailing daphne, the handsomest of the hardy species. See Hemsley's Handbook of Hardy Trees, &c. LAURENS, HENRY (1724-1792), American statesman, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, on the 24th of February 1724, of Huguenot ancestry. When sixteen he became a clerk in a counting-house in London, and later engaged in commercial pursuits with great success at Charleston until 1771, when he retired from active business. He spent the next three years travelling in Europe and superintending the education of his sons in England. In spite of his strong attachment to England, and although he had defended the Stamp Act, in 1 774, in the hope of averting war, he united with thirty-seven other Americans in a petition to parliament against the passing of the Boston Port Bill. Becoming convinced that a peaceful settlement was impracticable, he returned to Charleston at the close of 1774, and there allied himself with the conservative element of the Whig party. He was soon made president of the South Carolina council of safety, and in 1776 vice-president of the state; in the same year he was sent as a delegate from South Carolina to the general continental congress at Philadelphia, of which body he was president from November 1777 until December 1778. In August 1780 he started on a mission to negotiate on behalf of congress a loan of ten million dollars in Holland; but he was captured on the 3rd of September off the Banks of Newfoundland by the British frigate " Vestal," taken to London and closely imprisoned in the Tower. His papers were found to contain a sketch of a treaty between the United States and Holland projected by William Lee, in the service of Congress, and Jan de Neufville, acting on behalf of Mynheer Van Berckel, pensionary of Amsterdam, and this discovery eventually led to war between Great Britain and the United Provinces. During his imprisonment his health became greatly impaired. On the 3ist of December 1781 he was released on parole, and he was finally exchanged for Cornwallis. In June 1 782 he was appointed one of the American commissioners for negotiating peace with Great Britain, but he did not reach Paris until the 28th of November 1782, only two days before the preliminaries of peace were signed by himself, John Adams, Franklin and Jay. On the day of signing, however, he procured the insertion of a clause prohibiting the British from " carrying away any negroes or other property of American inhabitants "; and this subse- quently led to considerable friction between the British and American governments. On account of failing health he did not remain for the signing of the definitive treaty, but returned to Charleston, where he died on the 8th of December 1792. His son, JOHN LAURENS (1754-1782), American revolutionary officer, was born at Charleston, South Carolina, on the 28th of October 1754. He was educated in England, and on his return to America in 1777, in the height of the revolutionary struggle, he joined Washington's staff. He soon gained his commander's confidence, which he reciprocated with the most devoted attach- ment, and was entrusted with the delicate duties of a confidential secretary, which he performed with much tact and skill. He was present in all Washington's battles, from Brandywine to Yorktown, and his gallantry on every occasion has gained him the title of " the Bayard of the Revolution." Laurens displayed bravery even to rashness in the storming of the Chew mansion at Germantown; at Monmouth, where he saved Washington's life, and was himself severely wounded; and at Coosahatchie, where, with a handful of men, he defended a pass against a large English force under General Augustine Prevost, and was again wounded. He fought a duel against General Charles Lee, and wounded him, on account of that officer's disrespectful conduct towards Washington. Laurens distinguished himself further at Savannah, and at the siege of Charleston in 1780. After the capture of Charleston by the English, he rejoined Washington, and was selected by him as a special envoy to appeal to the king of France for supplies for the relief of the American armies, which had been brought by prolonged service and scanty pay to the verge of dissolution. The more active co-operation of the French fleets with the land forces in Virginia, which was one result of his mission, brought about the disaster of Cornwallis at Yorktown. Laurens lost no time in rejoining the army, and at Yorktown was at the head of an American storming party which captured an advanced redoubt. Laurens was designated with the vicomte de Noailles to arrange the terms of the surrender, which virtually ended the war, although desultory skirmishing, especially in the South, attended the months of delay before peace was formally concluded. In one of these trifling affairs on the 27th of August 1782, on the Combahee river, Laurens exposed himself needlessly and was killed. Washington lamented deeply the death of Laurens, saying of him, " He had not a fault that I could discover, unless it were intrepidity bordering upon rashness." The most valuable of Henry Laurens's papers and pamphlets in- cluding the important " Narrative of the Capture of Henry Laurens, of his Confinement in the Tower of London, &c., 1780, 1781, 1782," in vol. i. (Charleston, 1857) of the Society's Collections, have been published by the South Carolina Historical Society. John Laurens's military correspondence, with a brief memoir by W. G. Simms, was privately printed by the Bradford Club, New York, in 1867. LAURENT, FRANgOIS (1810-1887), Belgian historian and jurisconsult, was born at Luxemburg on the 8th of July 1810. He held a high appointment in the ministry of justice for some time before he became professor of civil law in the university of Ghent in 1836. His advocacy of liberal and anti-clerical principles both from his chair and in the press made him bitter enemies, but he retained his position until his death on the nth of February 1887. He treated the relations of church and state in L'£glise et I'etat (Brussels, 3 vols., 1858-1862; new and revised edition, 1865), and the same subject occupied a large proportion of the eighteen volumes of his chief historical work, £,tudes sur I'histoire de I'humanite (Ghent and Brussels, 1855- 1870), which aroused considerable interest beyond the boundaries of Belgium. His fame as a lawyer rests on his authoritative exposition of the Code Napoleon in his Principes de droit civil (Brussels, 33 vols., 1869-1878), and his Droit civil international (Brussels, 8 vols., 1880-1881). He was charged in 1879 by the minister of justice with the preparation of a report on the proposed revision of the civil code. Besides his anti-clerical pamphlets his minor writings include much discussion of social questions, of the organization of savings banks, asylums, &c., and he founded the Societe Collier for the encouragement of thrift among the working classes. With Gustave Callier, whose funeral in 1863 was made the occasion of a display of clerical intolerance, Laurent had much in common, and the efforts of the society were directed to the continuation of Callier's philanthropic schemes. For a complete list of his works, see G. Koninck, Bibliographic nationale (Brussels, vol. ii., 1892). LAURENTINA, VIA— LAURIA, ROGER DE 285 LAURENTINA, VIA, an ancient road of Italy, leading south- wards from Rome. The question of the nomenclature of the group of roads between the Via Ardeatina and the Via Ostiensis is somewhat difficult, and much depends en the view taken as to the site of Laurentum. It seems probable, however, that the Via Laurentina proper is that which led out of the Porta Ardea- tina of the Aurelian wall and went direct to Tor Paterno, while the road branching from the Via Ostiensis at the third mile, and leading past Decimo to Lavinium (Pratica), which crosses the other road at right angles not far from its destination (the Laurentina there running S.W. and that to Lavinium S.E.) may for convenience be called Lavinatis, though this name does not occur in ancient times. On this latter road, beyond Decimo, two milestones, one of Tiberius, the other of Maxentius, each bearing the number n, have been found; and farther on, at Capocotta, traces of ancient buildings, and an important sepulchral inscription of a Jewish ruler of a synagogue have come to light. That the Via Laurentina was near the Via Ardeatina is clear from the fact that the same contractor was responsible for both roads. Laurentum was also accessible by a branch from the Via Ostiensis at the eighth mile (at Malafede) leading past Castel Porziano, the royal hunting-lodge, which is identical with the ancient Ager Solonius (in which, Festus tells us, was situated the Pomonal or sacred grove of Pomona) and which later belonged to Marius. See R. Lanciani in articles quoted under LAVINIUM. (T. As.) LAURENTIUS, PAUL (1554-1624), Lutheran divine, was born on the 3oth of March 1554 at Ober Wierau, where his father, of the same names, was pastor. From a school at Zwickau he entered (1573) the university of Leipzig, graduating in 1577. In 1578 he became rector of the Martin school at Halberstadt; in 1583 he was appointed town's preacher at Plauen-im-Vogtland, and in 1586 superintendent at Oelnitz. On the 2oth of October 1595 he took his doctorate in theology at Jena, his thesis on the Symbolum Athanasii (1597), gaining him similar honours at Wittenberg and Leipzig. He was promoted (1605) to be pastor and superintendent at Dresden, and transferred (1616) to the superintendence at Meissen, where he died on the 24th of February 1624. His works consist chiefly of commentaries and expository discourses on prophetic books of the Old Testament, parts of the Psalter, the Lord's Prayer and the history of the Passion. In two orations he compared Luther to Elijah. Besides theological works he was the author of a Spicilegium Gnomonologicum (1612). The main authority is C. Schlegel, the historian of the Dresden superintendents (1698), summarized by H. W. Roternund, in the additions (1810) to Jocher, Gelehrten-Lexicon (1750). (A. Go.*) LAURIA (LURIA or LORIA) ROGER DE (d. 1305), admiral of Aragon and Sicily, was the most prominent figure in the naval war which arose directly from the Sicilian Vespers. Nothing is really known of his life before he was named admiral in 1283. His father was a supporter of the Hohenstaufen, and his mother came to Spain with Costanza, the daughter of Man- fred of Beneventum, when she married Peter, the eldest son and heir of James the Conqueror of Aragon. According to one account Bella of Lauria, the admiral's mother, had been the foster mother of Costanza. Roger, who accompanied his mother, was bred at the court of Aragon and endowed with lands in the newly conquered kingdom of Valencia. When the misrule of Charles of Anjou's French followers had produced the famous revolt known as the Sicilian Vespers in 1282, Roger de Lauria accompanied King Peter III. of Aragon on the expedition which under the cover of an attack on the Moorish kingdom of Tunis was designed to be an attempt to obtain possession of all or at least part of the Hohenstaufen dominions in Naples and Sicily which the king claimed by ripht of his wife as the heiress of Manfred. In 1283, when the island had put itself under the protection of Peter III. and had crowned him king, he gave the command of his fleet to Roger de Lauria. The commission speaks of him in the most laudatory terms, but makes no reference to previous military services. From this time forward till the peace of Calatabellota in 1303, Roger de Lauria was the ever victorious leader of fleets in the service of Aragon, both in the waters of southern Italy and on the coast of Catalonia. In the year of his appointment he defeated a French naval force in the service of Charles of Anjou, off Malta. The main object before him was to repel the efforts of the Angevine party to reconquer Sicily and then to carry the war into their dominions in Naples. Although Roger de Lauria did incidental fighting on shore, he was as much a naval officer as any modern admiral, and his victories were won by good manceuvring and by discipline. The Catalan squadron, on which the Sicilian was moulded, was in a state of high and intelligent efficiency. Its chiefs relied not on merely boarding, and the use of the sword, as the French forces of Charles of Anjou did, but on the use of the ram, and of the powerful cross-bows used by the Catalans either by hand or, in case of the larger ones, mounted on the bulwarks, with great skill. The conflict was in fact the equivalent on the water of the battles between the English bowmen and the disorderly chivalry of France in the Hundred Years' War. In 1284 Roger defeated the Angevine fleet in the Bay of Naples, taking prisoner the heir to the kingdom, Charles of Salerno, who remained a prisoner in the hands of the Aragonese in Sicily, and later in Spain, for years. In 1285 he fought on the coast of Catalonia one of the most brilliant campaigns in all naval history. The French king Philippe le Hardi had invaded Catalonia with a large army to which the pope gave the character of crusaders, in order to support his cousin of Anjou in his conflict with the Aragonese. The king, Peter III., had offended his nobles by his vigorous exercise of the royal authority, and received little support from them, but the outrages perpetrated by the French invaders raised the towns and country against them. The in- vaders advanced slowly, taking the obstinately defended towns one by one, and relying on the co-operation of a large number of allies, who were stationed in squadrons along the coast, and who brought stores and provisions from Narbonne and Aigues Mortes. They relied in fact wholly on their fleet for their existence. A successful blow struck at that would force them to retreat. King Peter was compelled to risk Sicily for a time, and he recalled Roger de Lauria from Palermo to the coast of Catalonia. The admiral reached Barcelona on the 24th of August, and was informed of the disposition of the French. He saw that if he could break the centre of their line of squadrons, stretched as it was so far that its general superiority of numbers was lost in the attempt to occupy the whole of the coast, he could then dispose of the extremities in detail. On the night of the 9th of September he fell on the central squadron of the French fleet near the Hormigas. The Catalan and Sicilian squadrons doubled on the end of the enemies' line, and by a vigorous employment of the ram, as well as by the destructive shower of bolts from the cross-bows, which cleared the decks- of the French, gained a complete victory. The defeat of the enemy was followed, as usually in medieval naval wars, by a wholesale massacre. Roger then made for Rosas, and tempted out the French squadron stationed there by approaching under French colours. In the open it was beaten in its turn. The result was the capture of the town, and of the stores collected there by King Philippe for the support of his army. Within a short time he was forced to retreat amid sufferings from hunger, and the incessant attacks of the Catalan mountaineers, by which his army was nearly annihilated. This campaign, which was followed up by destruc- tive attacks on the French coast, saved Catalonia from the invaders, and completely ruined the French naval power for the time being. No medieval admiral of any nation displayed an equal combination of intellect and energy, and none of modern times has surpassed it. The work had been so effectually done on the coast of Catalonia that Roger de Lauria was able to return to Sicily, and resume his command in the struggle of Aragonese and Angevine to gain, or to hold, the possession of Naples. He maintained his reputation and was uniformly successful in his battles at sea, but they were not always fought for the defence of Sicily. The death of Peter III. in 1286 and of his 286 LAURIA— LAURIER eldest son Alphonso in the following year caused a division among the members of the house of Aragon. The new king, James, would have given up Sicily to the Angevine line with which he made peace and alliance, but his younger brother Fadrique accepted the crown offered him by the Sicilians, and fought for his own hand against both the Angevines and his senior. King James tried to force him to submission without success. Roger de Lauria adhered for a time to Fadrique, but his arrogant temper made him an intolerable supporter, and he appears, moreover, to have thought that he was bound to obey the king of Aragon. His large estates in Valencia gave him a strong reason for not offending that sovereign. He therefore left Fadrique, who confiscated his estates in Sicily and put one of his nephews to death as a traitor. For this Roger de Lauria took a ferocious revenge in two successive victories at sea over the Sicilians. When the war, which had become a ravening of wild beasts, was at last ended by the peace of Calatabellota, Roger de Lauria retired to Valencia, where he died on the 2nd of January 1305, and was buried, by his express orders, in the church of Santas Creus, a now deserted monastery of the Cister- cians, at the feet of his old master Peter III. In his ferocity, and his combination of loyalty to his feudal lord with utter want of scruple to all other men, Roger belonged to his age. As a captain he was far above his contemporaries and his successors for many generations. Signer Amari's Guerra del Vespro Siciliano gives a general picture of these wars, but the portrait of Roger de Lauria must be sought in the Chronicle of the Catalan Ramon de Muntaner who knew him and was formed in his school. There is a very fair and well " docu- mented" account of the masterly campaign of 1285 in Charles de la Ronciere's .Htitoire de la marine fran$aise, i. 189-217. (D. H.) LAURIA, or LORIA, a city of Basilicata, Italy, in the province of Potenza, situated near the borders of Calabria, 75 m. by road S. of Lagonegro. Pop. (1901) 10,470. It is a walled town on the steep side of a hill with another portion in the plain below, 1821 ft. above sea-level. The castle was the birthplace of Ruggiero di Loria, the great Italian admiral of the i3th century. It was destroyed by the French under Massena in 1806. | LAURIER, SIR WILFRID (1841- ), Canadian statesman, was born on the 2oth of November 1841, at St Lin in the province of Quebec. The child of French Roman Catholic parents, he attended the elementary school of his native parish and for eight or nine months was a pupil of the Protestant elementary school at New Glasgow in order to learn English; his association with the Presbyterian family with whom he lived during this period had a permanent influence on his mind. At twelve years of age he entered L'Assomption college, and was there for seven years. The college, like all the secondary schools in Quebec then avail- able for Roman Catholics, was under direct ecclesiastical control. On leaving it he entered a law office at Montreal and took the law course at McGill University. At graduation he delivered the valedictory address for his class. This, like so many of his later utterances, closed with an appeal for sympathy and union between the French and English races as the secret of the future of Canada. He began to practise law in Montreal, but owing to ill-health soon removed to Athabaska, where he opened a law office and undertook also to edit Le Defricheur, a newspaper then on the eve of collapse. At Athabaska, the seat of one of the superior courts of Quebec, the population of the district was fairly divided between French- and English-speaking people, and Laurier's career was undoubtedly influenced by his constant association with English-speaking people and his intimate acquaintance with their views and aspirations. While at Montreal he had joined the Institut Canadien, a literary and scientific society which, owing to its liberal dis- cussions and the fact that certain books upon its shelves were on the Index expurgatorius, was finally condemned by the Roman Catholic authorities. Le Defricheur was an organ of extreme French sentiment, opposed to confederation, and also under ecclesiastical censure. One of its few surviving copies contains an article by Laurier opposing confederation as a scheme designed in the interest of the English colonies in North America, and certain to prove the tomb of the French race and the ruin of Lower Canada. The Liberals of Quebec under the leadership of Sir Antoine Dorion were hostile to confederation, or at least to the terms of union agreed upon at the Quebec conference, and Laurier in editorials and speeches maintained the position of Dorion and his allies. He was elected to the Quebec legislature in 1871, and his first speech in the provincial assembly excited great interest, on account of its literary qualities and the attrac- tive manner and logical method of the speaker. He was not less successful in the Dominion House of Commons, to which he was elected in 1874. During his first two years in the federal parlia- ment his chief speeches were made in defence of Riel and the French halfbreeds who were concerned in the Red River rebellion, and on fiscal questions. Sir John Macdonald, then in opposition, had committed his party to a protectionist policy, and Laurier, notwithstanding that the Liberal party stood for a low tariff, avowed himself to be " a moderate protectionist." He declared that if he were in Great Britain he would be a free trader, but that free trade or protection must be applied according to the necessities of a country, and that which protection necessarily involved taxation it was the price a young and vigorous nation must pay for its development. But the Liberal government, to which Laurier was admitted as minister of inland revenue in 1877, made only a slight increase in duties, raising the general tariff from 15% to 175%; and against the political judgment of Alexander Mackenzie, Sir Richard Cartwright, George Brown. Laurier and other of the more influential leaders of the party, it adhered to a low tariff platform. In the bye-election which followed Laurier's admission to the cabinet he was defeated— the only personal defeat he ever sustained; but a few weeks later he was returned for Quebec East, a constituency which he held thenceforth by enormous majorities. In 1878 his party went out of office and Sir John Macdonald entered upon a long term of power, with protection as the chief feature of his policy, to which was afterwards added the construction of the Canadian Pacific railway. After the defeat of the Mackenzie government, Laurier sat in Parliament as the leader of the Quebec Liberals and first lieutenant to the Hon. Edward Blake, who succeeded Mackenzie in the leadership of the party. He was associated with Blake in his sustained opposition to high tariff, and to the Conservative plan for the construction of the Canadian Pacific railway, and was a conspicuous figure in the long struggle between Sir John Macdonald and the leaders of the Liberal party to settle the territorial limits of the province of Ontario and the legislative rights of the provinces under the constitution. He was forced also to maintain a long conflict with the ultramontane element of the Roman Catholic church in Quebec, which for many years had a close working alliance with the Conservative politicians of the province and even employed spiritual coercion in order to detach votes from the Liberal party. Notwithstanding that Quebec was almost solidly Roman Catholic the Rouges sternly resisted clerical pressure; they appealed to the courts and had certain elections voided on the ground of undue clerical influence, and at length persuaded the pope to send out a delegate to Canada, through whose inquiry into the circumstances the abuses were checked and the zeal of the ultramontanes restrained. In 1887, upon the resignation of Blake on the ground of ill- health, Laurier became leader of the Liberal party, although he and many of the more influential men in the party doubted the wisdom of the proceeding. He was the first French Canadian to lead a federal party in Canada since confederation. Apart from the natural fear that he would arouse prejudice in the English-speaking provinces, the second Riel rebellion was then still fresh in the public mind, and the fierce nationalist agitation which Riel's execution had excited in Quebec had hardly sub- sided. Laurier could hardly have come to the leadership at a more inopportune moment, and probably he would not have accepted the office at all if he had not believed that Blake could be persuaded to resume the leadership when his health was restored. But from the first he won great popularity even in the English-speaking provinces, and showed unusual capacity for leadership. His party was beaten in the first general election LAURISTON— LAURIUM 287 held after he became leader (1891), but even with its policy of unrestricted reciprocity with the United States, and with Sir John Macdonald still at the head of the Conservative party, it was beaten by only a small majority. Five years later, with unrestricted reciprocity relegated to the background, and with a platform which demanded tariff revision so adjusted as not to endanger established interests, and which opposed the federal measure designed to restore in Manitoba the separate or Roman Catholic schools which the provincial government had abolished, Laurier carried the country, and in July 1896 he was called by Lord Aberdeen, then governor-general, to form a government. He was the first French-Canadian to occupy the office of premier; and his personal supremacy was shown by his long continuance in power. During the years from 1896 to 1910, he came to hold a position within the British Empire which was in its way unique, and in this period he had seen Canadian prosperity advance progressively by leaps and bounds. The chief features of his administration were the fiscal preference of 333% in favour of goods imported into Canada from Great Britain, the despatch of Canadian contingents to South Africa during the Boer war, the contract with the Grand Trunk railway for the construction of a second transcontinental road from ocean to ocean, the assumption by Canada of the imperial fortresses at Halifax and Esquimault, the appointment of a federal railway commission with power to regulate freight charges, express rates and telephone rates, and the relations between competing companies, the reduction of the postal rate to Great Britain from 5 cents to 2 cents and of the domestic rate from 3 cents to 2 cents, a substantial contribution to the Pacific cable, a practical and courageous policy of settlement and development in the Western territories, the division of the North-West territories into the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan and the enactment of the legislation necessary to give them provincial status, and finally (1910), a tariff arrangement with the United States, which, if not all that Canada might claim in the way of reciprocity, showed how entirely the course of events had changed the balance of commercial interests in North America. Laurier made his first visit to Great Britain on the occasion of Queen Victoria's diamond jubilee (1897), when he received the grand cross of the Bath; he then secured the denunciation of the Belgian and German treaties and thus obtained for the colonies the right to make preferential trade arrangements with the mother country. His personality made a powerful impression in Great Britain and also in France, which he visited before his return to Canada. His strong facial resemblance both to Lord Beaconsfield and to Sir John Macdonald marked him out in the public eye, and he captured attention by his charm of manner, fine command of scholarly English and genuine eloquence. Some of his speeches in Great Britain, coming as they did from a French-Canadian, and revealing delicate appreciation of British sentiment and thorough comprehension of the genius of British institutions, excited great interest and enthusiasm, while one or two impassioned speeches in the Canadian parlia- ment during the Boer war profoundly influenced opinion in Canada and had a pronounced effect throughout the empire. A skilful party-leader, Laurier kept from the first not only the affection of his political friends but the respect of his opponents; while enforcing the orderly conduct of public business, he was careful as first minister to maintain the dignity of parliament. In office he proved more of an opportunist than his career in opposition would have indicated, but his political courage and personal integrity remained beyond suspicion. His jealousy for the political autonomy of Canada was noticeable in his attitude at the Colonial conference held at the time of King Edward's coronation, and marked all his diplomatic dealings with the mother country. But he strove for sympathetic relations between Canadian and imperial authorities, and favoured general legislative and fiscal co-operation between the two countries. He strove also for good relations between the two races in Canada, and between Canada and the United States. Although he was classed in Canada as a Liberal, his tendencies would in England have been considered strongly conservative; an individualist rather than a collectivist, he opposed the intrusion of the state into the sphere of private enterprise, and showed no sympathy with the movement for state operation of railways, telegraphs and telephones, or with any kindred proposal looking to the extension of the obligations of the central government. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — J. S. Willison, Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal Party; a Political History (Toronto, 1903) ; L. O. David, Laurier et son temps (Montreal, 1905) ; see also Henri Moreau, Sir Wilfrid Laurier, Premier Ministre du Canada (Paris, 1902) ; and the collection of Laurier's speeches from 1871 to 1890, compiled by Ulric Barthe (Quebec, 1890). (J. S. W.) LAURISTON, JACQUES ALEXANDRE BERNARD LAW, MARQUIS DE (1768-1828), French soldier and diplomatist, was the son of Jacques Francois Law de Lauriston (1724-1785), a general officer in the French army, and was born at Pondicherry on the ist of February 1768. He obtained his first commission about 1786, served with the artillery and on the staff in the earlier Revolutionary campaigns, and became brigadier of artillery in 1795. Resigning in 1796, he was brought back into the service in 1800 as aide-de-camp to Napoleon, with whom as a cadet Lauriston had been on friendly terms. In the years immediately preceding the first empire Lauriston was succes- sively director of the Le Fere artillery school and special envoy to Denmark, and he was selected to convey to England the rati- fication of the peace of Amiens (1802). In 1805, having risen to the rank of general of division, he took part in the war against Austria. He occupied Venice and Ragusa in 1806, was made governor-general of Venice in 1807, took part in the Erfurt negotiations of 1808, was made a count, served with the emperor in Spain in 1808-1809 and held commands under the viceroy Eugene Beauharnais in the Italian campaign and the advance to Vienna in the same year. At the battle of Wagram he com- manded the guard artillery in the famous " artillery preparation " which decided the battle. In 1811 he was made ambassador to Russia; in 1812 he held a command in the Grande Armee and won distinction by his firmness in covering the retreat from Moscow. He commanded the V. army corps at Liitzen and Bautzen and the V. and XI. in the autumn campaign, falling into the hands of the enemy in the disastrous retreat from Leipzig. He was held a prisoner of war until the fall of the empire, and then joined Louis XVIII., to whom he remained faithful in the Hundred Days. His reward was a seat in the house of peers and a command in the royal guard. In 1817 he was created marquis and in 1823 marshal of France. During the Spanish War he commanded the corps which besieged and took Pamplona. He died at Paris on the i2th of June 1828. LAURIUM (Aavpiov, mod. ERGASTIRI), a mining town in Attica, Greece, famous for the silver mines which were one of the chief sources of revenue of the Athenian state, and were employed for coinage. After the battle of Marathon, Themi- stocles persuaded the Athenians to devote the revenue derived from the mines to shipbuilding, and thus laid the foundation of the Athenian naval power, and made possible the victory of Salamis. The mines, which were the property of the state, were usually farmed out for a certain fixed sum and a percentage on the working; slave labour was exclusively employed. To- wards the end of the 5th century the output was diminished, partly owing to the Spartan occupation of Decelea. But the mines continued to be worked, though Strabo records that in his time the tailings were being worked over, and Pausanias speaks of the mines as a thing of the past. The ancient workings, consisting of shafts and galleries for excavating the ore, and pans and other arrangements for extracting the metal, may still be seen. The mines are still worked at the present day by French and Greek companies, but mainly for lead, manganese and cadmium. The population of the modern town was 10,0x37 in 1907. See E. Ardaillon, " Les Mines du Laurion dans I'antiquit6," No. Ixxvii. of the Bibliotheque des ecoles fran^aises d'Athenes et de Rome. LAURIUM, a village of Houghton county, Michigan, U.S.A., near the centre of Keweenaw peninsula, the northern extremity of the state. Pop. (1890) 1159; (1900) 5643, of whom 2286 were foreign-born; (1904) 7653; (1910) 8537. It is served by 288 LAURUSTIN US— LAUSANNE the Mineral Range and the Mohawk and Copper Range railways. It is in one of the most productive copper districts in the United States, and copper mining is its chief industry. Immediately W. of Laurium is the famous Calumet and Hecla mine. The village was formerly named Calumet, and was incorporated under that name in 1889, but in 1895 its name was changed by the legislature to Laurium, in allusion to the mineral wealth of Laurium in Greece. The name Calumet is now applied to the post office in the village of Red Jacket (incorporated 1875; pop. 1900, 4668; 1904, 3784; 1910, 4211), W. of the Calumet and Hecla mine; and Laurium, the mining property and Red Jacket are all in the township of Calumet (pop. 1904, state census, 28,587). LAURUSTINUS, in botany, the popular name of a common hardy evergreen garden shrub known botanically as Viburnum Tinus, with rather dark-green ovate leaves in pairs and flat- topped clusters (or corymbs) of white flowers, which are rose- coloured before expansion, and appear very early in the year. It is a native of the Mediterranean region, and was in cultivation in Britain at the end of the i6th century. Viburnum belongs to the natural order Caprifoliaceae and includes the common wayfaring tree ( V. Lantana) and the guelder rose ( V. Opulus). LAURVIK, LARVIK or LAURVIG, a seaport of Norway, in Jarlsberg and Laurvik amt (county), at the head of a short fjord near the mouth of the Laagen river, 98 m. S.S.W. of Chris- tiania by the Skien railway. Pop. (1900) 10,664. It has various industries, including saw and planing mills, shipbuilding, glass- works and factories for wood-pulp, barrels and potato flour; and an active trade in exporting timber, ice, wood-pulp and granite, chiefly to Great Britain, and in importing from the same country coal and salt. The port has a depth of 18 to 24 ft. beside the quays. Four miles south is Fredriksvaern, formerly a station of the Norwegian fleet and the seat of a naval academy. Laurviks Bad is a favourite spa, with mineral and sulphur springs and mud-baths. LAUSANNE, the capital of the Swiss canton of Vaud. It is the junction of the railway lines from Geneva, from Brieg and the Simplon, from Fribourg and Bern, and from Vallorbe (for Paris). A funicular railway connects the upper town with the central railway station and with Ouchy, the port of Lausanne on the lake of Geneva. Lausanne takes its name from the Flon stream flowing through it, which was formerly called Laus (water). The older or upper portion of the town is built on the crest and slopes of five hillocks and in the hollows between them, all forming part of the Jorat range. It has a picturesque appear- ance from the surface of the lake, above which the cathedral rises some 500 ft., while from the town there is a fine view across the lake towards the mountains of Savoy and of the Valais. The quaint characteristics of the hilly site of the old town have largely been destroyed by modern improvements, which began in 1836 and were not quite completed in 1910. The Grand Pont, designed by the cantonal engineer, Adrien Pichard (1790-1841), was built 1839-1844, while the Barre tunnel was pierced 1851- 1855 and the bridge of Chauderon was built in 1905. The valleys and lower portions of the town were gradually filled up so as to form a series of squares, of which those of Riponne and of St Francois are the finest, the latter now being the real centre of the town. The railways were built between 1856 and 1862, while the opening of the Simplon tunnel (1906) greatly increased the commercial importance of Lausanne, which is now on the great international highway from Paris to Milan. From 1896 onwards a well-planned set of tramways within the town was constructed. The town is still rapidly extending, especially towards the south and west. Since the days of Gibbon (resident here for three periods, 1753-1758, 1763-1764 and 1783-1793), whose praises of the town have been often repeated, Lausanne has become a favourite place of residence for foreigners (including many English), who are especially attracted by the excellent establishments for secondary and higher education. Hence in 1900 there were 9501 foreign residents (of whom 628 were British subjects) out of a total population of 46,732 inhabitants; in 1905 it was reckoned that these numbers had risen respectively to 10,625, 818 and 53,577. In 1709 it is said that the inhabitants numbered but 7432 and 9965 in 1803, while the numbers were 20,515 in 1860 and 33,340 in 1888. Of the population in 1900 the great majority was French-speaking (only 6627 German- speaking and 3146 Italian-speaking) and Protestant (9364 Romanists and 473 Jews). The principal building is the cathedral church (now Protestant) of Notre Dame, which with the castle occupies the highest position. It is the finest medieval ecclesiastical building in Switzerland. Earlier buildings were more or less completely destroyed by fire, but the present edifice was consecrated in 1 2 7 5 by Pope Gregory X. in the presence of the emperor Rudolf of Habsburg. It was sacked after the Bernese conquest (1536) and the introduction of Protestantism, but many ancient tapestries and other precious objects are still preserved in the Historical Museum at Bern. The church was well restored at great cost from 1873 onwards, as it is the great pride of the citizens. Close by is the castle, built in the early isth century by the bishops, later the residence of the Bernese bailiffs and now the seat of the various branches of the administration of the canton of Vaud. Near both is the splendid Palais de Rumine (on the Place de la Riponne), opened in 1906 and now housing the university as well as the cantonal library, the cantonal picture gallery (or Musee Arlaud, founded 1841) and the cantonal collections of archaeology, natural history, &c. The university was raised to that rank in 1890, but, as an academy, dates from 1537. Among its former teachers may be mentioned Theodore Beza, Conrad Gesner, J. P. de Crousaz, Charles Monnard, Alexandre Vinet, Eugene Rambert, Juste Olivier and several members of the Secretan family. On the Montbenon heights to the south- west of the cathedral group is the federal palace of justice, the seat (since 1886) of the federal court of justice, which, erected by the federal constitution of zgth May 1874, was fixed at Lausanne by a federal resolution of 26th June 1874. The house, La Grotte, which Gibbon inhabited 1 783-1 793 , and on the terrace of which he completed (1787) his famous history, was demolished in 1896 to make room for the new post office that stands on the Place St Francois. The asylum for the blind was mainly founded (1845) by the generosity of W. Haldimand, an Englishman of Swiss descent. The first book printed in Lausanne was the missal of the cathedral church (1493), while the Gazette de Lausanne (founded 1798) took that name in 1804. Lausanne has been the birthplace of many distinguished men, such as Benjamin Con- stant, the Secretans, Vinet and Rambert. It is the seat of many benevolent, scientific and literary societies and establishments. The original town (mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary) was on the shore of the lake, near Vidy, south-west of the present city. It was burnt in the 4th century by the Alamanni. Some of the inhabitants took refuge in the hills above and there founded a new town, which acquired more importance when Bishop Marius about 590 chose it as his see city (perhaps trans- ferring it from Avenches). Here rose the cathedral church, the bishop's palace, &c. Across the Flon was a Burgundian settle- ment, later known as the Bourg, while to the west was a third colony around the church of St Laurent. These three elements joined together to form the present city. The bishops obtained little by little great temporal powers (the diocese extended to the left bank of the Aar) and riches, becoming in 1125 princes of the empire, while their chapter was recruited only from the noblest families. But in 1368 the bishop was forced to recognize various liberties and customs that had been gradually won by the citizens, the Plaid General of that year showing that there was already some kind of municipal government, save for the cite, which was not united with the ville inferieure or the other four quartiers (Bourg, St Laurent, La Palud and Le Pont) in 1481. In 1525 the city made an alliance with Bern and Fribourg. But in 1536 the territory of the bishop (as well as the Savoyard barony of Vaud) was forcibly conquered by the Bernese, who at once introduced Protestantism. The Bernese occupation lasted till 1798, though in 1723 an attempt was made to put an end to it by Major Davel, who lost his life in consequence. In 1798 Lausanne became a simple prefecture of the canton Leman LAUTREC— LAVA 289 of the Helvetic republic. But in 1803, on the creation of the canton of Vaud by the Act of Mediation, it became its capital. The bishop of Lausanne resided after 1663 at Fribourg, while from 1821 onwards he added ." and of Geneva " to his title. Besides the general works dealing with the canton of Vaud (q.v.), the following books refer specially to Lausanne: A. Bernus, L' Imprimerie a Lausanne et a Marges jusqu'a la fin du i6ilme siccle (Lausanne, 1904); M. Besson, Recherches sur les origines des &veches de Genkye, Lausanne, Sion (Fribourg, 1906) ; A. Bonnard, " Lausanne au 18'°™" siecle," in the work entitled Chez nos a'ieux (Lausanne, 1902) ; E. Dupraz, La Cathedrale de Lausanne . . . etude historique (Lausanne, 1906); E. Gibbon, Autobiography and Letters (3 vols., 1896); F. Gingins and F. Forel, Documents concernant I'ancien eveche de. Lausanne, 2 parts (Lausanne, 1846-1847); J. H. Lewis and F. Gribble, Lausanne (1909); E. van Muyden and others, Lausanne d travers les ages (Lausanne, 1906) ; Meredith Read, Historic Studies in Vaud, Berne and Savoy (2 vols., 1897); M. Schmitt, Memoires hist, sur le diocese de Lausanne (2 vols.', Fribourg, 1859) ; J. Stammler (afterwards bishop of Lausanne), Le Tresor de la cathedrale de Lausanne (Lausanne, 1902 ; trans, of a German book of 1894). (W. A. B. C.) LAUTREC, ODET DE FOIX, VICOMTE DE (1485-1528), French soldier. The branch of the viscounts of Lautrec origi- nated with Pierre, the grandson of Archambaud de Grailly, captal de Buch, who came into possession of the county of Foix in 1401: Odet de Foix and his two brothers, the seigneur de Lescun and the seigneur de 1'Esparre or Asparros, served Francis I. as captains; and the influence of their sister, Francoise de Chateaubriant, who became the king' mistress, gained them high offices. In 1515 Lautrec took part in the campaign of Marignano. In 1516 he received the government of the Milanese, and by his severity made the French domination insupportable. In 1521 he succeeded in defending the duchy against the Spanish army, but in 1522 he was completely defeated at the battle of the Bicocca, and was forced to evacuate the Milanese. The mutiny of his Swiss troops had compelled him, against his wish, to engage in the battle. Created marshal of France, he received again, in 1527, the command of the army of Italy, occupied the Milanese, and was then sent to undertake the conquest of the kingdom of Naples. The defection of Andrea Doria and the plague which broke out in the French camp brought on a fresh disaster. Lautrec himself caught the infection, and died on the 1 5th of August 1528. He had the reputation of a gallant and able soldier, but this reputation scarcely seems to be justified by the facts; though he was always badly used by fortune. There is abundant MS. correspondence in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. See the Works of Brantome (Coll. Soci6t6 d'Histoire de France, vol. iii., 1867); Memoirs of Martin du Bellay (Coll. M;chaud and Poujoulat, vol. v., 1838). LAUZUN, ANTONIN NOMPAR DE CAUMONT, MARQUIS DE PUYGUILHEM, Due DE (1632-1723), French courtier and soldier, was the son of Gabriel, comte de Lauzun, and his wife Charlotte, daughter of the due de La Force. He was brought up with the children of his kinsman, the marechal de Gramont, of whom the comte de Guiche became the lover of Henrietta of England, duchess of Orleans, while Catherine Charlotte, afterwards princess of Monaco, was the object of the one passion of Lauzun's life. He entered the army, and served under Turenne, also his kinsman, and in 1655 succeeded his father as commander of the cent gentilshommes de la maison du roi. Puy- guilhem (or Peguilin, as contemporaries simplified his name) rapidly rose in Louis XIV.'s favour, became colonel of the royal regiment of dragoons, and was gazetted marechal de camp. He and Mme de Monaco belonged to the coterie of the young duchess of Orleans. His rough wit and skill in practical jokes pleased Louis XIV., but his jealousy and violence were the causes of his undoing. He prevented a meeting between Louis XIV. and Mme de Monaco, and it was jealousy in this matter, rather than hostility to Louise de la Valliere, which led him to promote Mme de Montespan's intrigues with the king. He asked this lady to secure for him the post of grand-master of the artillery, and on Louis's refusal to give him the appointment he turned his back on the king, broke his sword, and swore that never again would he serve a monarch who had broken his word. The result was a short sojourn in the Bastille, but he soon returned to his functions of court buffoon. Meanwhile, the duchess of Montpensier (La Grande Mademoiselle) had fallen in love with the little man, whose ugliness seems to have exercised a certain fascination over many women. He naturally encouraged one of the greatest heiresses in Europe, and the wedding was fixed for the 2oth of December 1670, when on the 1 8th Louis sent for his cousin and forbade the marriage. Mme de Montespan had never forgiven his fury when she failed to procure the grand-mastership of the artillery, and now, with Louvois, secured his arrest. He was removed in November 1671 from the Bastille to Pignerol, where excessive precautions were taken to ensure his safety. He was eventually allowed free intercourse with Fouquet, but before that time he managed to find a way through the chimney into Fouquet's room, and on another occasion succeeded in reaching the courtyard in safety. Another fellow-prisoner, from communication with whom he was supposed to be rigorously excluded, was Eustache Dauger (see IRON MASK). It was now intimated to Mademoiselle that Lauzun's restora- tion to liberty depended on her immediate settlement of the principality of Dombes, the county of Eu and the duchy of Aumale — three properties assigned by her to Lauzun — on the little due de Maine, eldest son of Louis XIV. and Mme de Monte- span. She gave way, but Lauzun, even after ten years of im- prisonment, refused to sign the documents, when he was brought to Bourbon for the purpose. A short term of imprisonment at Chalon-sur-Saone made him change his mind, but when he was set free Louis XIV. was still set against the marriage, which is supposed to have taken place secretly (see MONTPENSIER). Married or not, Lauzun was openly courting Fouquet's daughter, whom he had seen at Pignerol. He was to be restored to his place at court, and to marry Mile Fouquet, who, however, became Mme d'Uzes in 1683. In 1685 Lauzun went to England to seek his fortune under James II., whom he had served as duke of York in Flanders. He rapidly gained great influence at the English court. In 1688 he was again in England, and arranged the flight of Mary of Modena and the infant prince, whom he accompanied to Calais, where he received strict in- structions from Louis to bring them " on any pretext " to Vincennes. In the late autumn of 1689 he was put in command of the expedition fitted out at Brest for service in Ireland, and he sailed in the following year. Lauzun was honest, a quality not too common in James II. 's officials in Ireland, but had no experience of the field, and he blindly followed Richard Talbot, earl of Tyrconnel. After the battle of the Boyne they fled to Limerick, and thence to the west, leaving Patrick Sarsfield to show a brave front. In September they sailed for France, and on their arrival at Versailles Lauzun found that his failure had destroyed any prospect of a return of Louis XIV.'s favour. Mademoiselle died in 1693, and two years later Lauzun married Genevieve de Durfort, a child of fourteen, daughter of the marechal de Lorges. Mary of Modena, through whose interest Lauzun secured his dukedom, retained her faith in him, and it was he who in 1715, more than a quarter of a century after the flight from Whitehall, brought her the news of the disaster of Sheriffmuir. Lauzun died on the ipth of November 1723. The duchy fell to his nephew, Armand de Gontaut, comte de Biron. See the letters of Mme de SeVign6, the memoirs of Saint-Simon, who was Lauzun's wife's brother-in-law; also J. Lair, Nicolas Fouquet, vol. ii. (1890) ; Martin Hailes, Mary of Modena (1905), and M. F. Sandars, Lauzun, Courtier and Adventurer (1908). LAVA, an Italian word (from Lat. lavare, to wash) applied to the liquid products of volcanic activity. Streams of rain- water, formed by condensation of exhaled steam often mingled with volcanic ashes so as to produce mud, are known as lava d'acqua, whilst the streams of molten matter are called lava di fuoco. The term lava is applied by geologists to all matter of volcanic origin, which is, or has been, in a molten state. The magma, or molten lava in the interior of the earth, may be regarded as a mutual solution of various mineral silicates, charged with highly-heated vapour, sometimes to the extent of super- saturation. According to the proportion of silica, the lava is distinguished as " acid " or " basic." The basic lavas are 29° LAVABO— LA VALLIERE usually darker and denser than lavas of acid type, and when fused they tend to flow to great distances, and may thus form far-spreading sheets, whilst the acid lavas, being more viscous, rapidly consolidate after extrusion. The lava is emitted from the volcanic vent at a high temperature, but on exposure to the air it rapidly consolidates superficially, forming a crust which in many cases is soon broken up by the continued flow of the subjacent liquid lava, so that the surface becomes rugged with clinkers. J. D. Dana introduced the term " aa " for this rough kind of lava-stream, whilst he applied the term " pahoehoe " to those flows which have a smooth surface, or are simply wrinkled and ropy; these terms being used in this sense in Hawaii, in relation to the local lavas. The different kinds of lava are more fully described in the article VOLCANO. LAVABO (Lat. " I will wash "; the Fr. equivalent is laroir), in ecclesiastical usage, the term for the washing of the priests' hands, at the celebration of the Mass, at the offertory. The words of Psalm xxvi. 6, Lavabo inter innocentes manus meas, are said during the rite. The word is also used for the basin employed in the ritual washing, and also for the lavatories, generally erected in the cloisters of monasteries. Those at Gloucester, Norwich and Lincoln are best known. A very curious example at Fontenay, surrounding a pillar, is given by Viollet-le-Duc. In general the lavabo is a sort of trough; in some places it has an almery for towels, &c. LAVAGNA, a seaport of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Genoa, from which it is 25$ m. S.E. by rail. Pop. (1901) 7005. It has a small shipbuilding trade, and exports great quantities of slate (lavagna, taking its name from the town). It also has a large cotton-mill. It was the seat of the Fieschi family, independent counts, who, at the end of the I2th century, were obliged to recognize the supremacy of Genoa. Sinibaldo Fieschi became Pope Innocent IV. (1243-1254), and Hadrian V. (1276) was also a Fieschi. LAVAL, ANDRfi DE, SEIGNEUR DE LOHEAC (c. 1408-1485), French soldier. In 1423 he served in the French army against England, and in 1428 was taken prisoner by John Talbot, ist earl of Shrewsbury, after the capitulation of Laval, which he wa? defending. After paying his ransom he was present with Joan of Arc at the siege of Orleans, at the battle of Patay, and at the coronation of Charles VII. He was made admiral of France in 1437 and marshal in 1439. He served Charles VII. faithfully in all his wars, even against the dauphin (1456), and when the latter became king as Louis XL, Laval was dismissed from the marshal's office. After the War of the Public Weal he was restored to favour, and recovered the marshal's baton, the king also granting him the offices of lieutenant-general to the government of Paris and governor of Picardy, and confer- ring upon him the collar of the order of St Michael. In 1472 Laval was successful in resisting the attacks of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, on Beauvais. LAVAL, a town of north-western France, capital of the department of Mayenne, on the Mayenne river, 188 m. W.S.W. of Paris by rail. Pop. (1906) 24,874. On the right bank of the river stands the old feudal city, with its ancient castle and its irregularly built houses whose slate roofs and pointed gables peep from the groves of trees which clothe the hill. On the left bank the regularly built new town extends far into the plain. The river, here 80 yds. broad, is crossed by the handsome railway viaduct, a beautiful stone bridge called Pont Neuf, and the Pont Vieux with three pointed arches, built in the i6th century. There is communication by steamer as far as Angers. Laval may justly claim to be one of the loveliest of French towns. Its most curious and interesting monument is the sombre old castle of the counts (now a prison) with a donjon of the I2th century, the roof of which presents a fine example of the timber- work superseded afterwards by stone machicolation. The " new castle," dating partly from the Renaissance, serves as court-house. Laval possesses several churches of different periods: in that of the Trinity, which serves as the cathedral, the transept and nave are of the I2th century while the choir is of the i6th; St Venerand (isth century) has good stained glass; Notre-Dame des Cordeliers, which dates from the end of the I4th century or the beginning of the isth, has some fine marble altars. Half-a-mile below the Pont Vieux is the beautiful 12th- century church of Avenieres, with an ornamental spire of 1534. The finest remaining relic of the ancient fortifica- tions is the Beucheresse gate near the cathedral. The narrow streets around the castle are bordered by many old houses o! the isth and i6th century, chief among which is that known as the " Maison du Grand Veneur." There are an art-museum, a museum of natural history and archaeology and a library. The town is embellished by fine promenades, at the entrance of one of which, facing the mairie, stands the statue of the celebrated surgeon Ambroise Pare (1517-1590). Laval is the seat of a prefect, a bishopric created in 1855, and a court of assizes, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, training colleges, an ecclesiastical seminary and a lycee for boys. The principal industry of the town is the cloth manufacture, intro- duced from Flanders in the i4th century. The production of fabrics of linen, of cotton or of mixtures of both, occupies some 10,000 hands in the town and suburbs. Among the numerous other industries are metal-founding, flour-milling, tanning, dyeing, the making of boots and shoes, and the sawing of the marble quarried in the vicinity. There is trade in grain. Laval is not known to have existed before the 9th century. It was taken by John Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, in 1428, changed hands several times during the wars of the League, and played an important part at the end of the i8th century in the war of La Vendee. SEIGNEURS AND COUNTS or LAVAL. The castle of Laval was founded at the beginning of the nth century by a lord of the name of Guy, and remained in the possession of his male descend- ants until the I3th century. In 1218 the lordship passed to the house of Montmorency by the marriage of Emma, daughter of Guy VI. of Laval, to Mathieu de Montmorency, the hero of the battle of Bouvines. Of this union was born Guy VII. seigneur of Laval, the ancestor of the second house of Laval. Anne of Laval (d. 1466), the heiress of the second family, married John de Montfort, who took the name of Guy (XIII.) of Laval. At Charles VII. 's coronation (1429) Guy XIV., who was after- wards son-in-law of John V., duke of Brittany, and father-in-law of King Rene of Anjou, was created count of Laval, and the countship remained in the possession of Guy's male descendants until 1547. After .the Montforts, the countship of Laval passed by inheritance to the families of Rieux and Sainte Maure, %to the Colignys, and finally to the La Tremoilles, who held it until the Revolution. See Bertrand de Broussillon, La Maison de Laval (3 vols., 1895- 1900). LA VALLIERE, LOUISE FRANCHISE DE (1644-1710), mistress of Louis XIV., was born at Tours on the 6th of August 1644, the daughter of an officer, Laurent de la Baume le Blanc, who took the name of La Valliere from a small property near Amboise. Laurent de la Valliere died in 1651; his widow, who soon married again, joined the court of Gaston d'Orleans at Blois. Louise was brought up with the younger princesses, the step-sisters of La Grande Mademoiselle. After Gaston's death his widow moved with her daughters to the palace of the Luxembourg in Paris, and with them went Louise, who was now a girl of sixteen. Through the influence of a distant kinswoman, Mme de Choisy, she was named maid of honour to Henrietta of England, who was about her own age and had just married Philip of Orleans, the king's brother. Henrietta joined the court at Fontainebleau, and was soon on the friendliest terms with her brother-in-law, so friendly indeed that there was some scandal, to avoid which it was determined that Louis should pay marked attentions elsewhere. The person selected was Madame's maid of honour, Louise. She had been only two months in Fontaine- bleau before she became the king's mistress. The affair, begun on Louis's part as a blind, immediately developed into real passion on both sides. It was Louis's first serious attachment, and Louise was an innocent, religious-minded girl, who brought LAVATER— LAVELEYE 291 neither coquetry nor self-interest to their relation, which was sedulously concealed. Nicolas Fouquet's curiosity in the matter was one of the causes of his disgrace. In February 1662 there was a storm when Louise refused to tell her lover the relations between Madame (Henrietta) and the comte de Guiche. She fled to an obscure convent at Chaillot, where Louis rapidly followed her. Her enemies, chief of whom was Olympe Mancini, comtesse de Soissons, Mazarin's niece, sought her downfall by bringing her liaison to the ears of Queen Maria Theresa. She was presently removed from the service of Madame, and estab- lished in a small building in the Palais Royal, where in December 1663 she gave birth to a son Charles, who was given in charge to two faithful servants of Colbert. Concealment was practically abandoned after her return to court, and within a week of Anne of Austria's death in January 1666, La Valliere appeared at mass side by side with Maria Theresa. But her favour was already waning. She had given birth to a second child in January 1665, but both children were dead before the autumn of 1666. A daughter born at Vincennes in October 1666, who received the name of Marie Anne and was known as Mile de Blois, was publicly recognized by Louis as his daughter in letters-patent making the mother a duchess in May 1667 and conferring on her the estate of Vaujours. In October of that year she bore a son, but by this time her place in Louis's affections was definitely usurped by Athenai's de Montespan (q.v.), who had long been plotting against her. She was compelled to remain at court as the king's official mistress, and even to share Mme de Montespan'* apartments at the Tuileries. She made an attempt at escape in 1671, when she fled to the convent of Ste Marie de Chaillot, only to be compelled to return. In 1674 she was finally permitted to enter the Carmelite convent in the Rue d'Enfer. She took the final vows a year later, when Bossuet pronounced the allocution. Her daughter married Armand de Bourbon, prince of Conti, in 1680. The count of Vermandois, her youngest born, died on his first campaign at Courtrai in 1683. La Valliere's Reflexions sur la misericorde de Dieu, written after her retreat, were printed by Lequeux in 1767, and in 1860 Re- flexions, lettres et sermons, by M. P. Clement (2 vols.). Some apocryphal Memoires appeared in 1829, and the Lettres de Mme la duchesse de la Valliere (1767) are a corrupt version of her correspond- ence with the manSchal de Bellefonds. Of modern works on "the subject see Arsene Houssaye, Mile de la Valliere et Mme de Monte- span (1860); Jules Lair, Louise de la Valliere (3rd ed., 1902, Eng. trans., 1908) ; and C. Bonnet, Documents inedits sur Mme de la Valliere (1904). LAVATER, JOHANN KASPAR (1741-1801), German poet and physiognomist, was born at Zurich on the I5th of November 1741. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native town, where J. J. Bodmer and J. J. Breitinger were among his teachers. When barely one-and-twenty he greatly distinguished himself by denouncing, in conjunction with his friend, the painter H. Fuseli, an iniquitous magistrate, who was compelled to make restitution of his ill-gotten gains. In 1769 Lavater took orders, and officiated till his death as deacon or pastor in various churches in his native city. His oratorical fervour and genuine depth of conviction gave him great personal influence; he was exten- sively consulted as a casuist, and was welcomed with demon- strative enthusiasm in his numerous journeys through Germany. His mystical writings were also widely popular. Scarcely a trace of this influence has remained, and Lavater's name would be forgotten but for his work on physiognomy, Physiognomische Fragmente zur Bejdrderung der Menschenkenntnis und Menschcn- liebe (1775-1778). The fame even of this book, which found enthusiastic admirers in France and England, as well as in Ger- many, rests to a great extent upon the handsome style of publi- cation and the accompanying illustrations. It left, however, the study of physiognomy (q.v.), as desultory and unscientific as it found it. As a poet, Lavater published Chrislliche Lleder (1776- 1780) and two epics, Jesus Messias (1780) and Joseph von Arimathia (1794), in the style of Klopstock. More important and characteristic of the religious temperament of Lavater's age are his introspective Aussichten in die Ewigkeit (4 vols., 1768-1778); Geheimes Tagebuch von cinem Beobachter seiner selbst (2 vols., 1772-1773) and Pontius Pilatus, oder der Mensch in alien Gestalten (4 vols., 1782-1785). From 1774 on, Goethe was intimately acquainted with Lavater, but at a later period he became estranged from him, somewhat abruptly accusing him of superstition and hypocrisy. Lavater had a mystic's indifference to historical Christianity, and, although esteemed by himself and others a champion of orthodoxy, was in fact only an antagonist of rationalism. During the later years of his life his influence waned, and he incurred ridicule by some exhibitions of vanity. He redeemed himself by his patriotic conduct during the French occupation of Switzerland, which brought about his tragical death. On the taking of Zurich by the French in 1799, Lavater, while endeavouring to appease the soldiery, was shot through the body by an infuriated grenadier; he died after long sufferings borne with great fortitude, on the 2nd of January 1801. Lavater himself published two collections of his writings, Vermischte Schriften (2 vols., 1774-1781), and Kleinere prosaische Schriften (3 vols., 1784-1785). His Nachgelassene Schriften were edited by G. Gessner (5 vols., 1801-1802); Samtliche Werke (but only poems) (6 vols., 1836-1838); Ausgewahlte Schriften (8 vols., 1841—1844). See G. Gessner, Lavaters Lebensbeschreibung (3 vols., 1802-1803); U. Hegner, Beitrdge zur Kenntnis Lavaters (1836); F. W. Bodemann, Lavater nach seinem Leben, Lehren und Wirken (1856; 2nd ed., 1877); F. Muncker, J, K. Lavater (1883); H. Waser, /. K. Lavater nach Hegners Aufzeichnungen (1894); J- K- Lavater, Denkschrift zum zoo. Todestag (1902). LAVAUR, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Tarn, 37 m. S.E. of Mont- auban by rail. Pop. (1906), town 4069; commune 6388. Lavaur stands on the left bank of the Agout, which is here crossed by a railway-bridge and a fine stone bridge of the late iSth century. From 1317 till the Revolution Lavaur was the seat of a bishopric, and there is a cathedral dating from the i3th, i4th and isth centuries, with an octagonal bell-tower; a second smaller square tower contains a jaquemart (a statue which strikes the hours with a hammer) of the i6th century. In. the bishop's garden is the statue of Emmanuel Augustin, marquis de Las Cases, one of the companions of Napoleon at St Helena. The town carries on distilling and flour-milling and the manufacture of brushes, plaster and wooden shoes. There are a subprefecture and tribunal of first instance. Lavaur was taken in 1211 by Simon de Montfort during the wars of the Albigenses, and several times during the religious wars of the 1 6th century. LAVEDAN, HENRI LEON EMILE (1859- ), French dramatist and man of letters, was born at Orleans, the son of Hubert Leon Lavedan, a well-known Catholic and liberal journalist. He contributed to various Parisian papers a series of witty tales and dialogues of Parisian life, many of which were collected in volume form. In 1891 he produced at the Theatre Francais Une Famille, followed at the Vaudeville in 1894 by Le Prince d'Aurec, a satire on the nobility, afterwards re-named Les Descendants. Later brilliant and witty pieces were Les Deux noblesses (1897), Catherine (1897), Le Nouveaujeu (1898), Le Vieux marcheur (1899), Le Marquis de Priola*(i<)O2), and Varennes (1904), written in collaboration with G. Len6tre. He had a great success with Le Duel (Comedie Francaise, 1905), a powerful psychological study of the relations of two brothers. Lavedan was admitted to the French Academy in 1898. LAVELEYE, EMILE LOUIS VICTOR DE (1822-1892), Belgian economist, was born at Bruges on the sth of April i822{ and educated there and at the College Stanislas in Paris, a celebrated establishment in the hands of the Oratorians. He continued his studies at the Catholic university of Louvain and afterwards at Ghent, where he came under the influence of Francois Huet, the philosopher and Christian Socialist. In 1844 he won a prize with an essay on the language and literature of Provence. In 1847 he published L'Histoire des rois francs, and in 1861 a French version of the Nibelungen, but though he never lost his interest in literature and history, his most important work was in the domain of economics. He was one of a group of young lawyers, doctors and critics, all old pupils of Huet, who met once a week to discuss social and economic questions, and was thus led to 292 LAVENDER publish his views on these subjects. In 1859 some articles by him uv,the Revue des deux monies laid the foundation of his reputation as an economist. In 1864 he was elected to the chair of political economy at the state university of Liege. Here he wrote his most important works: La Russie et I' Autriche depuis Sadowa (1870), Essai sur Us formes de gouvernement dans les societes modernes (1872), Des Causes actuelles de guerre en Europe et de I 'arbitrage and De la propriete et de ses formes primitives (1874), dedicated to the memory of John Stuart Mill and Francois Huet. He died at Doyon, near Liege, on the 3rd of January 1892. Laveleye's name is particularly connected with bi- metallism and primitive property, and he took a special interest in the revival and preservation of small nationalities. But his activity included the whole realm of political science, political economy, monetary questions, international law, foreign and Belgian politics, questions of education, religion and morality, travel and literature. He had the art of popularizing even the most technical subjects, owing to the clearness of his view and his firm grasp of the matter in hand. He was especially attracted to England, where he thought he saw many of his ideals of social, political and religious progress realized. He was a frequent contributor to the English newspapers and leading reviews. The most widely circulated of his works was a pamphlet on Le Parti clerical en Belgique, of which 2,000,000 copies were circulated in ten languages. LAVENDER, botanically Laiiandula, a genus of the natural order Labiatae distinguished by an ovate tubular calyx, a two- lipped corolla, of which the upper Up has two and the lower three lobes, and four stamens bent downwards. The plant to which the name of lavender is commonly applied, Lavandula vera, is a native of the mountainous districts of the countries bordering on the western half of the Mediterranean, extending from the eastern coast of Spain to Calabria and northern Africa, growing in some places at a height of 4500 ft. above the sea-level, and preferring stony declivities in open sunny situations. It is cultivated in the open air as far north as Norway and Livonia. Lavender forms an evergreen under- shrub about 2 ft. high, with greyish-green hoary linear leaves, rolled under at the edges when young; the branches are erect and give a bushy appearance to the plant. The flowers are borne on a terminal spike at the summit of a long naked stalk, the spike being composed of 6-10 dense clusters in the axils of small, brownish, rhomboidal, tapering, opposite bracts, the clusters being more widely separated towards the base of the spike. The calyx is tubular, contracted towards the mouth, marked with 13 ribs and 5-toothed, the posterior tooth being the largest. The corolla is of a pale violet colour, but darker on its inner surface, tubular, two-lipped, the upper lip with two and the lower with three lobes. Both corolla and calyx are covered with Stellate hairs, amongst which are imbedded shining oil glands to which the fragrance of the plant is due. The leaves and flowers of lavender are said to have been used by the ancients to perfume their baths; hence the Med. Lat. name Lavandula or Lavendula is supposed to have been derived from lavare, to wash. This derivation is considered doubtful and a connexion has been suggested with Lat. livere, to be of a bluish, pale or livid colour. ' Although L. Stoechas was well known to the ancients, no allusion unquestionably referring to L. vera has been found in the -writings of classical authors, the earliest mention of the latter plant being in the I2th century by the abbess Hildegard, who lived near Bingen on the Rhine. Under the name of llafant or llafantly it was known to the Welsh physicians as a medicine in the i3th century. The dried flowers have long been used in England, the United States and other countries for perfuming linen, and the characteristic cry of " Lavender! sweet lavender!" was still to be heard in London streets at the beginning of'^he zoth century. In England lavender is cultivated chiefly for the distillation of its essential oil, of which it yields on an average i%% when freed from the stalks, but in the south of Europe the flowers form an object of trade, being exported to the Barbary states, Turkey and America. In Great Britain lavender is grown in the parishes of Mitcham, Carshalton and Beddington in Surrey, and in Hertfordshire in the parish of Hitchin. The most suitable soil seems to be a sandy loam with a calcareous substratum, and the most favourable position a sunny slope in localities elevated above the level of fogs, where the 3lant is not in danger of early frost and is freely exposed to air and ight. At Hitchin lavender is said to have been grown as early as 1568, but as a commercial speculation its cultivation dates back only to 1823. The plants at present in cultivation do not produce seed, and the propagation is always made by slips or by dividing the roots. The latter plan has only been followed since 1860, when a large number of lavender plants were killed by a severe frost. Since that date the plants have been subject to the attack of a fungus, in consequence of which the price of the oil has been considerably nhanced. The flowers are collected in the beginning of August, and taken direct to the still. The yield of oil depends in great measure upon the weather. After a wet and dull June and July the yield is some- times only half as much as when the weather has been bright and sunshiny. From 12 to 30 ft of oil per acre is the average amount ob tained. The oil contained in the stem has a more rank odour and is less volatile than that of the flowers; consequently the portion that distils over after the first hour and a half is collected separately. The finest oil is obtained by the distillation of the flowers, without the stalks, but the labour spent upon this adds about IDS. per Ib to the expense of the oil, and the same end is prac- tically attained by fractional distilla- tion. The oil mel- lows by keeping three years, after which it deterior- ates unless mixed with alcohol ; it is also improved by redistillation. Oil of lavender is distilled from the wild plants in Piedmont and the South of France, especially in the villages about Mont Ventoux near Avignon, and in those some leagues west of Montpellier. The best French oil realizes scarcely one-sixth of the priceof theEnglish oil. Cheaper var- ieties are made by distilling the entire plant. Oil of lavender is a mobile liquid having a. specific gravity from 0-85 to 0-89. Its chief constituents are linalool acetate, which also occurs in oil of berga- mot, and linalool, C10Hi,OH, an al- cohol derived by oxidation from myrcene, CioHie, which is one of the terpenes. The dose is }-3 minims. Lavender (Lavandula vera) f nat. size. 1. Flower, side view. 2. Flower, front view. 3. Calyx opened and spread n?t- 4. Corolla opened and spread flat. 5. Pistil. The British pharmacopeia contains a spiritus lavan- dulae, dose 5-20 minims: and a compound tincture, dose i-l drachm. This is contained in liquor arsenicalis, and its character- istic odour may thus be of great practical importance, medico-legally and otherwise. The pharmacology of oil of lavender is simply that of an exceptionally pleasant and mild volatile oil. It is largely used as a carminative and as a colouring and flavouring agent. Its adulteration with alcohol may be detected by chloride of calcium dissolving in it and forming a separate layer of liquid at the bottom of the vessel. Glycerine acts in the same way. If it contain turpen- tine it will not dissolve in three volumes of alcohol, in which quantity the pure oil is perfectly soluble. Lavender flowers were formerly considered good for all dis- orders of the head and nerves "; a spirit prepared with them was known under the name of palsy drops. '" ., • Lavender water consists of a solution of the volatile oil in spirit LAVERDY— LAVIGERIE 293 of wine with the addition of the essences of musk, rose, bergamot and ambergris, but is very rarely prepared by distillation of the flowers with spirit. In the climate of New York lavender is scarcely hardy, but in the vicinity of Philadelphia considerable quantities are grown for the market. In American gardens sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum) is frequently called lavender. Lavandula Spica, a species which differs from L. vera chiefly in its smaller size, more crowded leaves and linear bracts, is also used for the distillation of an essential oil, which is known in England as oil of spike and in France under the name of essence d'aspic. It is used in painting on porcelain and in veterinary medicine. The oil as met with in commerce is less fragrant than that of L. vera — probably because the whole plant is distilled, for the flowers of the two species are scarcely distinguishable in fragrance. L. Spica does not extend so far north, nor ascend the mountains beyond 2000 ft. It cannot be cultivated in Britain except in sheltered situations. A nearly allied species, L. lanata, ,a native of Spain, with broader leaves, is also very fragrant, but does not appear to be distilled for oil. Lavandula Stoechas, a species extending from the Canaries to Asia Minor, is distinguished from the above plants by its blackish purple flowers, and shortly stalked spikes crowned by conspicuous purplish sterile bracts. The flowers were official in the London pharmacopoeia as late as 1746. They are still used by the Arabs as an expectorant and antispasmodic. The Stoechades (now called the isles of Hyeres near Toulon) owed their name to the abundance of the plant growing there. Other species of lavender are known, some of which extend as far east as to India. A few which differ from the above in having divided leaves, as L. dentata, L. abrotanoid.es, L. multifolia, L. pinnata and L. viridis, have been cultivated in greenhouses, &c., in England. Sea lavender is a name applied in England to several species of Statice, a genus of littoral plants belonging to the order Plumba gineae. Lavender cotton is a species of the genus Santolina, small, yellow-flowered, evergreen undershrubs of the Composite order. LAVERDY, CLEMENT CHARLES FRANCOIS DE (1723-1703), French statesman, was a member of the parlement of Paris when the case against the Jesuits came before that body in August 1761. He demanded the suppression of the order and thus acquired popularity. Louis XV. named him controller- general of the finances in December 1763, but the burden, was great and Laverdy knew nothing of finance. Three months after his nomination he forbade anything of any kind whatever to be printed concerning his administration, thus refusing advice as well as censure. He used all sorts of expedients, sometimes dishonest, to replenish the treasury, and was even accused of having himself profited from the commerce in wheat. A court intrigue led to his sudden dismissal on the ist of October 1768. Henceforward he lived in retirement until, during the Revolution, he was involved in the charges against the financiers of the old regime. The Revolutionary tribunal condemned him to death, and he was guillotined on the 24th of November 1793- See A. Jobez, La France sous Louis XV (1869). LAVERNA, an old Italian divinity, originally one of the spirits of the underworld. A cup found 'in an Etruscan tomb bears the inscription " Laverriai Pocolom," and in a fragment of Septimius Serenus Laverna is expressly mentioned in con- nexion with the di inferi. By an easy transition, she came to be regarded as the protectress of thieves, whose operations were associated with darkness. She had an altar on the Aventine hill, near the gate called after her Lavernalis, and a grove on the Via Salaria. Her aid was invoked by thieves to enable them to carry out their plans successfully without forfeiting their reputation for piety and honesty (Horace, Ep. i. 16, 60). Many explanations have been given of the name : (i) from latere (Schol. on Horace, who gives lalernio as another form of lavernio or robber); (2) from lavare (Acron on Horace, according to whom thieves were called latiatores, perhaps referring to bath thieves); (3) from levare (cf. shop-lifters). Modern etymologists connect it with lu-crum, and explain it as meaning the goddess of gain. LAVERY, JOHN (1857- ), British painter, was born in Belfast, and received his art training in Glasgow, London and Paris. He was elected associate of the Royal Scottish Academy in 1892 and academician in 1896, having won a considerable reputation as a painter of portraits and figure subjects, and as a facile and vigorous executant. He became also vice-president of the International Society of sculptors, painters and gravers. Many of his paintings have been acquired for public collections, and he is represented in the National Galleries at Brussels, Berlin and Edinburgh, in the Carnegie Institute at Pittsburg, the Philadelphia Gallery, the New South Wales Gallery, the Modern Gallery, Venice, the Pinakothek, Munich, the Glasgow Corporation Gallery, and the Luxembourg. LAVIGERIE, CHARLES MARTIAL ALLEMAND (1825- 1892), French divine, cardinal archbishop of Carthage and Algiers and primate of Africa, was born at Bayonne on the 3ist of October 1825, and was educated at St Sulpice, Paris. He was ordained priest in 1849, and was professor of ecclesiastical history at the Sorbonne from 1854 to 1856. In 1856 he accepted the direction of the schools of the East, and was thus for the first time brought into contact with the Mahommedan world. " C'est la," he wrote, " que j'ai connu enfin ma vocation." Activity in missionary work, especially in alleviating the dis- tresses of the victims of the Druses, soon brought him prominently into notice; he was made a chevalier of the Legion of Honour, and in October 1861, shortly after his return to Europe, was appointed French auditor at Rome. Two years later he was raised to the see of Nancy, where he remained for four years, during which the diocese became one of the best administered in France. While bishop of Nancy he met Marshal MacMahon, then governor-general of Algeria, who in 1866 offered him the see of Algiers, just raised to an archbishopric. Lavigerie landed in Africa on the nth of May 1868, when the great famine was already making itself felt, and he began in November to collect the orphans into villages. This action, however, did not meet with the approval of MacMahon, who feared that the Arabs would resent it as an infraction of the religious peace, and thought that the Mahommedan church, being a state institution in Algeria, ought to be protected from proselytism; so it was intimated to the prelate that his sole duty was to minister to the colonists. Lavigerie, however, continued his self-imposed task, refused the archbishopric of Lyons, which was offered to him by the emperor, and won his point. Contact with the natives during the famine caused Lavigerie to entertain exaggerated hopes for their general conversion, and his enthusiasm was such that he offered to resign his archbishopric in order to devote himself entirely to the missions. Pius IX, refused this, but granted him a coadjutor, and placed the whole of equatorial Africa under his charge. In 1870 Lavigerie warmly supported papal infalli- bility. In 1871 he was twice a candidate for the National Assembly, but was defeated. In 1874 he founded the Sahara and Sudan mission, and sent missionaries to Tunis, Tripoli, East Africa and the Congo. The order of African missionaries thus founded, for which Lavigerie himself drew up the rule, has since become famous as the Peres Blancs. From 1881 to 1884 his activity in Tunisia so raised the prestige of France that it drew from Gambetta the celebrated declaration, L'Anli- clericalisme n'est pas un article d 'exportation, and led to the exemption of Algeria from the application of the decrees concern- ing the religious orders. On the 27th of March 1882 the dignity of cardinal was conferred upon Lavigerie, but the great object of his ambition was to restore the see of St Cyprian; and in that also he was successful, for by a bull of loth November 1884 the metropolitan see of Carthage was re-erected, and Lavigerie received the pallium on the 2$th of January 1885. The later years of his life were spent in ardent anti-slavery propaganda, and his eloquence moved large audiences in London, as well las in Paris, Brussels and other parts of the continent. He hoped, by organizing a fraternity of armed laymen as pioneers, to restore fertility to the Sahara; but this community did not succeed, and was dissolved before his death. In 1890 Lavigerie appeared in the new character of a politician, and arranged with Pope Leo XIII. to make an attempt to reconcile the church with the republic. He invited the officers of the Mediterranean squadron to lunch at Algiers, and, practically renouncing his monarchical sympathies, to which he clung as long as the comte de Chambord was alive, expressed his support of the republic, 294 LA VILLEMARQUE— LAVISSE and emphasized it by having the Marseillaise played by a band of his Fires Blancs. The further steps in this evolution emanated from the pope, and Lavigerie, whose health now began to fail, receded comparatively into the background. He died at Algiers on the 26th of November 1892. (G. F. B.) LA VILLEMARQUl THEODORE CLAUDE HENRI, YICOMTE HERSART DE (1815-1895), French philologist and man of letters, was bom at Keransker, near Quimperld, on the 6th of July 1815. He was descended from an old Breton family, which counted among its members a Hersart who had followed Saint Louis to the Crusade, and another who was a companion in arms of Du Guesclin. La Yilleniarque devoted himself to the elucidation of the monuments of Breton literature. Intro- duced in 1851 by Jacob Grimm as correspondent to the Academy of Berlin, he became in 1858 a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. His works include: Ccnlfs populaires des anciens Bretons (1842), to which was prefixed an essay on the origin of the romances of the Round Table; Essai stir rkistoire de la tongue bretonne (1837); Poemes des bardes bretons du sisifme tilde (1850); La Ltgende ceilique en Irelande. en Cambrie tl en Bretagne (1859). The popular Breton songs published by him .in 1839 as Barsas Brcis were considerably retouched. La Villemarqui's work has been superseded by the work of later scholars, but he has the merit of having done much to arouse popular interest in his subject. He died at Keransker on the 8th of December 1895. On the subject of the doubtful authenticity of Barsas Brris, see Luael's Preface to his Chansons populairts de la Basst-Brttagne, and, for a list of works on the subject, the Rente Cetoqu* (voL v.). LAVINIUM. an ancient town of Latium, on the so-called Via Lavinatis (see LAUREXTIXA. VIA), 19 m. S. of Rome, the modern PRATICA, situated 300 ft. above sea-level and z\ m. N.£. from the sea-coast. Its foundation is attributed to Aeneas (whereas Lauren turn was the primitive city of King Latinus), who named it after his wife Lavinia. It is rarely mentioned in Roman history and often confused with Lanuvium or Lanivium in the text both of authors and of inscriptions. The custom by which the consuls and praetors or dictators sacrificed on the Alban Mount and at Lavinium to the'Penates and to Vesta, before they entered upcr. office or departed for their province, seems to have been one of great antiquity. There is no trace of its having continued into imperial times, but the cults of Lavinium were kept up, largely by the imperial appointment of honorary non-resident citizens to hold the priesthoods. The citizens of Lavinium were known under the empire as Laurentes Lavinates, and the place itself at a late period as Laurolavinium. It was deserted or forgotten not long after the time of Theodosius. Lavinium was preceded by a more ancient town. LACREXTVM. the city of Latinus (Verg. Arn. viii.); of this the site is un- certain, but it is probably to besought at the modern Tor Paterno, dose to the sea-coast and 5 m. X. by \V. of Lavinium. Here the name of Lauren turn is preserved by the modern name Pantan di Lauro. Even in ancient times it was famous for its groves of bay-trees (founts) from which its name was perhaps derived, and which in imperial times gave the villas of its territory a name for salubrity, so that both Vitellius and Commodus resorted there. The exact date of the abandonment of the town itself and the incorporation of its territory with that of Lavinium is uncertain, but it may be placed in the latter part of the republic. Under the empire a portion of it must have been imperial domain and forest. We hear of an imperial procurator in charge of the elephants at Laurent urn; and the imperial villa may perhaps be identified with the extensive ruins at Tor Paterno itself. The remains of numerous other villas lie along the ancient coast-line (which was half a mile inland of the modern, being now marked by a row of sand-hills, and was followed by the Via Severiana), both north-west and south-east of Tor Paterno: they extended as a fact in an almost unbroken line along the low sandy coast — now entirely deserted and largely occupied by the low scrub which serves as cover for the wild boars of the king of Italy's preserves — from the mouth of the Tiber to Antium. and therce again to Astura; but there are no traces of any buildings previous to the imperial period. In one of these villas, excavated by the king of Italy in 1906, was found a fine replica of the famous discobolus of Myron. The plan of the build- ing is interesting, as it diverges entirely from the normal type and adapts itself to the site. Some way to the NAY. was situated the village of Vicus Augustanus Laurentium, taking its name probably from Augustus himself, and probably identical with the village mentioned by Pliny the younger as separated by only one villa from his own. This village was brought to light by excavation in 1874, and its forum and curia are still visible. The remains of the villa of Pliny, too, were excavated in 1713 and in 1802-1819, and it is noteworthy that the place bears the name Villa di Pino (sic) on the staff map; how old the name is, is uncertain. It is impossible without further excavation to reconcile the remains — mainly of substructions — with the elaborate description of his villa given by Pliny (cf. H. Winnefeld in JaJtrbuck des Institute. 1891, 200 seq.). The site of the ancient Lavinium, no less than 300 ft. above sea-level and 2$ m. inland, is far healthier than the low-lying Laurentum, -where, except in the immediate vicinity of the coast, malaria must have been a dreadful scourge. It possesses con- siderable natural strength, and consists of a small hill, the original acropolis, occupied by the modern castle and the village surrounding it, and a larger one, now given over to cultivation, where the city stood. On the former there are now no traces of antiquity, but on the latter are scanty remains of the city walls, in small blocks of the grey-green tufa (cappellaccio) which is used in the earliest buildings of Rome, and traces of the streets. The necropolis, too, has been discovered, but not sys- tematically excavated; but objects of the first Iron age, includ- ing a sword of Aegean type (thus confirming the tradition), have been found; also remains of a building with Doric columns of an archaistic type, remains of later buildings in brick, and inscriptions, some of them of considerable interest. See R. Lanciani in Monumenli dei Lincei, riii. (1903), 133 seq.; xvi. .(.1906), 241 seq. (T. As.) LAVISSE, ERNEST (1842- ), French historian, was born at Nouvion-en-Thierache. Aisne, on the I7th of December 1842. In 1865 he obtained a fellowship in history, and in 1875 became a doctor of letters; he was appointed maltre de conference (1876) at the ecole nonnale superieure, succeeding Fustel de Coulanges, and then professor of modern history at the Sorbonne (1888), in the place of Henri Wallon. He was an eloquent professor and very fond of young people, and played an important part in the revival of higher studies in France after 1871. His know- ledge of pedagogy was displayed in his public lectures and his addresses, in his private lessons, where he taught a small number of pupils the historical method, and in his books, where he wrote ad probandum at least as much as ad narrandum; class-books, collections of articles, intermingled with personal reminiscences (Questions d~enseignement national, 1885; Etudes ci (tudiamts, 1890; A propos de nos ecoles. 1895), rough historical sketches ( \'uf generate de F kistoire politiaue de F Europe, 1800), &c. Even his works of learning, written without a trace of pedantry, are remarkable for their lucidity and vividness, After the Franco-Prussian War Lavisse studied the develop- ment of Prussia and wrote Elude sur Fune des engines de la monarckif pmssifnne, on la Marcke de Brandebourg sons la dynastie ascanienne. which was his thesis for his doctor's degree in 1875, and Etudes sur rkistoire de la Prusse (1879). In con- nexion with his study of the Holy Roman Empire, and the cause of its decline, he wrote a number of articles which were published in the Reeue des Deux Mondes; and he wrote Trots empercurs d'Allfmagne (1888), La Jeunessf du grand Frederic (1891) and Frtdfric II. araui son atimmenl (1893) when studying the modern German empire and the grounds for its strength. With his friend Alfred Rambaud he conceived the plan of L'Histoire gtntraie du IV' siede jusqii'd nos jours, to which, however, he contributed nothing. He edited the Histoire de France depuis les orfginfs jusqu'a la Revolution (1901- ), in which he care- fully revised the work of his numerous assistants, reserving the greatest part of the reign of Louis XIV. for himself. This LAVOISIER 295 section occupies the whole of volume vii. It is a remarkable piece of work, and the sketch of absolute government in France during this period has never before been traced with an equal amount of insight and brilliance. Lavisse was admitted to the Academic Francaise on the death of Admiral Jurien de la Graviere in 1892, and after the death of James Darmesteter became editor of the Revue de Paris. He is, however, chiefly a master of pedagogy. When the ecole normale was joined to the university of Paris, Lavisse was appointed director of the new organization, which he had helped more than any one to bring about. LAVOISIER, ANTOINE LAURENT (1743-1794), French chemist, was born in Paris on the 26th of August 1743. His father, an avocat au parlemcnt, gave him an excellent education at the college Mazarin, and encouraged his taste for natural science; and he studied mathematics and astronomy with N. L. de Lacaille, chemistry with the elder Rouelle and botany with Bernard de Jussieu. In 1766 he received a gold medal from the Academy of Sciences for an essay on the best means of lighting a large town; and among his early work were papers on the analysis of gypsum, on thunder, on the aurora and on conge- lation, and a refutation of the prevalent belief that water by repeated distillation is converted into earth. He also assisted J. E. Guettard (1715-1786) in preparing his mineralogical. atlas of France. In 1768, recognized as a man who had both the ability and tfye means for a scientific career, he was nominated adjoint chimiste to the Academy, and in that capacity made numerous reports on the most diverse subjects, from the theory of colours to water-supply and from invalid chairs to mesmerism and the divining rod. The same year he obtained the position of adjoint to Baudon, one of the farmers-general of the revenue, subsequently becoming a full titular member of the body. This was the first of a series of posts in which his administrative abilities found full scope. Appointed regisseur des poudres in 1775, he not only abolished the vexatious search for saltpetre in the cellars of private houses, but increased the production of the salt and improved the manufacture of gunpowder. In 1785 he was nominated to the committee on agriculture, and as its secretary drew up reports and instructions on the cultivation of various crops, and promulgated schemes for the establishment of experimental agricultural stations, the distribution of agri- cultural implements and the adjustment of rights of pasturage. Seven years before he had started a model farm at Frechine, where he demonstrated the advantages of scientific methods of cultivation and of the introduction of good breeds of cattle and sheep. Chosen a member of the provincial assembly of Orleans in 1787, he busied himself with plans for the improvement of the social and economic conditions of the community by means of savings banks, insurance societies, canals, workhouses, &c.; and he showed the sincerity of his philanthropical work by advancing money out of his own pocket, without interest, to the towns of Blois and Romorantin, for the purchase of barley during the famine of 1788. Attached in this same year to the caisse d'escompte, he presented the report of its operations to the national assembly in 1789, and as commissary of the treasury in 1791 he established a system of accounts of unexampled punctuality. He was also asked by the national assembly to draw up a new scheme of taxation in connexion with which he produced a report De la richesse territoriale de la France, and he was further associated with committees on hygiene, coinage, the casting of cannon, &c., and was secretary and treasurer of the commission appointed in 1 790 to secure uniformity of weights and measures. In 1791, when Lavoisier was in the middle of all this official activity, the suppression of the farmers-general marked the beginning of troubles which brought about his death. His membership of that body was alone sufficient to make him an object of suspicion; his administration at the rtgie des poudres was attacked; and Marat accused him in the Ami du Peuple of putting Paris in prison and of stopping the circulatiorrof air in the city by the mur d' octroi erected at his suggestion in 1787. The Academy, of which as treasurer at the time he was a con- spicuous member, was regarded by the convention with no friendly eyes as being tainted with " incivism," and in the spring of 1792 A. F. Fourcroy endeavoured to persuade it to purge itself of suspected members. The attempt was unsuccess- ful, but in August of the same year Lavoisier had to leave his house and laboratory at the Arsenal, and in November the Academy was forbidden until further orders to fill up the vacancies in its numbers. Next year, on the ist of August, the convention passed a decree for the uniformity of weights and measures, and requested the Academy to take measures for carrying it out, but a week later Fourcroy persuaded the same convention to suppress the Academy together with other literary societies patentees cl dolecs by the nation. In November it ordered the arrest of the ex-farmers-general, and on the advice of the com- mittee of public instruction, of which Guyton de Morveau and Fourcroy were members, the names of Lavoisier and others were struck off from the commission of weights and measures. The fate of the ex-farmcrs-general was sealed on the 2nd of May 1794, when, on the proposal of Antoine Dupin, one of their former officials, the convention sent them for trial by the Re- volutionary tribunal. Within a week Lavoisier and 27 others were condemned to death. A petition in his favour addressed to Coffinhal, the president of the tribunal, is said to have been met with the reply La Republique n'a pas besoin de savants, and on the 8th of the month Lavoisier and his companions were guillotined at the Place de la Revolution. He died fourth, and was preceded by his colleague Jacques Paulze, whose daughter he had married in 1771. " // ne leur afallu," Lagrange remarked, " qu'un moment pour faire tomber cette te~te, el cent annecs pcut-etre ne suffiront pas pour en reproduire une scmblable." Lavoisier's name is indissolubly associated with the overthrow of the phlogistic doctrine that had dominated the development of chemistry for over a century, and with the establishment of the foundations upon which the modern science reposes. "He discovered," says Justus von Liebig (Letters on Chemistry, No. 3), " no new body, no new property, no natural phenomenon previously unknown; but all the facts established by him were the necessary consequences of the labours of those who preceded him. His merit, his immortal glory, consists in this — that he infused into the body of the science a new spirit; but all the members of that body were already in existence, and rightly joined together." Realizing that the total weight of all the products of a chemical reaction must be exactly equal to the total weight of the reacting substances, he made the balance the ultima ratio of the laboratory, and he was able to draw correct inferences from his weighings because, unlike many of the phlogistonists, he looked upon heat as imponderable. It was by weighing that in 1770 he proved that water is not converted into earth by distillation, for he showed that the total weight of a sealed glass vessel and the water it contained remained constant, however long the water was boiled, but that the glass vessel lost weight to an extent equal to the weight of earth produced, his inference being that the earth came from the glass, not from the water. On the ist of November 1772 he deposited with the Academy a sealed note which stated that sulphur and phos- phorus when burnt increased in weight because they absorbed " air," while the metallic lead formed from litharge by reduction with charcoal weighed less than the original litharge because it had lost " air." The exact nature of the airs concerned in the processes he did not explain until after the preparation of " dephlogisticated air " (oxygen) by Priestley in 1774. Then, perceiving that in combustion and the calcination of metals only a portion of a given volume of common air was used up, he concluded that Priestley's new air, air eminemment pur, was what was absorbed by burning phosphorus, &c., "non-vital air," azote, or nitrogen remaining behind. The gas given off in the reduction of metallic calces by charcoal he at first supposed to be merely that contained in the calx, but he soon came to under- stand that it was a product formed by the union of the charcoal with the " dephlogisticated air " in the calx. In a memoir presented to the Academy in 1777, but not. published till 1782, 296 LA VOISIN he assigned to dephlogisticated air the name oxygen, or " acid- producer," on the supposition that all acids were formed by its union with a simple, usually non-metallic, body; and having verified this notion for phosphorus, sulphur, charcoal, &c., and even extended it to the vegetable acids, he naturally asked himself what was formed by the combustion of " inflammable air " (hydrogen). This problem he had attacked in 1774, and in subsequent years he made various attempts to discover the acid which, under the influence of his oxygen theory, he expected would be formed. It was not till the 2$th of June 1783 that in conjunction with Laplace he announced to the Academy that water was the product formed by the combination of hydrogen and oxygen, but by that time he had been anticipated by Cavendish, to whose prior work, however, as to that of several other investigators in other matters, it is to be regretted that he did not render due acknowledgment. But a knowledge of the composition of water enabled him to storm the last defences of the phlogistonists. Hydrogen they held to be the phlogiston of metals, and they supported this view by pointing out that it was liberated when metals were dissolved in acids. Considerations of weight had long prevented Lavoisier from accepting this doctrine, but he was now able to explain the process fully, showing that the hydrogen evolved did not come from the metal itself, but was one product of the decomposition of the water of the dilute acid, the other product, oxygen, combining with the metal to form an oxide which in turn united with the acid. A little later this same knowledge led him to the beginnings of quantitative organic analysis. Knowing that the water produced by the combustion of alcohol was not pfe-existent in that sub- stance but was formed by the combination of its hydrogen with the oxygen of the air, he burnt alcohol and other combustible organic substances, such as wax and oil, in a known volume of oxygen, and, from the weight of the water and carbon dioxide produced and his knowledge of their composition, was able to calculate the amounts of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen present in the substance. Up to about this time Lavoisier's work, mainly quantitative in character, had appealed most strongly to physicists, but it now began to win conviction from chemists also. C. L. Berthollet, L. B. Guyton de Morveau and A. F. Fourcroy, his collaborators in the reformed system of chemical terminology set forth in 1787 in the Melhode de nomenclature chimique, were among the earliest French converts, and they were followed by M. H. Klaproth and the German Academy, and by most English chemists except Cavendish, who rather suspended his judgment, and Priestley, who stubbornly clung to the opposite view. Indeed, though the partisans of phlogiston did not surrender without a struggle, the history of science scarcely presents a second instance of a change so fundamental accomplished with such ease. The spread of Lavoisier's doctrines was greatly facilitated by the defined and logical form in which he presented them in his Traits elementaire de chimie (presente dans un ordre nouveau et d'apres les decouvertes modernes) (1789). The list of simple substances contained in the first volume, of this work includes light and caloric with oxygen, azote and hydrogen. Under the head of " oxidable or acidifiable " substances, the combination of which with oxygen yielded acids, were placed sulphur, phos- phorus, carbon, and the muriatic, fluoric and boracic radicles. The metals, which by combination with oxygen became oxides, were antimony, silver, arsenic, bismuth, cobalt, copper, tin, iron, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, nickel, gold, platinum, lead, tungsten and zinc; and the " simple earthy salifiable sub- stances " were lime, baryta, magnesia, alumina and silica. The simple nature of the alkalies Lavoisier considered so doubtful that he did not class them as elements, which he conceived as substances which could not be further decomposed by any known process of analysis — les molecules simples et indivisibles qui composent les corps. The union of any two of the elements gave rise to binary compounds, such as oxides, acids, sulphides, &c. A substance containing three elements was a binary com- pound of the second order; thus salts, the most important compounds of this class, were formed by the union of acids and oxides, iron sulphate, for instance, being a compound of iron oxide with sulphuric acid. In addition to his purely chemical work, Lavoisier, mostly in conjunction with Laplace, devoted considerable attention to physical problems, especially those connected with heat. The two carried out some of the earliest thermochemical investiga- tions, devised apparatus for measuring linear and cubical expansions, and employed a modification of Joseph Black's ice calorimeter in a series of determinations of specific heats. Regarding heat (matiere de feu or fluide igne) as a peculiar kind of imponderable matter, Lavoisier held that the three states of aggregation — solid, liquid and gas — were modes of matter, each depending on the amount of matiere de feu with which the pon- derable substances concerned were interpenetrated and com- bined; and this view enabled him correctly to anticipate that gases would be reduced to liquids and solids by the influence of cold and pressure. He also worked at fermentation, respiration and animal heat, looking upon the processes concerned as essentially chemical in nature. A paper discovered many years after his death showed that he had anticipated later thinkers in explaining the cyclical process of animal and vegetable life, for he pointed out that plants derive their food from the air, from water, and in general from the mineral kingdom, and animals in turn feed on plants or on other animals fed by plants, while the materials thus taken up by plants and animals are restored to the mineral kingdom by the breaking-down processes of fermentation, putrefaction and combustion. A complete edition of the writings of Lavoisier, (Euvres de Lavoisier, publiees par les soins du ministre de I'instruction publique, was issued at Paris in six volumes from 1864-1893. This publication comprises his Opuscules physiques et chimiques (1774), many memoirs from the Academy volumes, and numerous letters, notes and reports relating to the various matters on which he was engaged. At the time of his death he was preparing an edition of his collected works, and the portions ready for the press were published in two volumes as Memoires de chimie in 1805 by his widow (in that year married to Count Rumford), who had drawn and engraved the plates in his Traite elementaire de chimie (1789). See E. Grimaux, Lavoisier 1743-1794, d'aprks sa correspondance, ses manuscripts, &c. (1888), which gives a list of his works; P. E. M. Berthelot, La Revolution chimique: Lavoisier (1890), which contains an analysis of and extracts from his laboratory notebooks. LA VOISIN. CATHERINE MONVOISIN, known as " La Voisin " (d. 1680), French sorceress, whose maiden name was Catherine Deshayes, was one of the chief personages in the famous ajfaire des poisons, which disgraced the reign of Louis XIV. Her husband, Monvoisin, was an unsuccessful jeweller, and she practised chiromancy and face-reading to retrieve their fortunes. She gradually added the practice of witchcraft, in which she had the help of a renegade priest, Etienne Guibourg, whose part was the celebration of the " black mass," an abominable parody in which the host was compounded of the blood of a little child mixed with horrible ingredients. She practised medicine, especially midwifery, procured abortion and provided love powders and poisons. Her chief accomplice was one of her lovers, the magician Lesage, whose real name was Adam Cceuret. The great ladies of Paris flocked to La Voisin, who accumulated enormous wealth. Among her clients were Olympe Mancini, comtesse de Soissons, who sought the death of the king's mistress, Louise de la Valliere; Mme de Montespan, Mme de Gramont (la belle Hamilton) and others. The bones of toads, the teeth of moles, cantharides, iron filings, human blood and human dust were among the ingredients of the love powders concocted by La Voisin. Her knowledge of poisons was not apparently so thorough as that of less well-known sorcerers, or it would be difficult to account for La Valliere's immunity. The art of poisoning had become a regular science. The death of Henrietta, duchess of Orleans, was attributed, falsely it is true, to poison, and the crimes of Marie Madeleine de Brinvilliers (executed in 1676) and her accomplices were still fresh in the public mind. In April 1679 a commission appointed to inquire into the subject and to prosecute the offenders met for the first time. Its pro- ceedings, including some suppressed in the official records, are preserved in the notes of one of the official rapporteurs, Gabriel Nicolas de la Reynie. The revelation of the treacherous intention of Mme de Montespan to poison Louis XIV. and of other crimes, planned by personages who could not be attacked without scandal which touched the throne, caused Louis XIV. to close the chambre ardenle, as the court was called, on the ist of October 1680. It was reopened on the igth of May 1681 and sat until the 2ist of July 1682. Many of the culprits escaped through private influence. Among these were Marie Anne Mancini, duchesse de Bouillon, who had sought to get rid of her husband in order to marry the duke of Vendome, though Louis XIV. banished her to Nerac. Mme de Montespan was not openly disgraced, because the preservation of Louis's own dignity was essential, and some hundred prisoners, among them the infamous Guibourg and Lesage, escaped the scaffold through the suppres- sion of evidence insisted on by Louis XIV. and Louvois. Some of these were imprisoned in various fortresses, with instructions from Louvois to the respective commandants to flog them if they sought to impart what they knew. Some innocent persons were imprisoned for life because they had knowledge of the facts. La Voisin herself was executed at an early stage of the proceed- ings, on the 2oth of February 1680, after a perfunctoiy applica- tion of torture. The authorities had every reason to avoid further revelations. Thirty-five other prisoners were executed; five were sent to the galleys and twenty-three were banished. Their crimes had furnished one of the most extraordinary trials known to history. See F. Ravaisson, Archives de la Bastille, vojs. iv.-vii. (1870-1874) ; the notes of La Reynie, preserved in the Bibliotheque Nationalc; F. Funck-Brentano, Le Drame des poisons (1899); A. Masson, La Sorcellerie et la science des poisons auX VII' siecle ( 1 904) . Sardou made the affair a background for his Affaire des poisons (1907). There is a portrait of La Voisin by Antoine Coypel, which has been often repro- duced. LAW, JOHN (1671-1729), Scots economist, best known as the originator of the " Mississippi scheme," was born at Edinburgh in April 1671. His father, a goldsmith and banker, bought shortly before his death, which took place in his son's youth, the lands of Lauriston near Edinburgh. John lived at home till he was twenty, and then went to London. He had already studied mathematics, and the theory of commerce and political economy, with much interest; but he was known rather as fop than scholar. In London he gambled, drank and flirted till in April 1694 a love intrigue resulted in a duel with Beau Wilson in Bloomsbury Square. Law killed his antagonist, and was condemned to death. His life was spared, but he was detained in prison. He found means to escape to Holland, then the greatest commercial country in Europe. Here he observed with close attention the practical working of banking and financial business, and conceived the first ideas of his celebrated " system." After a few years spent in foreign travel, he returned to Scotland, then exhausted and enraged by the failure of the Darien expedition (1695-1701). He propounded plans for the relief of his country in a work1 entitled Money and Trade Considered, with a Proposal for supplying the Nation with Money (1705). This attracted some notice, but had no practical effect, and Law again betook himself to travel. He visited Brussels, Paris, Vienna, Genoa, Rome, making large sums by gambling and speculation, and spending them lavishly. He was in Paris in 1708, and made some pioposals to the government as to their financial difficulties, but Louis XIV. declined to treat with a " Huguenot," and d 'Argenson, chief of the police, had Law expelled as a suspicious character. He had, however, become 1 A work entitled Proposals and Reasons for constituting a Council of Trade in Scotland was published anonymously at Edinburgh in 1701. It was republished at Glasgow in 1751 with Law's name attached; but several references in the state papers of the time mention William Paterson (1658-1719), founder of the Bank of England, as the author of the plan therein propounded. Even if Law had nothing to do with the composition of the work, he must have read it and been influenced by it. This may explain how it contains the germs of many of the developments of the " system." Certainly the suggestion of a central board, to manage great com- mercial undertakings, to furnish occupation for the poor, to encourage mining, fishing and manufactures, and to bring about a reduction in the rate of interest, was largely realized in the Mississippi scheme. See Bannister's Life of William Paterson (ed. 1858), and Writings of William. Paterson (2nd ed., 3 vols., 1859). LAW, J. 297 intimately acquainted with the duke of Orleans, and when in 1715 that prince became regent, Law at once returned to Paris. The extravagant expenditure of the late monarch had plunged the kingdom into apparently inextricable financial confusion. The debt was 3000 million livres, the estimated annual expendi- ture, exclusive of interest payments, 148 million livres, and the income about the same. The advisability of declaring a national bankruptcy was seriously discussed, and though this plan was rejected, measures hardly less violent were carried. By a visa, or examination of the state liabilities by a committee with full powers of quashing claims, the debt was reduced nearly a half, the coin in circulation was ordered to be called in and reissued at the rate of 120 for 100 — a measure by which foreign coiners profited greatly, and a chamber of justice was established to punish speculators, to whom the difficulties of the state were ascribed. These measures had so little success that the billets d'etat which were issued as part security for the new debt at once sank 75% below their nominal value. At this crisis Law unfolded a vast scheme to the perplexed regent. A royal bank was to manage the trade and currency of the kingdom, to collect the taxes, and to free the country from debt. The council of finance, then under the due de Noailles, opposed the plan, but the regent allowed Law to take some tentative steps. By an edict of 2nd May 1716, a private institution called La Banque generate, and managed by Law, was founded. The capital was 6 million livres, divided into 1 200 shares of 5000 livres, payable in four instalments, one-fourth in cash, three-fourths in billets d'etat. It was to perform the ordinary functions of a bank, and had power to issue notes payable at sight in the weight and value of the money mentioned at day of issue. The bank was a great and immediate success. By providing for the absorption of part of the state paper it raised, the credit of the government. The notes were a most desirable medium of exchange, for they had the element of fixity of value, which, owing to the arbitrary mint decrees of the government, was wanting in the coin of the realm. They proved the most convenient instruments of re- mittance between the capital and the provinces, and they thus developed the industries of the latter. The »rate of interest, previously enormous and uncertain, fell first to 6 and then to 4%; and when another decree (loth April 1717) ordered collectors of taxes to receive notes as payments, and to change them for coin at request, the bank so rose in favour that it soon had a note-issue of 60 million livres. Law now gained the full confidence of the regent, and was allowed to proceed with the development of the " system." The trade of the region about the Mississippi had been granted to a speculator named Crozat. He found the undertaking too large, and was glad to give it up. By a decree of August 1717 Law was allowed to establish the Compagnie de la Louisiane ou d'Occident, and to endow it with privileges practically amounting to sovereignty over the most fertile region of North America. The capital was 100 million livres divided into 200,000 shares of 500 livres. The payments were to be one-fourth in coin and three-fourths in billets d'tlat. On these last the government was to pay 3 million livres interest yearly to the company. As the state paper was depreciated the shares fell much below par. The rapid rise of Law had made him many enemies, and they took advantage of this to attack the system. D'Argenson, now head of the council of finance, with the brothers Paris of Grenoble, famous tax farmers of the day, formed what was called the " anti-system." The farming of the taxes was let to them, under an assumed name, for 485 million livres yearly. A company was formed, the exact counterpart of the Mississippi company. The capital was the same, divided in the same manner, but the payments were to be entirely in money. The returns from the public revenue were sure; those from the Mississippi scheme were not. Hence the shares of the latter were for some time out of favour. Law proceeded unmoved with the development of his plans. On the 4th of December 1718 the bank became a government institution under the name of La Banque royale. Law was director, and the king guaranteed the notes. The shareholders were repaid in coin, and, to widen the influence 298 LAW, J. of the new institution, the transport of money between towns where it had branches was forbidden. The paper-issue now reached no millions. Law had such confidence in the success of his plans that he agreed to take over shares in the Mississippi company at par at a near date. The shares began rapidly to rise. The next move was to unite the companies Des Indes Orientates and De Chine, founded in 1664 and 1713 respectively, but now dwindled away to a shadow, to his company. The united associa- tion, La Compagnie des Indes, had a practical monopoly of the foreign trade of France. These proceedings necessitated the creation of new capital to the nominal amount of 25 million livres. The payment was spread over 20 months. Every holder of four original shares (meres) could purchase one of the new shares (filles) at a premium of 50 livres. All these 5oo-livre shares rapidly rose to 750, or 50% above par. Law now turned his attention to obtaining additional powers within France itself. On the 25th of July 1719 an edict was issued granting the company for nine years the management of the mint and the coin-issue. For this privilege the company paid 5 million livres, and the money was raised by a new issue of shares of the nominal value of 500 livres, but with a premium of other 500. The list was only open for twenty days, and it was necessary to present four meres and onefille in order to obtain one of the new shares (petites filles). At the same time two dividends per annum of 6% each were promised. Again there was an attempt to ruin the bank by the commonplace expedient of making a run on it for coin; but the conspirators had to meet absolute power managed with fearlessness and skill. An edict appeared reducing, at a given date, the value of money, and those who had with- drawn coin from the bank hastened again to exchange it for the more stable notes. Public confidence in Law was increased, and he was enabled rapidly to proceed with the completion of the system. A decree of 27th August 1719 deprived the rival company of the farming of the revenue, and gave it to the Compagnie des Indes for nine years in return for an annual payment of 52 million livres. Thus at one blow the " anti- system " was crushed. One thing yet remained; Law proposed to take over the national debt, and manage it on terms advan- tageous to the state. The mode of transfer was this. The debt was over 1500 million livres. Notes were to be issued to that amount, and with these the state creditors must be paid in a certain order. Shares were to be issued at intervals corresponding to the payments, and it was expected that the notes would be used in buying them. The government was to pay 3% for the loan. It had formerly been bound to pay 80 millions, it would now pay under 50, a clear gain of over 30. As the shares of the company were almost the only medium for investment, the transfer would be surely effected. The creditors would now look to the government payments and the commercial gains of the company for their annual returns. Indeed the creditors were often not able to procure the shares, for each succeeding issue was immediately seized upon, though the 500- livre share was now issued at a premium of 4500 livres. After the third issue, on the 2nd of October, the shares immediately resold at 8000 livres in the Rue Quincampoix, then used as a bourse. They went on rapidly rising as new privileges were still granted to the company. Law had now more than regal power. The exiled Stuarts paid him court; the proudest aristocracy in Europe humbled themselves before him; and his liberality made him the idol of the populace. After, as a neces- sary preliminary, becoming a Catholic, he was made controller- general of the finances in place of d'Argenson. Finally, in February 1 7 20, the bank was in name as well as in reality united to the company. The system was now complete; but it had already begun to decay. In December 1719 it was at its height. The shares had then amounted to 20,000 livres, forty times their nominal price. A sort of madness possessed the nation. Men sold their all and hastened to Paris to speculate. The population of the capital was increased by an enormous influx of provincials and foreigners. Trade received a vast though unnatural impulse. Everybody seemed to be getting richer, no one poorer. Those who could still reflect saw that this prosperity was not real. The whole issue of shares at the extreme market-price valued 12,000 million livres. It would require 600 million annual revenue to give a 5 % dividend on this. Now, the whole income of the company as yet was hardly sufficient to pay 5% on the original capital of 1677 million livres. The receipts from the taxes, &c., could be precisely calculated, and it would be many years before the commercial undertakings of the company — with which only some trifling beginning had been made — would yield any considerable return. People began to sell their shares, and to buy coin, houses, land — anything that had a stable element of value in it. There was a rapid fall in the shares, a rapid rise in all kinds of property, and consequently a rapid depreciation of the paper money. Law met these new tendencies by a succession of the most violent edicts. The notes were to bear a premium over specie. Coin was only to be used in small payments, and only a small amount was to be kept in the posses- sion of private parties. The use of diamonds, the fabrication of gold and silver plate, was forbidden. A dividend of 40 % on the original capital was promised. By several ingenious but falla- ciously reasoned pamphlets Law endeavoured to restore public confidence. The shares still fell. At last, on the 5th of March 1720, an edict appeared fixing their pike at 9000 livres, and ordering the bank to buy and sell them at that price. The fall now was transferred to the notes, of which there were soon over 2 500 million livres in circulation. A large proportion of the coined money was removed from the kingdom. Prices rose enormously. There was everywhere distress and complete financial confusion. Law became an object of popular hatred. He lost his court in- fluence, and was obliged to consent to a decree (2ist May 1720) by which the notes and consequently the shares were reduced to half their nominal value. This created such a commotion that its promoters were forced to recall it, but the mischief was done. What confidence could there be in the depreciated paper after such a measure? Law was removed from his office, and his enemies proceeded to demolish the " system." A vast number of shares had been deposited in the bank. These were destroyed. The notes were reconverted into government debt, but there was first a visa which reduced that debt to the same size as before it was taken over by the company. The rate of interest was lowered, and the government now only pledged itself to pay 37 instead of 80 millions annually. Finally the bank was abolished, and the company reduced to a mere trading associa- tion. By November the " system " had disappeared. With these last measures Law, it may well be believed, had nothing to do. He left France secretly in December 1720, resumed his wandering life, and died at Venice, poor and forgotten, on the 2ist of March 1729. Of Law's writings the most important for the comprehension of the " system '_' is his Money and Trade Considered. In this work he says that national power and wealth consist in numbers of people, and magazines of home and foreign goods. These depend on trade, and that on money, of which a greater quantity employs more people; but credit, if the credit have a circulation, has all the beneficial effects of money. To create and increase instruments of credit is the function of a bank. Let such be created then, and let its notes be only given in return for land sold or pledged. Such a currency would supply the nation with abundance of money; and it would have many advantages, which Law points out in detail, over silver. The bank or commission was to be a government institu- tion, and its profits were to be spent in encouraging the export and manufacture of the nation. A very evident error lies at the root of the " system." Money is not the result but the cause of wealth, he thought. To increase it then must be beneficial, and the best way is by a properly secured paper currency. This is the motive force; but it is to be applied in a particular way. Law had a profound belief in the omnipotence of government. He saw the evils of minor monopolies, and of private farming of taxes. He proposed to centre foreign trade and internal finance in one huge monopoly managed by the state for the people, and carrying on business through a plentiful supply of paper money. He did! not see that trade and commerce are best left to private enterprise, and that such a scheme would simply result in the profits of speculators and favourites. The " system " was never so far developed as to exhibit its in- herent faults. The madness of speculators ruined the plan when only its foundations were laid. One part indeed might have been saved. The bank was not necessarily bound to the company, and had its note-issue been retrenched it might have become a permanent LAW, W.— LAW 299 institution. As Thiers points out, the edict of the 5th of March 1720, which made the shares convertible into notes, ruined the bank without saving the company. The shares had risen to an unnatural height, and they should have been allowed to fall to their natural level. Perhaps Law felt this to be impossible. He had friends at court whose interests were involved in the shares, and he had enemies eager for his overthrow. It was necessary to succeed completely or not at all ; so Law, a gambler to the core, risked and lost everything. Notwithstanding the faults of the " system," its author was a financial genius of the first order. He had the errors of his time; but he propounded many truths as to the nature of currency and banking then unknown to his contemporaries. The marvellous skill which he displayed in adapting the theory of the " system " to the actual con- dition of things in France, and in carrying out the various financial transactions rendered necessary by its development, is absolutely without parallel. His profound self-confidence and belief in the truth of his own theories were the reasons alike of his success and his ruin. He never hesitated to employ the whole force of a despotic government for the definite ends which he saw before him. He left France poorer than he entered it, yet he was not perceptibly changed by his sudden transitions of fortune. Montesquieu visited him at Venice after his fall, and has left a description of him touched with a certain pathos. Law, he tells us, was still the same in character, perpetually planning and scheming, and, though in poverty, re- volving vast projects to restore himself to power, and France to commercial prosperity. The fullest account of the Mississippi scheme is that of Thiers, Law et son systeme des finances (1826, American trans. 1859). See also Heymann, Law und sein System (1853); Pierre Bonnassieux, Les Grandes Compagnies de commerce (1892) ; S. Alexi, John Law und sein System (1885); E. Levasseur, Recherches historiques sur le systeme de Law (1854); and Jobez, Une Preface au socialisme, ou le systeme de Law et la chasse aux capitalistes (i8'48). Full biographical details are given in Wood's Life of Law (Edinburgh, 1824). All Law's later writings are to be found in Daire, Collection des principaux econo- mistes, vol. i. (1843). Other works on Law are : A. W. Wiston-Glynn, John Law of Lauriston (1908); P. A. Cachut, The Financier Law, his Scheme and Times (1856) ; A. Macf.Davis, An Historical Study of Law's System (Boston, 1887); A. Beljame, La Pronunciation du nom de Jean Law le financier (1891). See also E. A. Benians in Camb. Mod. Hist. vi. 6 (1909). For minor notices see Pople's Index to Periodicals. There is a portrait of Law by A. S. Belle in the National Portrait Gallery, London. (F. WA.) LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1761), English divine, was born at King's Cliff e, Northamptonshire. In 1 705 he entered as a sizar at Emmanuel College, Cambridge; in 1711 he was elected fellow of his college and was ordained. He resided at Cambridge, teaching and taking occasional duty until the accession of George I., when his conscience forbade him to take the oaths of allegiance to the new government and of abjuration of the Stuarts. His Jacobitism had already been betrayed in a tripos speech which brought him into trouble; and he was now deprived of his fellowship and became a non-juror. For the next few years he is said to have been a curate in London. By 1727 he was domiciled with Edward Gibbon (1666-1736) at Putney as tutor to his son Edward, father of the historian, who says that Law became " the much honoured friend and spiritual director of the whole family." In the same year he accompanied his pupil to Cambridge, and resided with him as governor, in term time, for the next four years. His pupil then went abroad, but Law was left at Putney, where he remained in Gibbon's house for more than ten years, acting as a religious guide not only to the family but to a number of earnest-minded folk who came to consult him. The most eminent of these were the two brothers John and Charles Wesley, John Byrom the poet, George Cheyne the physician and Archibald Hutcheson, M.P. for Hastings. The household was dispersed in 1737. Law was parted from his friends, and in 1740 retired to King's Cliffe, where he had inherited from his father a house and a small property. There he was presently joined by two ladies: Mrs Hutcheson, the rich widow of his old friend, who recommended her on his death-bed to place herself under Law's spiritual guidance, and Miss Hester Gibbon, sister to his late pupil. This curious trio lived for twenty-one years a life wholly given to devotion, study and charity, until the death of Law on the 9th of April 1761. Law was a busy writer under three heads : — I. Controversy. — In this field he had no contemporary peer save perhaps Richard Bentley. The first of his controversial works was Three Letters to the Bishop of Bangor (1717)., which were considered by friend and foe alike as one of the most powerful contributions to the Bangorian controversy on the high church side. Thomas Sherlock declared that " Mr Law was a writer so considerable that he knew but one good reason why his lordship did not answer him." Law's next controversial work was Remarks on Mandeville's Fable of the Bees (1723), in which he vindicates morality on the highest grounds; for pure style, caustic wit and lucid argument this work is re- markable; it was enthusiastically praised by John Sterling, and republished by F. D. Maurice. Law's Case of Reason (1732), in answer to Tindal's Christianity as old as the Creation is to a great extent an anticipation of Bishop Butler's famous argument in the Analogy. In this work Law shows himself at least the equal of the ablest champion of Deism. His Letters to a Lady inclined to enter the Church of Rome are excellent specimens of the attitude of a high Anglican towards Romanism. His controversial writings have not received due recognition, partly because they were opposed to the drift of his times, partly because of his success in other fields. 2. Practical Divinity. — The Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life (1728), together with its predecessor, A Treatise of Christian Per- fection (1726), deeply influenced the chief actors in the great Evangelical revival. The Wesleys, George Whitefield, Henry Venn, Thomas Scott and Thomas Adam all express their deep obligation to the author. The Serious Call affected others quite as deeply. Samuel Johnson, Gibbon, Lord Lyttelton and Bishop Home all spoke enthusiastically of its merits; and it is still the only work by which its author is popularly known. It has high merits of style, being lucid and pointed to a degree. In a tract entitled The Absolute Unlawfulness of Stage Entertainments (1726) Law was tempted by the corruptions of the stage of the period to use unreasonable language, and incurred some effective criticism from John Dennis in The Stage Defended. 3. Mysticism. — Though the least popular, by far the most inter- esting, original and suggestive of all Law's works are those which he wrote in his later years, after he had become an enthusiastic admirer (not a disciple) of Jacob Boehme, the Teutonic theospphist. From his earliest years he had been deeply impressed with the piety, beauty and thoughtfulness of the writings of the Christian mystics, but it was not till after his accidental meeting with the works of Boehme, about 1734, that pronounced mysticism appeared in his works. Law's mystic tendencies divorced him from the practical- minded Wesley, but in spite of occasional wild fancies the books are worth reading. They are A Demonstration of the Gross and Funda- mental Errors of a late Book called a " Plain Account, &c., of the Lord's Supper " (1737); The Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Regenera- tion (1739); An Appeal to all that Doubt and Disbelieve the Truths of Revelation (1740); An Earnest and Serious Answer to Dr Trapp's Sermon on being Righteous Overmuch (1740); The Spirit of Prayer (1749, 1752) ; The Way to Divine Knowledge (1752) ; The Spirit of Love (1752, 1754); A Short but Sufficient Confutation of Dr Warburton's Projected Defence (as he calls it) of Christianity in his " Divine Legation of Moses " (1757); A Series of Letters (1760); a Dialogue between a Methodist and a Churchman (1760); and An Humble, Earnest and Affectionate Address to the Clergy (1761). Richard Tighe wrote a short account of Law's life in 1813. See also Christopher Walton, Notes and Materials for a Complete Biography of W. Law (1848); Sir Leslie Stephen, English Thought in the 1 8th century, and in the Diet. Nat. Biog. (xxxii. 236); W. H. Lecky, History of England in the i8th Century; C. J. Abbey, The English Church in the i8lh Century; and J. H. Overton, William Law, Non- juror and Mystic (1881). LAW (O. Eng. lagu, M. Eng. lawe; from an old Teutonic root lag, " lie," what lies fixed or evenly; cf. Lat. lex, Fr. loi), a word used in English in two main senses — (i) as a rule prescribed by authority for human action, and (2) in scientific and philosophic phraseology, as a uniform order of sequence (e.g. " laws " of motion) . In the first sense the word is used either in the abstract, for jurisprudence generally or for a state of things in which the laws of a country are duly observed (" law and order "), or in the concrete for some particular rule or body of rules. It is usual to distinguish further between " law " and " equity " (q.v.). The scientific and philosophic usage has grown out of an early conception of jurisprudence, and is really metaphorical, derived from the phrase " natural law " or " law of nature," which presumed that commands were laid on matter by God (see T. E. Holland, Elements of Jurisprudence, ch. ii.). The adjective " legal " is only used in the first sense, never in the second. In the case of the " moral law " (see ETHICS) the term is employed somewhat ambiguously because of its connexion with both meanings. There is also an Old English use of the word " law " in a more or less sporting sense (" to give law " or " allow so much law "), meaning a start or fair allowance in time or distance. Presumably this originated simply in the liberty-loving Briton's respect for proper legal procedure; instead of the brute exercise of tyrannous force he demanded " law," or a fair opportunity 300 LA WES, H.— LAWN-TENNIS and trial. But it may simply be an extension of the meaning of " right," or of the sense of " leave " which is found in early uses of the French loi. In this work the laws or uniformities of the physical universe are dealt with in the articles on the various sciences. The general principles of law in the legal sense are discussed under JURIS- PRUDENCE. What may be described as " national systems " of law are dealt with historically and generally under ENGLISH LAW, AMERICAN LAW, ROMAN LAW, GREEK LAW, MAHOMMEDAN LAW, INDIAN LAW, &c. Certain broad divisions of law are treated under CONSTITUTION AND CONSTITUTIONAL LAW, CANON LAW, CIVIL LAW, COMMON LAW, CRIMINAL LAW, ECCLESIASTICAL LAW, EQUITY, INTERNATIONAL LAW, MILITARY LAW, &c. And the particular laws of different countries on special subjects are stated under the headings for those subjects (BANKRUPTCY, &c.) . For courts (?.».) of law, and procedure, see JURISPRUDENCE, APPEAL, TRIAL, KING'S BENCH, &c. AUTHORITIES. — The various legal articles have bibliographies attached, but it may be convenient here to mention such general works on law, apart from the science of jurisprudence, as (for English law) Lord Halsbury's Laws of England (vol. i.t 1907), The Encyclo- paedia of the Laws of England, ed. Wood Renton (1907), Stephen's Commentaries on the Laws of England (1908), Brett's Commentaries on the present Laws of England (1896), Broom's Commentaries on the Common Law (1896) and Brodie-Innes's Comparative Principles of the Laws of England and Scotland (vol. i., 1903) ; and, for America, Bouvier's Law Dictionary, and Kent's Commentaries on American Law. LAWES, HENRY (1595-1662), English musician, was born at Dinton in Wiltshire in December 1595, and received his musical education from John Cooper, better known under his Italian pseudonym Giovanni Coperario (d. 1627), a famous composer of the day. In 1626 he was received as one of the gentlemen of the chapel royal, which place he held till the Commonwealth put a stop to church music. But even during that songless time Lawes continued his work as a composer, and the famous collection of his vocal pieces, Ayres and Dialogues for One, Two and Three Voyces, was published in 1653, being followed by two other books under the same title in 1655 and 1658 respectively. When in 1660 the king returned, Lawes once more entered the royal chapel, and composed an anthem for the coronation of Charles II. He died on the 2ist of October 1662, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. Lawes's name has become known beyond musical circles by his friendship with Milton, whose Comus he supplied with incidental music for the performance of the masque in 1634. The poet in return im- mortalized his friend in the famous sonnet in which Milton, with a musical perception not common amongst poets, exactly indicates the great merit of Lawes. His careful attention to the words of the poet, the manner in which his music seems to grow from those words, the perfect coincidence of the musical with the metrical accent, all put Lawes's songs on a level with those of Schumann or Liszt or any modern composer. At the same time he is by no means wanting in genuine melodic invention, and his concerted music shows the learned contrapuntist. LAWES, SIR JOHN BENNET, BART. (1814-1900), English agriculturist, was born at Rothamsted on the 28th of December 1814. Even before leaving Oxford, where he matriculated in 1832, he had begun to interest himself in growing various medicinal plants on the Rothamsted estates, which he inherited on his father's death in 1822. About 1837 he began to experi- ment on the effects of various manures on plants growing in pots, and a year or two later the experiments were extended to crops in the field. One immediate consequence was that in 1842 he patented a manure formed by treating phosphates with sulphuric acid, and thus initiated the artificial manure industry. In the succeeding year he enlisted the services of Sir J. H. Gilbert, with whom he carried on for more than half a century those experiments in raising crops and feeding animals which have rendered Rothamsted famous in the eyes of scientific agriculturists all over the world (see AGRICULTURE). In 1854 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society, which in 1867 bestowed a Royal medal on Lawes and Gilbert jointly, and in 1882 he was created a baronet. In the year before his death, which happened on the 3ist of August 1900, he took measures to ensure the continued existence of the Rothamsted experi- mental farm by setting aside £100,000 for that purpose and constituting the Lawes Agricultural Trust, composed of four members from the Royal Society, two from the Royal Agri- cultural Society, one each from the Chemical and Linnaean Societies, and the owner of Rothamsted mansion-house for the time being. LAW MERCHANT or LEX MERCATORIA, originally a body of rules and principles relating to merchants and mercantile transactions, laid down by merchants themselves for the purpose of regulating their dealings. It was composed of such usages and customs as were common to merchants and traders in all parts of Europe, varied slightly in different localities by special peculiarities. The law merchant owed its origin to the fact that the civil law was not sufficiently responsive to the growing demands of commerce, as well as to the fact that trade in pre- medieval times was practically in the hands of those who might be termed cosmopolitan merchants, who wanted a prompt and effective jurisdiction. It was administered for the most part in special courts, such as those of the gilds in Italy, or the fair courts of Germany and France, or as in England, in courts of the staple or piepowder (see also SEA LAWS). The history of the law merchant in England is divided into three stages: the first prior to the time of Coke, when it was a special kind of law — as distinct from the common law — administered in special courts for a special class of the community (i.e. the mercantile); the second stage was one of transition, the law merchant being administered in the common law courts, but as a body of customs, to be proved as a fact in each individual case of doubt; the third stage, which has continued to the present day, dates from the presidency over the king's bench of Lord Mansfield (s). The word is now specially applied to persons who are not in orders, and more widely to those who do not belong to other learned professions, particularly the law and medicine. The New English Dictionary quotes two examples from versions of the Bible. In the Douai version of i Sam. xxi. 4, Ahimelech tells David that he has " no lay bread at hand but only holy bread "; here the Authorized Version has " common bread," the Vulgate laicos panes. In Coverdale's version of Acts iv. 13, the high priest and his kindred marvel at Peter and John as being " unlearned and lay people "; the Authorized Version has " unlearned and ignorant men." In a cathedral of the Church of England " lay clerks " and " lay vicars " sing such portions of the service as may be performed by laymen and clergy in minor orders. " Lay readers " are persons who are granted a commission by the bishop to perform certain religious duties in a particular parish. The commission remains in force until it is revoked by the bishop or his successors, or till there is a new incumbent in the parish, when it has to be renewed. In a religious order a " lay brother " is freed from duties at religious services performed by the other members, and from their studies, but is bound by vows of obedience and chastity and serves the order by manual labour. For " lay impropriator " see APPROPRIATION, and for " lay rector " see RECTOR and TITHES; see further LAYMEN, HOUSES OF. (3) " Lay " as a verb means " to make to lie down," " to place upon the ground," &c. The past tense is " laid "; it is vulgarly confused with the verb " to lie," of which the past is " lay." The common root of both " lie " and " lay " is represented by O. Teut. leg; cf. Dutch leggen, Ger. legen, and Eng. "ledge."1 (4) "Lay- figure " is the name commonly given to articulated figures of human beings or animals, made of wood, papier-mache or other materials; draped and posed, such figures serve as models for artists (see MODELS, ARTISTS). The word has no connexion with " to lay," to place in position, but is an adaptation of the word " layman," commonly used with this meaning in the i8th century. This was adapted from Dutch leeman (the older form is ledenman) and meant an " articulated or jointed man " from led, now lid, a joint ; cf . Ger. Gliedermann. LAYA, JEAN LOUIS (1761-1833), French dramatist, was born in Paris on the 4th of December 1761 and died in August 1833. He wrote his first comedy in collaboration with Gabriel M. J. B. Legouve in 1785, but the piece, though accepted by the Comedie Francaise, was never represented. In 1789 he produced a plea for religious toleration in the form of a five-act tragedy in verse, Jean Colas; the injustice of the disgrace cast on a family by the crime of one of its members formed the theme of Les Dangers de I'opinion (1790); but it is by his Ami des lois (1793) that Laya is remembered. This energetic protest against mob-rule, with its scarcely veiled characterizations of Robespierre as Nomophage and of Marat as Duricrane, was an act of the highest courage, for the play was 'produced at the Theatre Francais (temporarily Theatre de la Nation) only 1 The verb " to lie," to speak falsely, to tell a falsehood, is in O. Eng. leogan; it appears in most Teutonic languages, e.g. Dutch lugen, Ger. liigen. LAYAMON nineteen days before the execution of Louis XVI. Ten days after its first production the piece was prohibited by the commune, but the public demanded its representation; the mayor of Paris was compelled to appeal to the convention, and the piece was played while some 30,000 Parisians guarded the hall. Laya went into hiding, and several persons convicted of having a copy of the obnoxious play in their possession were guillotined. At the end of the Terror Laya returned to Paris. In 1813 he re- placed Delille in the Paris chair of literary history and French poetry; he was admitted to the Academy in 1817. Laya pro- duced in 1797 Les Deux Stuarts, and in 1799 Falkland, the title- role of which provided Talma with one of his finest oppor- tunities. Laya's works, which chiefly owe their interest to the circumstances attending their production, were collected in 1836-1837. See Notice biographique sur J. L. Laya (1833); Ch. Nodier, Discours de reception, 26th December 1833); Welschinger, Theatre de la revolution (1880). LAYAMON, early English poet, was the author of a chronicle of Britain entitled Brut, a paraphrase of the Brut d'Angleterre by Wace, a native of Jersey, who is also known as the author of the Roman de Rou. The excellent edition of Layamon by Sir F. Madden (Society of Antiquaries, London, 1847) should be consulted. All that is known concerning Layamon is derived from two extant MSS., which present texts that often vary considerably, and it is necessary to understand their comparative value before any conclusions can be drawn. The older text (here called the A-text) lies very near the original text, which is unfortunately lost, though it now and then omits lines which are absolutely necessary to the sense. The later text (here called the B-text) represents a later recension of the original version by another writer who frequently omits couplets, and alters the language by the substitution of better-known words for such as seemed to be obsolescent; e.g. harme (harm) in place of balewe (bale), and dead in place of feie (fated to die, or dead). Hence little reliance can be placed on the B-text, its chief merit being that it sometimes preserves couplets which seem to have been accidentally omitted in A; besides which, it affords a valuable commentary on the original version. We learn from the brief prologue that Layamon was a priest among the people, and was the son of Leovenath (a late spelling of A.-S. Leofnoth); also, that he lived at Ernley, at a noble church on Severn bank, close by Radstone. This is certainly Areley Regis, or Areley Kings, close by Redstone rock and ferry, i m. to the S. of Stourport in Worcestershire. The B-text turns Layamon into the later form Laweman, i.e. Law-man, correctly answering to Chaucer's " Man of Lawe," though here apparently used as a mere name. It also turns Leovenath into Leuca, i.e. Leofeca, a diminutive of Leofa, which is itself a pet- name for Leofnoth; so that there is no real contradiction. But it absurdly substitutes " with the good knight," which is practi- cally meaningless, for " at a noble church." We know no more about Layamon except that he was a great lover of books; and that he procured three books in particular which he prized above others, " turning over the leaves, and beholding them lovingly." These were: the English book that St Beda made; another in Latin that St Albin and St Austin made; whilst the third was made by a French clerk named Wace, who (in 1155) gave a copy to the noble Eleanor, who was queen of the high king Henry (i.e. Henry II.). The first of these really means the Anglo-Saxon translation of Beda's Ecclesiastical History, which begins with the words: " Ic Beda, Cristes theow," i.e. " I, Beda, Christ's servant." The second is a strange description of the original of the transla- tion, i.e. Albinus Beda's own Latin book, the second paragraph of which begins with the words: " Auctor ante omnes atque adiutor opusculi huius Albinus Abba reverentissimus vir per omnia doctissimus extitit "; which Layamon evidently mis- understood. As to the share of St Augustine in this work, see Book I., chapters 23-34, and Book II., chapters i and 2, which are practically all concerned with him and occupy more than a tenth of the whole work. The third book was Wace's poem, Brut d'Angleterre. But we find that although Layamon had ready access to all three of these works, he soon settled down to the translation of the third, without troubling much about the others. His chief obligation to Beda is for the well- known story about Pope Gregory and the English captives at Rome; see Layamon, vol. iii. 180. It is impossible to enter here upon a discussion of the numerous points of interest which a proper examination of this vast and important work would present to any careful inquirer. Only a few bare results can be here enumerated. The A-text may be dated about 1205, and the B-text (practically by another writer) about 1275. Both texts, the former especially, are remarkably free from admixture with words of French origin; the lists that have been given hitherto are inexact, but it may be said that the number of French words in the A-text can hardly exceed 100, or in the B-text 160. Layamon's work is largely original; Wace's Brut contains 15,300 lines, and Layamon's 32,240 lines of a similar length; and many of Layamon's additions to Wace are notable, such as his story " regarding the fairy elves at Arthur's birth, and his transportation by them after death in a boat to Avalon, the abode of Argante, their queen "; see Sir F. Madden's pref. p. xv. Wace's Brut is almost wholly a translation of the Latin chronicle concerning the early history of Britain by Geoffrey of Monmouth, who said that he obtained his materials from a manuscript written in Welsh. The name Brut is the French form of Brutus, who was the fabulous grand- son of Ascanius, and great-grandson of Aeneas of Troy, the hero of Virgil's Aeneid. After many adventures, this Brutus arrived in England, founded Troynovant or New Troy (better known as London), and was the progenitor of a long line of British kings, among whom were Locrine, Bladud, Leir, Gorboduc, Ferrex and Porrex, Lud, Cymbeline, Constantine, Vortigern, Uther and Arthur; and from this mythical Brutus the name Brut was transferred so as to denote the entire chronicle of this British history. Layamon gives the whole story, from the time of Brutus to that of Cadwalader, who may be identified with the Caedwalla of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, baptized by Pope Sergius in the year 688. Both texts of Layamon are in a south- western dialect; the A-text in particular shows the Wessex dialect of earlier times (commonly called Anglo-Saxon) in a much later form, and we can hardly doubt that the author, as he intimates, could read the old version of Beda intelligently. The remarks upon the B-text in Sir F. Madden's preface are not to the point ; the peculiar spellings to which he refers (such as same for shame) are by no means due to any confusion with the Northumbrian dialect, but rather to the usual vagaries of a scribe who knew French better than English, and had some difficulty in acquiring the English pronunciation and in representing it accurately. At the same time, he was not strong in English grammar, and was apt to confuse the plural form with the singular in the tenses of verbs; and this is the simple explanation of most of the examples of so-called " nunnation " in this poem (such as the use of wolden for wolde), which only existed in writing and must not be seriously considered as representing real spoken sounds. The full proof of this would occupy too much space; but it should be noticed that, in many instances, "this pleonastic n has been struck out or erased by a second hand." In other instances it has escaped notice, and that is all that need be said. The peculiar metre of the poem has been sufficiently treated by J. Schipper. An abstract of the poem has been given by Henry Morley; and good general criticisms of it by B. ten Brink and others. See Layamon's Brut, or a Chronicle of Britain; a Poetical Semi-Saxon Paraphrase of the Brut of Wace;. . .by Sir F. Madden (1847) ;B. ten Brink, Early English Literature, trans, by H.M.Kennedy (in Bohn's Standard Library, 1885); H. Morley, English Writers, vol. iii. (1888); J. Schipper, Englische Metrik, i. (Bonn, 1882); E. Guest, A History of English Rhythms (new ed. by W. W. Skeat, 1882) ; Article " Layamon," in the Diet. Nat. Biog.; Six Old English Chronicles, including Gildas, Nennius and Geoffrey of Monmouth (in Bohn's Antiquarian Library) ; Le Roux de Lincy, Le Roman de Brut, par Wace, avec un commentaire et des notes (Rouen, 1836—1838); E. Matzner, Altenglische Sprachproben (Berlin, 1867). (W. W. S.) 312 LAYARD— LAZAR LAYARD, SIR AUSTEN HENRY (1817-1894), British author and diplomatist, the excavator of Nineveh, was born in Paris on the sth of March 1817. The Layards were of Huguenot descent. His father, Henry P. J. Layard, of the Ceylon Civil Service, was the son of Charles Peter Layard, dean of Bristol, and grandson of Daniel Peter Layard, the physician. Through his mother, a daughter of Nathaniel Austen, banker, of Ramsgate, he inherited Spanish blood. This strain of cosmopolitanism must have been greatly strengthened by the circumstances of his education. Much of his boyhood was spent in Italy, where he received part of his schooling, and acquired a taste for the fine arts and a love of travel; but he was at school also in England, France and Switzerland. After spending nearly six years in the office of his uncle, Benjamin Austen, a solicitor, he was tempted to leave England for Ceylon by the prospect of obtaining an appointment in the civil service, and he started in 1839 with the intention of making an overland journey across Asia. After wandering for many months, chiefly in Persia, and having abandoned his intention of proceeding to Ceylon, he returned in 1842 to Constantinople, where he made the acquaintance of Sir Stratford Canning, the British ambassador, who employed him in various unofficial diplomatic missions in European Turkey. In 1845, encouraged and assisted by Canning, Layard left Con- stantinople to make those explorations among the ruins of Assyria with which his name is chiefly associated. This expedi- tion was in fulfilment of a design which he had formed, when, during his former travels in the East, his curiosity had been greatly excited by the ruins of Nimrud on the Tigris, and by the great mound of Kuyunjik, near Mosul, already partly excavated by Botta. Layard remained in the neighbourhood of Mosul, carrying on excavations at Kuyunjik and Nimrud, and in- vestigating the condition of various tribes, until 1847; and, returning to England in 1848, published Nineveh and its Remains: with an Account of a Visit to the Chaldaean Christians of Kurdistan, and the Yezidis, or Devil-worshippers; and an Inquiry into the Manners and Arts oj 'the Ancient Assyrians (2 vols., 1848-1849). To illustrate the antiquities described in this work he published a large folio volume of Illustrations of the Monuments of Nineveh (1849). After spending a few months in England, and receiving the degree of D.C.L. from the university of Oxford, Layard returned to Constantinople as attach^ to the British embassy, and, in August 1849, started on a second expedition, in the course of which he extended his investigations to the ruins of Babylon and the mounds of southern Mesopotamia. His record of this expedition, Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, which was illustrated by another folio volume, called A Second Series of the Monuments of Nineveh, was published in 1853. During these expeditions, often in circumstances of great difficulty, Layard despatched to England the splendid specimens which now form the greater part of the collection of Assyrian antiquities in the British Museum. Apart from the archaeo- logical value of his work in identifying Kuyunjik as the site of Nineveh, and in providing a great mass of materials for scholars to work upon, these two books of Layard's are among the best- written books of travel in the language. Layard now turned to politics. Elected as a Liberal member for Aylesbury in 1852, he was for a few weeks under-secretary for foreign affairs, but afterwards freely criticized the govern- ment, especially in connexion with army administration. He was present, in the Crimea during the war, and was a member of the committee appointed to inquire into the conduct of the expedition. In 1855 he refused from Lord Palmerston an office not connected with foreign affairs, was elected lord rector of Aberdeen university, and on isth June moved a resolution in the House of Commons (defeated by a large majority) declaring that in public appointments merit had been sacrificed to private influence and an adherence to routine. After being defeated at Aylesbury in 1857, he visited India to investigate the causes of the Mutiny. He unsuccessfully contested York in 1859, but was elected for South wark in 1860, and from 1861 to 1866 was under-secretary for foreign affairs in the successive administra- tions of Lord Palmerston and Lord John Russell. In 1866 he was appointed a trustee of the British Museum, and in 1868 chief commissioner of works in W. E. Gladstone's government and a member of the Privy Council. He retired from parliament in 1869, on being sent as envoy extraordinary to Madrid. In 1877 he was appointed by Lord Beaconsfield ambassador at Constantinople, where he remained until Gladstone's return to power in 1880, when he finally retired from public life. In 1878, on the occasion of the Berlin conference, he received the grand cross of the Bath. Layard's political life was somewhat stormy. His manner was brusque, and his advocacy of the causes which he had at heart, though always perfectly sincere, was vehement to the point sometimes of recklessness. Layard retired to Venice, where he devoted much of his time to collecting pictures of the Venetian school, and to writing on Italian art. On this subject he was a disciple of his friend G. Morelli, whose views he embodied in his revision of F. Kugler's Handbook of Painting, Italian Schools (1887). He wrote also an introduction to Miss Ffoulkes's translation of Morelli's Italian Painters (1892-1893), and edited that part of Murray's Handbook of Rome (1894) which deals with pictures. In 1887 he published, from notes taken at the time, a record of his first journey to the East, entitled Early Adventures in Persia, Susiana and Babylonia. An abbreviation of this work, which as a book of travel is even more delightful than its predecessors, was published in 1894, shortly after the author's death, with a brief introductory notice by Lord Aberdare. Layard also from time to time contributed papers to various learned societies, including the Huguenot Society, of which he was first president. He died in London on the 5th of July 1894. (A. GL.) LAYMEN, HOUSES OF, deliberative assemblies of the laity of the Church of England, one for the province of Canterbury, and the other for the province of York. That of Canterbury was formed in 1886, and that of York shortly afterwards. They are merely consultative bodies, and the primary intention of their foundation was to associate the laity in the deliberations of convocation. They have no legal status. The members are elected by the various diocesan conferences, which are in turn elected by the laity of their respective parishes or rural deaneries. Ten members are appointed for the diocese of London, six for each of the dioceses of Winchester, Rochester, Lichfield and Worcester; and four for each of the remaining dioceses. The president of each house has the discretionary power of appointing additional laymen, not exceeding ten in number. LAYNEZ (or LAINEZ), DIEGO (1512-1565), the second general of the Society of Jesus, was born in Castile, and after studying at Alcala joined Ignatius of Loyola in Paris, being one of the six who with Loyola in August r534 took the vow of missionary work in Palestine in the Montmartre church. This plan fell through, and Laynez became professor of scholastic theology at Sapienza. After the order had been definitely established (1540) Laynez was sent to Germany. He was one of the pope's theo- logians at the council of Trent (q.v.), where he played a weighty and decisive part. When Loyola died in 1556 Laynez acted as vicar of the society, and two years later became general. Before his death at Rome, on the igth of January 1565, he had immensely strengthened the despotic constitution of the order and developed its educational activities (see JESUITS). His Disputationes Tridentinae were published in 2 volumes in 1886. Lives by Michel d'Esne (Douai, 1597) and Pet. Ribadeneira (Madrid, 1592; Lat. trans, by A. Schott, Antwerp, 1598). See also H. Miiller, Les Origines de la Compagnie de Jesus: Ignace et Lainez (1898). LAZAR, one afflicted with the disease of leprosy (q.v.). The term is an adaptation in medieval Latin of the name of Lazarus (q.v.), in Luke xvi. 20, who was supposed to be a leper. The word was not confined to persons suffering from leprosy; thus Caxton ( The Life of Charles the Great, 37), " there atte laste were guarysshed and heled viij lazars of the palesey." LAZARETTO or LAZAR-HOUSE is a hospital for the reception of poor persons suffering from the plague, leprosy or other infectious or contagious diseases. A peculiar use of " lazaretto " is found in the application of the term, now obsolete, to a place in the after-part of a merchant vessel for the storage of provisions, &c. LAZARITES— LAZARUS, H. Lazzarone, a name now often applied generally to beggars, is an Italian term, particularly used of the poorest class of Neapolitans, who, without any fixed abode, live by odd jobs and fishing, but chiefly by begging. LAZARITES (LAZARISTS or LAZARIANS) , the popular names of the " Congregation of Priests of the Mission " in the Roman Catholic Church. It had its origin in the successful mission to the common people conducted by St Vincent de Paul (q.v.) and five other priests on the estates of the Gondi, family. More immediately it dates from 1624, when the little community acquired a permanent settlement in the college des Bons Enfans in Paris. Archiepiscopal recognition was obtained in 1626; by a papal bull of the i2th of January 1632, the society was constituted a congregation, with St Vincent de Paul at its head. About the same time the canons, regular of St Victor handed over to the congregation the priory of St Lazarus (formerly a lazar- house) in Paris, whence the name of Lazarites or Lazarists. Within a few years they had acquired another house in Paris and set up other establishments throughout France; missions were also sent to Italy (1638), Tunis (1643), Algiers and Ireland (1646), Madagascar (1648) and Poland (1651). A fresh bull of Alexander VII. in April 1655 further confirmed the society; this was followed by a brief in September of the same year, regulating its constitution. The rules then adopted, which were framed on the model of those of the Jesuits, were published at Paris in 1668 under the title Regulae seu constitutiones com- munes congregationis missionis. The special objects contemplated were the religious instruction of the lower classes, the training of the clergy and foreign missions. During the French Revolution the congregation was suppressed and St Lazare plundered by the mob; it was restored by Napoleon in 1804 at the desire of Pius VII., abolished by him in 1809 in consequence of a quarrel with the pope, and again restored in 1816. The Lazarites were expelled from Italy in 1871 and from Germany in 1873. The Lazarite province of Poland was singularly prosperous; at the date of its suppression in 1796 it possessed thirty-five establish- ments. The order was permitted to return in 1816, but is now extinct there. In Madagascar it had a mission from 1648 till 1674. In -1783 Lazarites were appointed to take the place of the Jesuits in the Levantine and Chinese missions; they still have some footing in China, and in 1874 their establishments through- out the Turkish empire numbered sixteen. In addition, they established branches in Persia, Abyssinia, Mexico, the South American republics, Portugal, Spain and Russia, some of which have been suppressed. In the same year they had fourteen establishments in the United States of America. The total number of Lazarites throughout the world is computed at about 3000. Amongst distinguished members of the congregation may be mentioned: P. Collet (1693-1770), writer on theology and ethics; J. de la Grive (1689-1757), geographer; E. Bore (d. 1878), orientalist; P. Bertholon (1680-1757), physician; and Armand David, Chinese missionary and traveller. See Regulae seu constitutiones communes congregationis missionis (Paris, 1668); Memoires de la congregation de la mission (1863); Congregation de la mission. Repertoire hislorique (1900); Notices bibliographiques sur les ecrivains de la congregation de la mission (Angouleme, 1878); P. Helyot, Diet, des ordres religieux, viii. 64-77; M. Heimbrecher, Die Orden und Kongregationen der katholisc'hen Kirche, ii. (1897); C. Stork in Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlexikon (Catholic), vii. ; E. Bougaud, History of St Vincent de Paul (1908). LAZARUS (a contracted form of the Heb. name Eleazar, " God has helped," Gr. Adfapos), a name which occurs in the New Testament in two connexions. i. LAZARUS OF BETHANY, brother of Martha and Mary. The story that he died and after four days was raised from the dead is told by John (xi., xii.) only, and is not mentioned by the Synoptists. By many this is regarded as the greatest of Christ's miracles. It produced a great effect upon many Jews; the Ada Pilali says that Pilate trembled when he heard of it, and, according to Bayle's Dictionary, Spinoza declared that if he were persuaded of its truth he would become a Christian. The story has been attacked more vigorously than any other portion of the Fourth Gospel, mainly, on two grounds, (i.) the fact that, in spite of its striking character, it is omitted by the Synoptists, and (ii.) its unique significance. The personality of Lazarus in John's account, his relation to Martha and Mary, and the possibility that John reconstructed the story by the aid of inferences from the story of the supper in Luke x. 40, and that of the anointing of Christ in Bethany given by Mark and Matthew, are among the chief problems. The controversy has given rise to a great mass of literature, discussions of which will be found in the lives of Christ, the biblical encyclopaedias and the commentaries on St John. 2. LAZARUS is also the name given by Luke (xvi. 20) to the beggar in the parable known as that of "Lazarus and Dives,"1 illustrating the misuse of wealth. There is little doubt that the name is introduced simply as part of the parable, and not with any idea of identifying the beggar with Lazarus of Bethany. It is curious, not only that Luke's story does not appear in the other gospels, but also that in no other of Christ's parables is a name given to the central character. Hence it was in early times thought that the story was historical, not allegorical (see LAZAR). LAZARUS, EMMA (1840-1887), American Jewish poetess, was born in New York. When the Civil War broke out she was soon inspired to lyric expression. Her first book (1867) included poems and translations which she wrote between the ages of fourteen and seventeen. As yet her models were classic and romantic. At the age of twenty-one she published Admelus and other Poems (1871). Admelus is inscribed to Emerson, who greatly influenced her, and with whom she maintained a regular correspondence for several years. She led a retired life, and had a modest conception of her own powers. Much of her next work appeared in Lippincott's Magazine, but in 1874 she published a prose romance (Alide) based on Goethe's autobiography, and received a generous letter of admiration from Turgeniev. Two years later she visited Concord and made the acquaintance of the Emerson circle, and while there read the proof-sheets of her tragedy The Spagnoletto. In 1881 she published her excellent translations of Heine's poems. Meanwhile events were occurring which appealed to her Jewish sympathies and gave a new turn to her feeling. The Russian massacres of 1880-1881 were a trumpet-call to her. So far her Judaism had been latent. She belonged to the oldest Jewish congregation of New York, but she had not for some years taken a personal part in the observances of the synagogue. But from this time she took up the cause of her race, and " her verse rang out as it had never rung before, a clarion note, calling a people to heroic action and unity; to the consciousness and fulfilment of a grand destiny." Her poems, " The Crowing of the Red Cock " and " The Banner of the Jew " (1882) stirred the Jewish consciousness and helped to produce the new Zionism (q.v.). She now wrote another drama, the Dance to Death, the scene of which is laid in Nordhausen in the i4th century; it is based on the accusation brought against the Jews of poisoning the wells and thus causing the Black Death. The Dance to Death was included (with some translations of medieval Hebrew poems) in Songs of a Semite (1882), which she dedicated to George Eliot. In 1885 she visited Europe. She devoted much of the short remainder of her life to the cause of Jewish nationalism. In 1887 appeared By the waters of Babylon, which consists of a series of " prose poems," full of prophetic fire. She died in New York on the igth of November 1887. A sonnet by Emma Lazarus is engraved on a memorial tablet on the colossal Bartholdi statue of Liberty, New York. See article in the Century Magazine, New Series, xiv. 875 (portrait p. 803), afterwards prefixed as a Memoir to the collected edition of The poems of Emma Lazarus (2 vols., 1889). (I. A.) LAZARUS, HENRY (1815-1895), British clarinettist, was born in London on the ist of January 1815, and was a pupil of Blizard, bandmaster of the Royal Military Asylum, Chelsea, and subsequently of Charles Godfrey, senior, bandmaster of the Coldstream Guards. He made his first appearance as a soloist at a concert of Mme Dulcken's, in April 1838, and in that year 1 The English Bible does not use Lat. Dives (rich) as a proper name, saying merely " a certain rich man." The idea that Dives was a proper name arose from the Vulgate quidam dives, whence it became a conventional name for a rich man. LAZARUS, M.— LEAD he was appointed as second clarinet to the Sacred Harmonic Society. From Willman's death in 1840 Lazarus was principal clarinet at the opera, and all the chief festivals and orchestral concerts. His beautiful tone, excellent phrasing and accurate execution were greatly admired. He was professor of the clarinet at the Royal Academy of Music from 1854 until within a short time of his death, and was appointed to teach his instrument at the Military School of Music, Kneller Hall, in 1858. His last public appearance was at a concert for his benefit in St James's Hall, in June 1892, and he died on the 6th of March 1895- LAZARUS, MORITZ (1824-1903), German philosopher, was born on the isth of September 1824 at Filehne, Posen. The son of a rabbinical scholar, he was educated in Hebrew literature and history, and subsequently in law and philosophy at the university of Berlin. From 1860 to 1866 he was professor in the university of Berne, and subsequently returned to Berlin as professor of philosophy in the kriegsakademie (1868) and later in the university of Berlin (1873). On the occasion of his seventieth birthday he was honoured with the title of Geheimralh. The fundamental principle of his philosophy was that truth must be sought not in metaphysical or a priori abstractions but in psychological investigation, and further that this investigation cannot confine itself successfully to the individual consciousness, but must be devoted primarily to society as a whole. The psychologist must study mankind from the historical or compara- tive standpoint, analysing the elements which constitute the fabric of society, with its customs, its .conventions and the main tendencies of its. evolution. This V ' olkerpsychologie (folk- or comparative psychology) is one of the chief developments of the Herbartian theory of philosophy; it is a protest not only against the so-called scientific standpoint of natural philosophers, but also against the individualism of the positivists. In support of his theory he founded, in combination with H. Steinthal, the Zeitschrift fiir V olkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft (1859). His own contributions to this periodical were numerous and important. His chief work was Das Leben der Seele (Berlin, 1855-1857; 3rd edition, 1883). Other philosophical works were: — Ueber den Ursprung der Sitten (1860 and 1867), Ueber die Ideen in der Geschichte (1865 and 1872); Zur Lehre von den Sinnestauschungen (1867); Ideale Fragen (1875 and 1885), Erziehung und Geschichte (1881); Unser Slandpunkt (1881); Ueber die Reize des Spiels (1883). Apart from the great interest of his philosophical work, Lazarus was pre-eminent among the Jews of the so-called Semitic domination in Germany. Like Heine, Auerbach and Steinthal, he rose superior to the narrower ideals of the German Jews, and took a .leading place in German literature and thought. He protested against the violent anti-Semitism of the time, and, in spite of the moderate tone of his publications, drew upon himself unqualified censure. He wrote in this connexion a number of articles collected in 1887 under the title Treu und Frei. Reden und Vorlrage iiber Juden und Judenthum. In 1869 and 1871 he was president of the first and second Jewish Synods at Leipzig and Augsburg. See R. Flint, The Philosophy of History in Europe; M. Brasch, Gesammelte Essays und Characterkopfe zur neuen Philos. und Litera- lur; E. Berliner, Lazarus und die offentliche Meinung; M. Brasch, " Der Begriinder de Volkerpsychologie," in Nord et Sud (September 1894). LAZARUS, ST, ORDER OF, a religious and military order founded in Jerusalem about the middle of the I2th century. Its primary object was the tending of the sick, especially lepers, of whom Lazarus (see LAZAR) was regarded as the patron. From the i3th century, the order made its way into various countries of Europe — Sicily, Lower Italy and Germany (Thuringia); but its chief centre of activity was France, where Louis IX. (1253) gave the members the lands of Boigny near Orleans and a building at the gates of Paris, which they turned into a lazar-house for the use of the lepers of the city. A papal confirmation was obtained from Alexander IV. in 1255. The knights were one hundred in number, and possessed the right of marrying and receiving pensions charged on ecclesiastical benefices. An eight-pointed cross was the insignia of both the French and Italian orders. The gradual disappearance of leprosy combined with other causes to secularize the order more and more. In Savoy in 1572 it was merged by Gregory XIII. (at the instance of Emanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy) in the order of St Maurice (see KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY: Orders of Knighthood, Italy). The chief task of this branch was the defence of the Catholic faith, especially against the Protestantism of Geneva. It continued to exist till the second half of the i9th century. In 1608 it was in France united by Henry IV. with the order of Notre-Dame du Mont-Carmel. It was treated with especial favour by Louis XIV., and the most brilliant period of its existence was from 1673 to 1691, under the marquis de Louvois. From that time it began to decay. It was abolished at the Revolution, reintroduced during the Restoration, and formally abolished by a state decree of 1830. See L. Mainbourg, Hist, des croisades (1682; Eng. trans, by Nalson, 1686); P. Helyot, Hist, des ordres monastiques (1714), pp. 257. 386; J. G. Uhlhorn, Die christliche Liebesthatigkeit im Mittelalter (Stuttgart, 1884); articles in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie fiir protestantische Theologie, xi. (1902) and Wetzer and VVelte's (Catholic) Kirchenlexikon, vii. (1891). LEA, HENRY CHARLES (1825-1909), American historian, was born at Philadelphia on the igth of September 1825. His father was a publisher, whom in 1843 he joined in business, and he retained his connexion with the firm till 1880. Weak health, however, caused him from early days to devote himself to research, mainly on church history in the later middle ages, and his literary reputation rests on the important books he produced on this subject. These are: Superstition and Force (Philadelphia, 1866, new ed. 1892) ; Historical Sketch of Sacerdotal Celibacy (Philadelphia, 1867); History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages (New York, 1888); Chapters from the religious history of Spain connected with the Inquisition (Philadelphia, 1890); History of auricular Confession and Indulgences in the Latin Church (3 vols., London, 1896); The Moriscos of Spain (Philadelphia, 1901), and History of the Inquisition of Spain (4 vols., New York and London, 1906-1907). He also edited a Formulary of the Papal Penitentiary in the ijth century (Phila- delphia, 1892), and in 1908 was published his Inquisition in the Spanish Dependencies. As an authority on the Inquisition he stood in the highest rank of modern historians, and distinctions were conferred on him by the universities of Harvard, Princeton, Pennsylvania, Giessen and Moscow. He died at Philadelphia on the 24th of October 1909. LEAD (pronounced feed), a city of Lawrence county, South Dakota, U.S.A., situated in the Black Hills, at an altitude of about 5300 ft., 3m. S.W. of Deadwood. Pop. (1890) 2581, (1900) 6210, of whom 2145 were foreign-born, (1905) 8217, (1910) 8392. In 1905 it was second in population among the cities of the state. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways. Lead has a hospital, the Hearst Free Library and the Hearst Free Kindergarten, and is the see of a Roman Catholic bishopric. It is the centre of the mining interests of the Black Hills, and the Homestake Gold Mine here contains perhaps the largest and most easily worked mass of .low-grade ore and one of the largest mining plants (1000 stamps) in the world; it has also three cyanide mills. From 1878 to 1906 the value of the gold taken from this mine amounted to about $58,000,000, and the net value of the product of 1906 alone was approximately $5,313,516. For two months in the spring of 1907 the mine was rendered idle by a fire (March 25), which was so severe that it was necessary to flood the entire mine. Mining tools and gold jewelry are manufactured. The first settlement was made here by mining prospectors in July 1876. Lead was chartered as a city in 1890 and became a city of the first class in 1904. LEAD, a metallic chemical element; its symbol is Pb (from the Lat. plumbum), and atomic weight 207-10 (0=16). This metal was known to the ancients, and is mentioned in the Old Testament. The Romans used it largely, as it is still used, for the -making of water pipes, and soldered these with an alloy of lead and tin. Pliny treats of these two metals as plumbum nigrum and plumbum album respectively, which seems to show LEAD that at his time they were looked upon as being only two varieties of the same species. In regard to the ancients' knowledge of lead compounds, we may state that the substance described by Dioscorides as fjw\vp8alva was undoubtedly litharge, that Pliny uses the word minium in its present sense of red lead, ana that white lead was well known to Geber in the 8th century. The alchemists designated it by the sign of Saturn Tj.. Occurrence. — Metallic lead occurs in nature but very rarely and then only in minute amount. The chief lead ores are galena and cerussite; of minor importance are anglesite, pyromorphite and mimetesite (qq.v.). Galena (q.v.), the principal lead ore, has a world-wide distribution, and is always contaminated with silver sulphide, the proportion of noble metal varying from about o-oi or less to 0-3%, and in rare cases coming up to ^ or i%. Fine-grained galena is usually richer in silver than the coarse- grained. Galena .occurs in veins in the Cambrian clay-slate, accompanied by copper and iron pyrites, zinc-blende, quartz, calc- spar, iron-spar, &c.; also in beds or nests within sandstones and rudimentary limestones, and in a great many other geological formations. It is pretty widely diffused throughout the earth's crust. The principal English lead mines are in Derbyshire; but there are also mines at Allandale and other parts of western Northumberland, at Alston Moor and other parts of Cumberland, in the western parts of Durham, in Swaledale and Arkendale and other parts of Yorkshire, in Salop, in Cornwall, in the Mendip Hills in Somersetshire, and in the Isle of Man. The Welsh mines are chiefly in Flint, Cardigan and Montgomery shires; the Scottish in Dumfries, Lanark and Argyll; and the Irish in Wicklow, Waterford and Down. Of continental mines we may mention those in Saxony and in the Harz, Germany; those of Carinthia, Austria; and especially those of the southern provinces of Spain. It is widely distributed in the United States, and occurs in Mexico and Brazil; it is found in Tunisia and Algeria, in the Altai Mountains and India, and in New South Wales, Queensland, and in Tasmania. The native carbonate or cerussite (q.v.) occasionally occurs in the pure form, but more frequently in a state of intimate intermixture with clay (" lead earth," Bleierde), limestone, iron oxides, &c. (as in the ores of Nevada and Colorado), and some times also with coal (" black lead ore "). All native carbonate of lead seems to be derived from what was originally galena, which is always present in it as an admixture. This ore, metallurgically, was not reckoned of much value, until immense quantities of it were discovered in Nevada and in Colorado (U.S.). The Nevada mines are mostly grouped around the city of Eureka, where the ore occurs in " pockets " disseminated at random through lime- stone. The crude ore contains about 30% lead and 0-2 to 0-3% silver. The Colorado lead district is in the Rocky Mountains, a few miles from the source of the Arkansas river. It forms gigantic deposits of almost constant thickness, embedded between a floor of limestone and a roof of porphyry. Stephens's discovery of the ore in 1877 was the making of the city of Leadville, which, in 1878, within a year of its foundation, had over 10,000 in- habitants. The Leadville ore contains from 24 to 42% lead and o- 1 to 2 % silver. In Nevada and Colorado the ore is worked chiefly for the sake of the silver. Deposits are also worked at Broken Hill, New South Wales. Anglesite, or lead sulphate, PbSO4, is poor in silver, and is only exceptionally mined by itself; it occurs in quantity in France, Spain, Sardinia and Australia. Of other lead minerals we may mention the basic sulphate lanarkite, PbO-PbSO4; leadhillite, PbSO4-3PbCO3; the basic chlorides matlockite, PbO-PbCl2, and mendipite, PbCl2-2PbO; the chloro-phosphate pyro- morphite, PbCl2-3Pb3(PO4)2, the chloro-arsenate mimetesite, PbCl2-3Pb3(AsO4)2; the molybdate wulfenite, PbMoO4; the chromate crocoite or crocoisite, PbCrO4; the tungstate stolzite, PbWO4. Production. —At the beginning of the igth century the bulk of the world's supply of lead was obtained from England and Spain, the former contributing about 17,000 tons and the latter 10,000 tons annually. Germany, Austria, Hungary, France, Russia and the United States began to rank as producers during the second and third decades; Belgium entered in about 1840; Italy in the 'sixties; Mexico, Canada, Japan and Greece in the 'eighties ; while Australia assumed importance in 1888 with a production of about 18,000 tons, although it had contributed small and varying amounts for many preceding decades. In 1850 England headed the list of producers with about 66,000 tons; this amount had declined in 1872 to 61,000 tons. Since this date, it has, on the whole, diminished, although large outputs occurred in isolated years, for instance, a production of 40,000 tons in 1893 was followed by 60,000 tons in 1896 and 40,000 in 1897. The output in 1900 was 35,000 tons, and in 1905, 25,000 tons. Spain ranked second in 1850 with about 47,000 tons; this was increased in 1863, 1876 and in 1888 to 84,000, 127,000 and 187,000 tons respectively; but the maximum outputs mentioned were preceded and succeeded by periods of depression. In 1900 the production was 176,000 tons, and in 1905, 179,000 tons. The United States, which ranked third with a production of 20,000 tons in 1850, maintained this annual yield, until 1870, when it began to increase; the United States now ranks as the chief producer; in 1900 the output was 253,000 tons, and in 1905, 319,744 tons. Ger- many has likewise made headway; an output of 12,000 tons in 1850 being increased to 120,000 tons in 1900 and to 152,590 in 1905. This country now ranks third, having passed England in 1873. Mexico increased its production from 18,000 tons in 1883 to 83,000 tons in 1900 and about 88,000 tons in 1905. The Australian pro- duction of 18,000 tons in 188$ was increased to 58,000 tons in 1891, a value maintained until 1893, when a depression set in, only 21,000 tons being produced in 1897; prosperity then returned, and in 1898 the yield was 68,000 tons, and in 1905, 120,000 tons. Canada became important in 1895 with a production of 10,000 tons; this increased to 28,654 tons in 1900; and in 1905 the yield was 25,391 tons. Italy has been a fairly steady producer; the output in 1896 was 20,000 tons, and in 1905, 25,000 tons. • Metallurgy. The extraction of the metal from pure (or nearly pure) galena is the simplest of all metallurgical operations. The ore is roasted (i.e. heated in the presence of atmospheric oxygen) until all the sulphur is burned away and the lead left. This simple state- ment, however, correctly formulates only the final result. The first effect of the roasting is the elimination of sulphur as sulphur- dioxide, with formation of oxide and sulphate of lead. In practice this oxidation process is continued until the whole of the oxygen is as nearly as possible equal in weight to the sulphur present as sulphide or as sulphate, i.e. in the ratio S : O2. The heat is then raised in (relative) absence of air, when the two elements named unite into sulphur-dioxide, while a regulus of molten lead remains. Lead ores are smelted in the rever- beratory furnace, the ore-hearth, and the blast-furnace. The use of the first two is restricted, as they are suited only for galena ores or mixtures of galena and carbonate, which contain not less than 58% lead and not more than 4% silica; further, ores to be treated in the ore-hearth should run low in or be free from silver, as the loss in the fumes is excessive. In the blast-furnace all lead ores are successfully smelted. Blast- furnace treatment has therefore become more general than any other. „ Three types of reverberatory practice are in vogue — the English, Carinthian and Silesian. In Wales and the south of England the process is conducted in a reverberatory furnace, the sole of which is paved with slags from previous operations, and has a depression in the middle where the metal formed collects to be let off by a tap-hole. The dressed ore is introduced through a " hopper " at the top, and exposed to a moderate oxidizing flame until a certain proportion of ore is oxidized, openings at the side enabling the workmen to stir up the ore so as to constantly renew the surface exposed to the air. At this stage as a rule some rich slags of a former operation are added and a quantity of quicklime is incorporated, -the chief object of which is to 'diminish the fluidity of the mass in the next stage, which consists in this, that, with closed air-holes, the heat is raised so as to cause the oxide and sulphate on the one hand and the sulphide on the other to reduce each other to metal. The lead produced runs into the hollow and is tapped off. The roasting process is then resumed, to be followed by another reduction, and so on. A similar process is used in Carinthia; only the furnaces are smaller and of a somewhat different form. They are long and narrow; the sole is plane, but slopes from the fire-bridge towards the flue, so that the metal runs to the latter end to collect in pots placed outside the furnace. In Carinthia the oxidizing process from the first is pushed on so far that metallic lead begins to show, and the oxygen introduced predominates over the sulphur left. The mass is then stirred to liberate the lead, which is removed as Riihrblei. Charcoal is now added, and the heat urged on to obtain Pressblei, an inferior metal formed partly by the action of the charcoal on the oxide of lead. The fuel used is fir-wood. 316 LEAD The Silesian furnace has an oblong hearth sloping from the fire- bridge to the flue-bridge. This causes the lead to collect at the coolest part of the hearth, whence it is tapped, &c., as in the English furnace. While by the English and Carinthian processes as much lead as possible is extracted in the furnace, with the Silesian method a very low temperature is used, thus taking out about one-half of the lead and leaving very rich slags (50% lead) to be smelted in the blast-furnace, the ultimate result being a very much higher yield than by either of the other processes. The loss in lead by the combined reverberatory and blast-furnace treatment is only 3-2%. In Cumberland, Northumberland, Durham and latterly the United States, the reverberatory furnace is used only for roasting the ore, and the oxidized ore is then reduced by fusion in a low, square blast- furnace (a " Scottish hearth furnace ") lined with cast iron, as is also the inclined sole-plate which is made to project beyond the furnace, the outside portion (the " work-stone ") being provided with grooves guiding any molten metal that may be placed on the stone" into a cast iron pot; the "tuyere" for the introduc- tion of the wind was, in the earlier types, about half way down the furnace. As a preliminary to the melting process, the " browse " left in the preceding operation (half-fused and imperfectly reduced ore) is introduced with some peat and coal, and heated with the help of the blast. It is then raked out on the work-stone and divided into a very poor " grey " slag which is put aside, and a richer portion, which goes back into the furnace. Some of the roasted ore is strewed upon it, and, after a quarter of an hour's working, the whole is taken out on the work-stone, where the lead produced runs off. The " browse," after removal of the " grey " slag, is reintroduced, ore added, and, after a quarter of an hour's heating, the mass again placed on the work-stone, &c. In the more recent form of the hearth process the blocks of cast iron forming the sides and back of the Scottish furnace are now generally replaced in the United States by water-cooled shells (water- jackets) of cast iron. In this way continuous working has been rendered possible, whereas formerly operations had to be stopped every twelve or fifteen hours to allow the over-heated blocks and furnace to cool down. A later improvement (which somewhat changes the mode of working) is that by Moffett. While he also prevents interruption of the operation by means of water-jackets, he uses hot-blast, and produces, besides metallic lead, large volumes of lead fumes which are drawn off by fans through long cooling tubes, and then forced through suspended bags which filter off the dust, called " blue powder." Thus, a mixture of lead sulphate (45%) and oxide (44%) with some sulphide (8%), zinc and carbon- aceous matter, is agglomerated by a heap-roast and then smelted in a slag-eye furnace with grey slag from the ore-hearth. The furnace has, in addition to the usual tuyeres near the bottom, a second set near the throat in order to effect a complete oxidation of all combustible matter. Much fume is thus produced. This is drawn off, cooled and filtered, and forms a white paint of good body, consisting of about 65% lead sulphate, 26% lead oxide, 6% zinc oxide and 3 % other substances. Thus in the Moffett method it is immaterial whether metal or fume is produced, as in either case it is saved and the price is about the same. In smelting at once in the same blast-furnace ores of different character, the old use of separate processes of precipitation, roasting and reduction, and general reduction prevailing in the Harz Moun- tains, Freiberg and other places, to suit local conditions, has been abandoned. Ores are smelted raw if the fall of matte (metallic sulphide) does not exceed 5%; otherwise they are subjected to a preliminary oxidizing roast to expel the sulphur, unless they run too high in silver, say 100 oz. to the ton, when they are smelted raw. The leading reverberatory furnace for roasting lead-bearing sulphide ores has a level hearth 14-16 ft. wide and 60-80 ft. long. It puts through 9-12 tons of ore in twenty-four hours, reducing the percent- age of sulphur to 2-4%, and requires four to six men and about 2 tons of coal. In many instances it has been replaced by mechanical furnaces, which are now common in roasting sulphide copper ores (see SULPHURIC ACID). A modern blast-furnace is oblong in hori- zontal section and about 24 ft. high from furnace floor to feed floor. The shaft, resting upon arches supported by four cast iron columns about 9 ft. high, is usually of brick, red brick on the outside, fire- brick on the inside; sometimes it is made of wrought iron water- jackets. The smelting zone always has a bosh and a contracted tuyere section. It is enclosed by water-jackets, which are usually cast iron, sometimes mild steel. The hearth always has an Arents siphon tap. This is an inclined channel running through the side- wall, beginning near the bottom of the crucible and ending at the top of the hearth, where it is enlarged into a basin. The crucible and the channel form the two limbs of an inverted siphon. While the furnace is running the crucible and channel remain filled with Jead ; all the lead reduced to the metallic state in smelting collects in the crucible, and- rising in the channel, overflows into the basin, whence it is removed. The slag and matte formed float upon the lead in the crucible and are tapped, usually together, at intervals into slag-pots, where the heavy matter settles on the bottom and the light slag on the top. When cold they are readily separated by a blow from a hammer. The following table gives the dimensions of some well-known American lead-furnaces. Lead Blast- Furnace. Locality. Year. Tuyere Section. Height, Tuyere to Throat. Leadville, Colorado . Denver ,, . Durango ,, Denver ,, Leadville, ,, Salt Lake City, Utah 1880 1880 1882 1892 1892 1895 In. 33X84 36X100 36X96 42X100 42X120 45X140 Ft. 14 17 12-6 16 18 20 A furnace, 42 by 120 in. at the tuyeres, with a working height of 17-20 ft., will put through in twenty-four hours, with twelve men, 12% coke and 2 Ib blast-pressure, 85-100 tons average charge, i.e. one that is a medium coarse, contains 12-15% lead, not over 5% zinc, and makes under 5% matte. In making up a charge, the ores and fluxes, whose chemical compositions have been determined, are mixed so as to form out of the components, not to be reduced to the metallic or sulphide state, typical slags (silicates of ferrous and calcium oxides, incidentally of aluminium oxide, which have been found to do successful work). Such slags contain SiOj=3O- 33%, Fe(Mn)O = 27-50%, Ca(Mg, Ba)O = i2-28%, and retain less than i % lead and I oz. silver to the ton. The leading products of the blast-furnace are argentiferous lead (base bullion), matte, slag and flue-dust (fine particles of charge and volatilized metal carried out of the furnace by the ascending gas current). The base bullion 1 ' below) ; the matte •value of the base when part of the argentiferous lead is recovered as base bullion, while the rest remains with the copper, which becomes concentrated in a copper-matte (60 % copper) to be worked up by separate processes. The slag is a waste product, and the flue-dust, collected by special devices in dust-chambers, is briquetted by machinery, with lime as a bond, and then resmelted with the ore-charge. The yield in lead is over 90%, in silver over 97% and in gold 100%. The cost of smelting a ton of ore in Colorado in a single furnace, 42 by 120 in. at the tuyeres, is about $3. The lead produced in the reverberatory furnace and the ore-hearth is of a higher grade than that produced in the blast-furnace, as the ores treated are purer and richer, and the reducing action is less powerful. The following analysis of blast-furnace lead of Freiberg, Saxony, is from an exceptionally impure lead: Pb =95-088, Ag = 0-470, Bi = 0-019, Cu =0-225, As = 1-826, Sb =0-958, Sn = 1-354, Fe = o-O07, Zn = o-oo2, 8 = 0-051. Of the impurities, most of the copper, nickel and copper, considerable arsenic, some antimony and small amounts of silver are removed by liquation. The lead is melted down slowly, when the impurities separate in the form of a scum (dross), which is easily removed. The purification by liquation is assisted by poling the lead when it is below redness. A stick of green wood is forced into it, and the vapours and gases set free expose new surfaces to the air, which at this temperature has only a mildly oxidizing effect. The pole, the use of which is awkward, has been replaced by dry stream, which has a similar effect. To remove tin, arsenic and antimony, the lead has to be brought up to a bright-red heat, when the air has a strongly oxidizing effect. Tin is removed mainly as a powdery mixture of stannate of lead and lead oxide, arsenic and antimony as a slagged mixture of arsenate and antimonate of lead and lead oxide. They are readily withdrawn from the surface of the lead, and are worked up into antimony (arsenic) — tin-lead and antimony-lead alloys. Liquation, if not followed by poling, is carried on as a rule in a reverberatory furnace with an oblong, slightly trough-shaped inclined hearth; if the lead is to be poled it is usually melted down in a cast-iron kettle. If the lead is to be liquated and then brought to a bright-red heat, both operations are carried on in the same reverberatory furnace. This has an oblong, dish-shaped hearth of acid or basic fire-brick built into a wrought-iron pan, which rests on transverse rails sup- ported by longitudinal walls. The lead is melted down at a low temperature and drossed. The temperature is then raised, and the scum which forms on the surface is withdrawn until pure litharge forms, which only takes place after all the tin, arsenic and antimony have been eliminated. Silver is extracted from lead by means of the process of cupellatipn. Formerly all argentiferous lead had to be cupelled, and the resulting litharge then reduced to metallic lead. In 1833 Pattinson l invented his process by means of which practically all the es silver is concentrated in 13% of the original lead to be cupelled, while the rest becomes market lead. In 1842 Karsten discovered that lead could be desilverized by means of zinc. His invention, however, only took practical form in 1850-1852 through the researches of Parkes, who showed how the zinc-silver-lead alloy formed could be worked and the desilverized lead freed from the zinc it had taken up. In the Parkes process only 5 % of the original lead need be cupelled. Thus, while cupellation still furnishes the only means for the final separation of lead and silver, it has become an auxiliary process to the two methods of concentration given. Of these the Pattinson process has become subordinate to the Parkes LEAD process, as it is more expensive and leaves more silver and im- purities in the market lead. It holds its own, however, when base bullion contains bismuth in appreciable amounts, as in the Pattinson process bismuth follows the lead to be cupelled, while in the Parkes process it remains with the desilverized lead which goes to market, and lead of commerce should contain little bismuth. At Freiberg, Saxony, the two processes have been combined. The base bullion is imperfectly Pattinsonized, giving lead rich in silver and bismuth, which is cupelled, and lead low in silver, and especially so in bismuth, which is further desilverized by the Parkes process. The effect of the two processes on the purity of the market lead is clearly shown by the two following analyses by Hampe, which represent lead from Lautenthal in the Harz Mountains, where the Parkes process replaced that of Pattinson, the ores and smelting process remaining practically the same : — It is absolutely necessary for the success of the Parkes process that the zinc and lead should contain only a small amount of im- purity. The spelter used must therefore be of a good grade, and the lead is usually first refined in a rever- beratory furnace (the softening furnace). The capacity pn of the furnace must be 10 % greater than that of the kettle into which the softened lead is tapped, as the dross and skimmings formed amount to about 10 % of the weight of the lead charged. The kettle is spherical, and is suspended over a fire-place by a broad rim resting on a wall; it is usually of cast iron. Most kettles at present hold 30 tons of lead; some, however, have double that capacity. When zinc is placed on the lead (heated to above the melting-point of zinc), liquefied and brought into intimate contact with the lead by stirring, gold, copper, silver and lead will combine with the zinc in the order given. By beginning with a small amount Process. Pb. Cu. Sb. As. Bi. Ag- Fe. Zn. Ni. Pattinson . Parkes 99-966200 99-983'39 0-015000 0-001413 I-OIOOOO 0-005698 none none 0-000600 0-005487 O-OO22OO O-OOO46O 0-004000 0-002289 O-OOIOOO 0-000834 I-OOIOOO 0-000680 The reverberatory furnace commonly used for cupelling goes by the name of the English cupelling furnace. It is oblong, and has a c .. fixed roof and a movable iron hearth (test). Formerly Cupelling. tjje j.est was i;necj with bone-ash; at present the hearth material is a mixture of crushed limestone and clay (3:1) or Portland cement, either alone or mixed with crushed fire-brick; in a few instances the lining has been made of burnt magnesite. In the be- ginning of the operation enough argentiferous lead is charged to fill the cavity of the test. After it has been melted down and brought to a red heat, the blast, admitted at the back, oxidizes the lead and drives the litharge formed towards the front, where it is run off. At the same time small bars of argentiferous lead, inserted at the back, are slowly pushed forward, so that in melting down they may replace the oxidized lead. Thus the level of the lead is kept approximately constant, and the silver becomes concentrated in the lead. In large works the silver-lead alloy is removed when it contains 60-80 % silver, and the cupellation of the rich bullion from several concen- tration furnaces is finished in a second furnace. At the same time the silver is brought to the required degree of fineness, usually by the use of nitre. In small works the cupellation is finished in one fur- nace, and the resulting low-grade silver fined in a plumbago crucible, either by overheating in the presence of air, or by the addition of silver sulphate to the melted silver, when air or sulphur trioxide and oxygen oxidize the impurities. The lead charged contains about 1-5 % lead if it comes from a Pattinson plant, from 5-10 % if from a Parkes plant. In a test 7 ft. by 4 ft. 10 in. and 4 in. deep, about 6 tons of lead are cupelled in twenty-four hours. A furnace is served by three men, working in eight-hour shifts, and requires about 2 tons of coal, which corresponds to about no gallons reduced oil, air being used as atomizer. The loss in lead is about 5 %. The latest cupelling furnaces have the general form of a reverberatory copper-smelting furnace. The working door through which the litharge is run off lies under the flue which carries off the products of combustion and the lead fumes, the lead is charged and the blast is admitted near the fire-bridge. In the Pattinson process the argentiferous lead is melted down in the central cast iron kettle of a series 8-15, placed one next to the _ other, each having a capacity of 9-15 tons and a separate ss°" fire-place. The crystals of impoverished lead which fall to the bottom, upon coaling the charge, are taken out with a skimmer and discharged into the neighbouring kettle (say to the right) until about two-thirds of the original charge has been removed ; then the liquid enriched lead is ladled into the kettle on the opposite side. To the kettle, two-thirds full of crystals of lead, is now added lead of the same tenor in silver, the whole is liquefied, and the cooling, crystallizing, skimming and ladling are repeated. The same is done with the kettle one-third filled with liquid lead, and so on until the first kettle contains market lead, the last cupelling lead. The intervening kettles contain leads with silver contents ranging from above market to below cupelling lead. The original Pattinson process has been in many cases replaced by the Luce- Rozan process (1870), which does away with arduous labour and attains a more satisfactory crystallization. The plant consists of two tilting oval metal pans (capacity 7 tons), one cylindrical crystal- lizing pot (capacity 22 tons), with two discharging spouts and one steam inlet opening, two lead moulds (capacity 3! tons), and a steam crane. Pans and pot are heated from separate fire-places. Supposing the pot to be filled with melted lead to be treated, the fire is with- drawn beneath and steam introduced. This cools and stirs the lead when crystals begin to form. As soon as two-thirds of the lead has separated in the form of crystals, the steam is shut off and the liquid lead drained off through the two spouts into the moulds. The fire underneath the pot is again started, the crystals are liquefied, and one of the two pans, filled with melted lead, is tilted by means of the crane and its contents poured into the pot. In the meantime the lead in the moulds, which has solidified, is removed with the crane and stacked to one side, until its turn comes to be raised and charged into one of the pans. The crystallization proper lasts one hour, the work- ing of a charge four hours, six charges being run in twenty-four hours. of zinc, all the gold and copper and some silver and lead will be alloyed with the zinc to a so-called gold — or copper — crust, and the residual lead saturated with zinc. By removing from the surface of the lead this first crust and working it up separately (liquating, retorting and cupelling), -dor6 silver is obtained. By the second addition of zinc most of the silver will be collected in a saturated zinc-silver-lead crust, which, when worked up, gives fine silver. A third addition becomes necessary to remove the rest of the silver, when the lead will assay only o-i oz. silver per ton. As this com- plete desilverization is only possible by the use of an excess of zinc, the unsaturated zinc-silver-lead alloy is put aside to form part of the second zincking of the next following charge. In skimming the crust from the surface of the lead some unalloyed lead is also drawn off, and has to be separated by an additional operation (liquation), as, running lower in silver than the crust, it would other- wise reduce its silver content and increase the amount of lead to be cupelled. A zincking takes 5-6 hours;) 1-5-2-5 % zinc is required for desilverizing. The liquated zinc-silver-lead crust contains 5-10 % silver, 30-40 % zinc and 65-50 % lead. Before it can be cupelled it has to be freed from most of the zinc, which is accom- plished by distilling in a retort made of a mixture similar to that of the plumbago crucible. The retort is pear-shaped, and holds 1000-1500 ft of charge, consisting of liquated crust mixed with 1-3 % of charcoal. The condenser commonly used is an old retort. The distillation of 1000 Ib charge lasts 5-6 hours, requires 500-600 ft coke or 30 ± gallons reduced oil, and yields about 10% metallic zinc and I % blue powder — a mixture of finely-divided metallic zinc and zinc oxide. About 60% of the zinc used in desilverizing is recovered in a form to be used again. One man serves 2-4 retorts. The desilverized lead, which retains 0-6-0-7 % zinc, has to be refined before it is suited for industrial use. The operation is carried on in a reverberatory furnace or in a kettle. In the reverberatory furnace, similar to the one used in softening, the lead is brought to a bright- red heat and air allowed to have free access. The zinc and some lead are oxidized ; part of the zinc passes off with the fumes, part is dis- solved by the litharge, forming a melted mixture which is skimmed off and reduced in a blast-furnace or a reverberatory smelting furnace. In the kettle covered with a hood the zinc is oxidized by means of dry steam, and incidentally some lead by the air which cannot be completely excluded. A yellowish powdery mixture of zinc and lead oxides collects on the lead; it is skimmed off and sold as paint. From the reverberatory furnace or the kettle the refined lead is siphoned off into a storage (market) kettle after it has cooled some- what, and from this it is siphoned off into moulds placed in a semi- circle on the floor. In the process the yield in metal, based upon the charge in the kettle, is lead 99%, silver 100+ %, gold 98-100%. The plus-silver is due to the fact that in assaying the base bullion by cupellation, the silver lost by volatilization and cupel-absorption is neglected. In the United States the cost of desilverizing a ton base bullion is about $6. Properties of Lead. — Pure lead is'' a feebly lustrous bluish- white metal, endowed with a characteristically high degree of softness and plasticity, and almost entirely devoid of elasticity. Its breaking strain is very small: a wire y^th in- thick is ruptured by a charge of about 30 ft. The specific gravity is 11-352 for ingot, and from 11-354 to 11-365 for sheet lead (water of 4°C. = i). The expansion of unit-length from o° C. to 100° C. is -002948 (Fizeau). The conductivity for heat (Wiedemann and Franz) or electricity is 8-5, that of silver being taken as 100. It melts at 327-7° C. (H. L. Callendar); at a bright-red heat it perceptibly vapourizes, and boils at a temperature between 1450° and 1600°. The specific heat is -0314 (Regnault). Lead exposed to ordinary air is rapidly tarnished, but the thin dark film formed is very slow in increasing. When kept fused in the presence of air lead readily takes up oxygen, with the formation LEAD at first of a dark-coloured scum, and then of monoxide PbO, the rate of oxidation increasing with the temperature. Water when absolutely pure has no action on lead, but in the presence of air the lead is quickly attacked, with formation of the hydrate, Pb(OH)2, which is appreciably soluble in water forming an alkaline liquid. When carbonic acid is present the dissolved oxide is soon precipitated as basic carbonate, so that the corrosion of the lead becomes continuous. Since all soluble lead compounds are strong cumulative poisons, danger is involved in using lead cisterns or pipes in the distribution of pure waters. The word " pure " is emphasized because experience shows that the presence in a water of even small proportions of calcium bicarbonate or sulphate prevents its action on lead. All im- purities do not act in a similar way. Ammonium nitrate and nitrite, for instance, intensify the action of a water on lead. Even pure waters, however, such as that of Loch Katrine (which forms the Glasgow supply), act so slowly, at least on such lead pipes as have already been in use for some time, that there is no danger in using short lead service pipes even for them, if the taps are being constantly used. Lead cisterns must be unhesitatingly condemned. The presence of carbonic acid in a water does not affect its action on lead. Aqueous non-oxidizing acids generally have little or no action on lead in the absence of air. Dilute sulphuric acid (say an acid of 20% H2SO4 or less) has no action on lead even when air is present, nor on boiling. Strong acid does act, the more so the greater its concentration and the higher its tempera- ture. Pure lead is far more readily corroded than a metal con- taminated with i % or even less of antimony or copper. Boiling concentrated sulphuric acid converts lead into sulphate, with evolution of sulphur dioxide. Dilute nitric acid readily dissolves the metal, with formation of nitrate Pb(NOs)2. Lead Alloys. — Lead unites readily with almost all other metals; hence, and on account of its being used for the extrac- tion of (for instance) silver, its alchemistic name of saturnus. Of the alloys the following may be named: — With Antimony. — Lead contaminated with small proportions of antimony is more highly proof against sulphuric acid than the pure metal. An alloy of 83 parts of lead and 17 of antimony is used as type metal ; other proportions are used, however, and other metals added besides antimony (e.g. tin, bismuth) to give the alloy certain properties. Arsenic renders lead harder. An alloy made by addition of about jth of arsenic has been used for making shot. Bismuth and Antimony. — An alloy consisting of 9 parts of lead, 2 of antimony and 2 of bismuth is used for stereotype plates. Bismuth and Tin. — These triple alloys are noted for their low fusing points. An alloy of 5 of lead, 8 of bismuth and 3 of tin fuses at 94-4° C., i.e. below the boiling-point of water (Rose's metal). An alloy of 15 parts of bismuth, 8 of lead, 4 of tin and 3 of cadmium (Wood's alloy) melts below 70° C. Tin unites with lead in any proportion with slight expansion, the alloy fusing at a lower temperature than either component. It is used largely for soldering. " Pewter " (q.v.) may be said to be substantially an alloy of the same two metals, but small quantities of copper, antimony and zinc are frequently added. Compounds of Lead. Lead generally functions as a divalent element of distinctly metallic character, yielding a definite series of salts derived from the oxide PbO. At the same time, however, it forms a number of compounds in which it is most decidedly tetravalent ; and thus it shows relations to carbon, silicon, germanium and tin. Oxides. — Lead combines with oxygen to form five oxides, viz. Pb2O, PbO, PbO2, Pb2O3 and Pb3O4. The suboxide, Pb2O, is the first product of the oxidation of lead, and is also obtained as a black powder by heating lead oxalate to 300° out of contact with air. It ignites when heated in air with the formation of the monoxide; dilute acids convert it into metallic lead and lead monoxide, the latter dissolving in the acid. The monoxide, PbO, occurs in nature as the mineral lead ochre. This oxide is produced by heating lead in contact with air and removing the film of oxide as formed. It is manu- factured in two forms, known as " massicot " and " litharge." The former is produced at temperatures below, the latter at tempera- tures above the fusing-point of the oxide. The liquid litharge when allowed to cool solidifies into a hard stone-like mass, which, however, when left to itself, soon crumbles up into a heap of resplendent dark yellow scales known as " flake litharge." " Buff " or " levi- gated litharge " is prepared by grinding the larger pieces under water. Litharge is much used for the preparation of lead salts, for the manufacture of oil varnishes, of certain cements, and of lead plaster, and for other purposes. Massicot is the raw material for the manufacture of " red lead " or " minium." Lead monoxide is dimorphous, occurring as cubical dodecahedra and as rhombic octahedra. Its specific gravity is about 9; it is sparingly soluble in water, but readily dissolves in acids and molten alkalis. A yellow and red modification have been described (Zeit. anorg. Chem., 1906, 50, p. 265). The corresponding hydrate, Pb(OH)2, is obtained as a white crystalline precipitate by adding ammonia to a solution of lead nitrate or acetate. It dissolves in an excess of alkali to form plumbites of the general formula Pb(OM)2. It absorbs carbon dioxide from the air when moist. A hydrated oxide, 2PbO-H2O, is obtained when a solution of the monoxide in potash is treated with carbon dioxide. Lead dioxide, PbO2, also known as " puce oxide," occurs in nature as the mineral plattnerite, and may be most conveniently prepared by heating mixed solutions of lead acetate and bleaching powder until the original precipitate blackens. The solution is filtered, the precipitate well washed, and, generally, is put up in the form of a paste in well-closed vessels. It is also obtained by passing chlorine into a suspension of lead oxide or carbonate, or of magnesia and lead sulphate, in water; or by treating the sesquioxide or red oxide with nitric acid. The formation of lead dioxide by the electrolysis of a lead solution, the anode being a lead plate coated with lead oxide or sulphate and the cathode a lead plate, is the fundamental principle of the storage cell (see ACCUMULATOR). Heating or ex- posure to sunlight reduces it to the red oxide; it fires when ground with sulphur, and oxidizes ammonia to nitric acid, with the simul- taneous formation of ammonium nitrate. It oxidizes a manganese salt (free from chlorine) in the presence of nitric acid to a per- manganate; this is a very delicate test for manganese. It forms crystallizable salts with potassium and calcium hydrates, and functions as a weak acid forming salts named plumbates. The Kassner process for the manufacture of oxygen depends upon the formation of calcium plumbate, Ca2PbO4, by heating a mixture of lime and litharge in a current of air, decomposing this substance into calcium carbonate and lead dioxide by heating in a, current of carbon dioxide, and then decomposing these compounds with the evolution of carbon dioxide and oxygen by raising the temperature. Plumbic acid, PbO(OH)2, is obtained as a bluish-black, lustrous body of electrolysing an alkaline solution of lead sodium tartrate. Tetravalent Lead. — If a suspension of lead dichloride in hydro- chloric acid be treated with chlorine gas, a solution of lead tetra- chloride is obtained; by adding ammonium chloride ammonium plumbichloride, (NHi)2PbCl6, is precipitated, which on treatment with strong sulphuric acid yields lead tetrachloride, PbCU, as a trans- lucent, yellow, highly refractive liquid. It freezes at —15° to a yellowish crystalline mass; on heating it loses chlorine and forms lead dichloride. With water it forms a hydrate, and ultimately de- composes into lead dioxide and hydrochloric acid. It combines with alkaline chlorides — potassium, rubidium and caesium — to form crystalline plumbichtorides; it also forms a crystalline compound with quinohne. By dissolving red lead, Pb3O4, in glacial acetic acid and crystallizing the filtrate, colourless monoclinic prisms of lead tetracetate, Pb(C2H3O2)4, are obtained. This salt gives the corre- sponding chloride and fluoride with hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids, and the phosphate, Pb(HPO.i)2, with phosphoric acid. These salts are like those of tin; and the resemblance to this metal is clearly enhanced by the study of the alkyl compounds. Here compounds of divalent lead have not yet been obtained ; by acting with zinc ethide on lead chloride, lead tetraethide, Pb(C2H3)4, is ob- tained, with the separation of metallic lead. Lead sesquioxide, Pb2O3, is obtained as a reddish-yellow amorphous powder by carefully adding sodium hypochlorite to a cold potash solution of lead oxide, or by adding very dilute ammonia to a solution of red lead in acetic acid. It is decomposed by acids into a mixture of lead monoxide and dioxide, and may thus be regarded as lead metaplumbate, PbPbO3. Red lead or triplumbic tetroxide, Pb3O4, is a scarlet crystalline powder of specific gravity 8-6-9-1, obtained by roasting very finely divided pure massicot or lead car- bonate; the brightness of the colour depends in a great measure on the roasting. Pliny mentions it under the name of minium, but it was confused with cinnabar and the red arsenic sulphide; Dios- corides mentions its preparation from white lead or lead carbonate. On heating it assumes a finer colour, but then turns violet and finally black; regaining, however, its original colour on cooling. On ignition, it loses oxygen and forms litharge. Commercial red lead is frequently contaminated with this oxide, which may, however, be removed by repeated digestion with lead acetate. Its common adulterants are iron oxides, powdered barytes and brick dust. Acids decompose it into lead dioxide and monoxide, and the latter may or may not dissolve to form a salt; red lead may, therefore, be regarded as lead orthoplumbate, Pb2PbO4. It is chiefly used as a pigment and in the manufacture of flint glass. Lead chloride, PbCl2, occurs in nature as the mineral cotunnite, which crystallizes in the rhombic system, and is found in the neigh- bourhood of volcanic craters. It is artificially obtained by adding hydrochloric acid to a solution of lead salt, as a white precipitate, LEAD 3*9 little soluble in cold water, less so in dilute hydrochloric acid, more- so in the strong acid, and readily soluble in hot water, from which on cooling, the excess of dissolved salt separates out in silky rhombic needles. It melts at 485° and solidifies on cooling to a translucent, horn-like mass; an early name for it was plumbum corneum, horn lead. A basic chloride, Pb(OH)Cl, was introduced in 1849 by Pattinspn as a substitute for white lead. Powdered galena is dis- solved in hot hydrochloric acid, the solution allowed to cool and the deposit of impure lead chloride washed with cold water to remove iron and copper. The residue is then dissolved in hot water, filtered, and the clear solution is mixed with very thin milk of lime so adjusted that it takes out one-half of the chlorine of the PbCl2. The oxy- chloride comes down as an amorphous white precipitate. Another oxychloride, PbCl2-7PbO, known as " Cassel yellow," was prepared by Vauquelin by fusing pure oxide, PbO, with one-tenth of its weight of sal ammoniac. " Turner's yellow " or " patent yellow " is another artificially prepared oxychloride, used as a pigment. Mendipite and ' matlockite are mineral oxychlorides. Lead fluoride, PbF2, is a white powder obtained by precipitating a lead salt with a soluble fluoride; it is sparingly soluble in water but readily dissolves in hydrochloric and nitric acids. A chloro- fluoride, PbCIF, is obtained by adding sodium fluoride to a solution of lead chloride. Lead bromide, PbBrj, a white solid, and lead iodide, PbI2, a yellow solid, are prepared by precipitating a lead salt with a soluble bromide or iodide; they resemble the chloride in solubility. Lead carbonate, PbCO3, occurs in nature as the mineral cerussite (q.v.). It is produced by the addition of a solution of lead salt to an excess of ammonium carbonate, as an almost insoluble white pre- cipitate. Of greater practical importance is a basic carbonate, substantially 2PbCO3-Pb(OH)2, largely used as a white pigment under the name of "white lead." This pigment is of great antiquity; Theophrastus called it tyinvOiov, and prepared it by acting on lead with vinegar, and Pliny, who called it cerussa, obtained it by dis- solving lead in vinegar and evaporating to dryness. It thus appears that white lead and sugar of lead were undifferentiated. Geber gave the preparation in a correct form, and T. O. Bergman proved its composition. This pigment is manufactured by several methods. In the old Dutch method, pieces of sheet lead are suspended in stoneware pots so as to occupy the upper two-thirds of the vessels. A little vinegar is poured into each pot ; they are then covered with plates of sheet lead, buried in horse-dung or spent tanner's bark, and left to themselves for a considerable time. By the action of the acetic acid and atmospheric oxygen, the lead is converted super- ficially into a basic acetate, which is at once decomposed by the carbon dioxide, with formation of white lead and acetic acid, which latter then acts de novo. After a month or so the plates are converted to a more or less considerable depth into crusts of white lead. These are knocked off, ground up with water, freed from metal-particles by elutriation, and the paste of white lead is allowed to set and dry in small conical forms. The German method differs from the Dutch inasmuch as the lead is suspended in a large chamber heated by ordinary means, and there exposed to the simultaneous action of vapour of aqueous acetic acid and of carbon dioxide. Another pro- cess depends upon the formation of lead chloride by grinding together litharge with salt and water, and then treating the alkaline fluid with carbon dioxide until it is neutral. White lead is an earthy, amorphous powder. The inferior varieties of commercial " white lead " are produced by mixing the genuine article with more or less of finely powdered heavy spar or occasionally zinc-white (ZnO). Venetian white, Hamburg white and Dutch white are mixtures of one part of white lead with one, two and three parts of barium sulphate respectively. Lead sulphide, PbS, occurs in nature as the mineral galena (q.v.), and constitutes the most valuable ore of lead. It may be artificially prepared by leading sulphur vapour over lead, by fusing litharge with sulphur, or, as a black precipitate, by passing sulphuretted hydrogen into a solution of a lead salt. It dissolves in strong nitric acid with the formation of the nitrate and sulphate, and also in hot concentrated hydrochloric acid. Lead sulphate, PbSO<, occurs in nature as the mineral anglesite (q.v.), and may be prepared by the addition of sulphuric acid to solutions of lead salts, as a white precipitate almost insoluble in water (i in 21,739), 'ess soluble still in dilute sulphuric acid (l in 36,504) and insoluble in alcohol. Ammonium sulphide blackens it, and it is soluble in solution of ammonium acetate, which distinguishes it from barium sulphate. Strong sulphuric acid dissolves it, forming an acid salt, Pb(HSO4)2, which is hydrolysed by adding water, the normal sulphate being precipitated; hence the milkiness exhibited by samples of oil of vitriol on dilution. Lead nitrate, Pb(NO3)2, is obtained by dissolving the metal or oxide in aqueous nitric acid ; it forms white crystals, difficultly soluble in cold water, readily in hot water and almost insoluble in strong nitric acid. It was mentioned by Libavius, who named it calx plumb dulcis. It is decomposed by heat into oxide, nitrogen peroxide and oxygen; and is used for the manufacture of fusees and other deflagrating compounds, and also for preparing mordants in the dyeing and calico-printing industries. Basic nitrates, e.g. Pb(NO3)OH, Pb3O(OH)2(NO3)2, Pb3O2(OH)NO3, &c.., have been described. Lead Phosphates. — The normal ortho-phosphate, PbsCPOOj, is a white precipitate obtained by adding sodium phosphate to lead acetate; the acid phosphate, PbHPQ4, is produced by precipitating a boiling solution of lead nitrate with phosphoric acid; the pyro- phosphate and meta-phosphate are similar white precipitates. Lead Borates. — By fusing litharge with boron trioxide, glasses of a composition varying with the proportions of the mixture are ob- tained; some of these are used in the manufacture of glass. The borate, Pb2B6On-4H2O,is obtained as a white precipitate by adding borax to a lead salt; this on heating with strong ammonia gives PbB2C>4-H2-O, which, in turn, when boiled with a solution of boric acid, gives PbB4O7-4H2O. Lead silicates are obtained as glasses by fusing litharge with silica ; they play a considerable part in the manufacture of the lead glasses (see GLASS). Lead chromate, PbCrOi, is prepared industrially as a yellow pigment, chrome yellow, by precipitating sugar of lead solution with potassium bichromate. The beautiful yellow precipitate is little soluble in dilute nitric acid, but soluble in caustic potash. The vermilion-like pigment which occurs in commerce as " chrome- red " is a basic chromate, Pb2CrO6, prepared by treating recently precipitated normal chromate with a properly adjusted proportion of caustic soda, or by boiling it with normal (yellow) potassium chromate. Lead acetate, Pb(C2H3O2)2-3H2O (called " sugar " of lead, on account of its sweetish taste), is manufactured by dissolving massi- cot in aqueous acetic acid. It forms colourless transparent crystals, soluble in one and a half parts of cold water and in eight parts of alcohol, which on exposure to ordinary air become opaque through absorption of carbonic acid, which forms a crust of basic carbonate. An aqueous solution readily dissolves lead oxide, with formation of a strongly alkaline solution containing basic acetates (Acetum Plumbi or Saturni). When carbon dioxide is passed into this solu- tion the whole of the added oxide, and even part of the oxide of the normal salt, is precipitated as a basic carbonate chemically similar, but not quite equivalent as a pigment, to white lead. Analysis. — When mixed with sodium carbonate and heated on charcoal in the reducing flame lead salts yield malleable globules of metal and a yellow oxide-ring. Solutions of lead salts (colourless in the absence of coloured acids) are characterized by their behaviour to hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid and potassium chromate. But the most delicate precipitant for lead is sulphuretted hydrogen, which produces a black precipitate of lead sulphide, insoluble in cold dilute nitric acid, less so in cold hydrochloric, and easily decomposed by hot hydrochloric acid with formation of the characteristic chloride. The atomic weight, determined by G. P. Baxter and J. H. Wilson (/. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1908, 30, p. 187) by analysing the chloride, is 270-190 (0=i6). Pharmacology and Therapeutics. The metal itself is not used in medicine. The chief pharma- copoeial salts are: (i) Plumbi oxidum (lead oxide), litharge. It is not used internally, but from it is made Emplastrum Plumbi (diachylon plaster), which is an oleate of lead and is contained in emplastrum hydrargeri, emplastrum plumbi iodidi, emplastrum resinae, emplastrum saponis. (2) Plumbi Acelas (sugar of lead), dose i to 5 grains. From this salt are made the following prepara- tions: (a) Pilula Plumbi cum Opio, the strength of the opium in it being i in 8, dose 2 to 4 grains; (b) Suppositoria Plumbi composila, containing lead acetate, opium and oil of theobroma, there being one grain of opium in each suppository; (c) Un- guentum Plumbi Acetatis; (d) Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Fortior, Goulard's extract, strength 24% of the subacetate; this again has a sub-preparation, the Liquor Plumbi Subacetalis Dilutis, called Goulard's water or Goulard's lotion, containing i part in 80 of the strong extract; (e) Glycerinum Plumbi Subacetatis, from which is made the Unguentum Glycerini Plumbi Subacetatis. (3) Plumbi Carbonas, white lead, a mixture of the carbonate and the hydrate, a heavy white powder insoluble in water; it is not used internally, but from it is made Unguentum Plumbi Carbonatis, strength i in 10 parts of paraffin ointment. (4) Plumbi lodidium, a heavy bright yellow powder not used in- ternally. From it are made (a) Emplastrum Plumbi Iodidi, and (b) Unguentum Plumbi Iodidi. The strength of each is i in 10. Applied externally lead salts have practically no action upon the unbroken skin, but applied to sores, ulcers or any exposed mucous membranes they coagulate the albumen in the tissues themselves and contract the small vessels. They are very astringent, haemostatic and sedative; the strong solution of the 320 LEADER— LEAD POISONING subacetate is powerfully caustic and is rarely used undiluted. Lead salts are applied as lotions in conditions where a sedative astringent effect is desired, as in weeping eczema; in many varieties of chronic ulceration; and as an injection for various inflammatory discharges from the vagina, ear and urethra, the Liquor Plumbi Subacetatis Dilutum being the one employed. The sedative effect of lead lotion in pruritus is well known. Internally lead has an astringent action on the mucous mem- branes, causing a sensation of dry ness; the dilute solution of the subacetate forms an effective gargle in tonsillitis. The chief use of the preparations of lead, however, is as an astringent in acute diarrhoea, particularly if ulceration be present, when it is usefully given in combination with opium in the form of the Pilula Plumbi cum Opio. It is useful in haemorrhage from a gastric ulcer or in haemorrhage from the intestine. Lead salts usually produce constipation, and lead is an active ecbolic. Lead is said to enter the blood as an albuminate in which form it is deposited in the tissues. As a rule the soluble salts if taken in sufficient quantities produce acute poisoning, and the in- soluble salts chronic plumbism. The symptoms of acute poison- ing are pain and diarrhoea, owing to the setting up of an active gastro-enteritis, the foeces being black (due to the formation of a sulphide of lead), thirst, cramps in the legs and muscular twitchings, with torpor, collapse, convulsions and coma. The treatment is the prompt use of emetics, or the stomach should be washed out, and large doses of sodium or magnesium sulphate given in order to form an insoluble sulphate. Stimulants, warmth and opium may be required. For an account of chronic plumbism see LEAD POISONING. AUTHORITIES. — For the history of lead see W. H. Pulsifer, Notes for a History of Lead (1888); B. Neumann, Die Metalle (1904); A. Rossing, Geschichte der Metalle (1901). For the chemistry see H. Roscoe and C. Schorlemmer, Treatise on Inorganic Chemistry, vol. ii. (1897); H. Moissan, Traitt de chimie minerale; O. Dammer, Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie. For the metallurgy see J. Percy, The Metallurgy of Lead (London, 1870) ; H. F. Collins, The Metallurgy of Lead and Silver (London, 1899), part i. " Lead " ; H. O. Hofmann, The Metallurgy of Lead (6th ed., New York, 1901); W. R. Ingalls, Lead Smelting and Refining (1906); A. G. Betts, Lead Refining by Electrolysis (1908) ; M. Eissler, The Metallurgy of Argentiferous Silver. The Mineral Industry, begun in 1892, annually records the progress made in lead smelting. LEADER, BENJAMIN WILLIAMS (1831- ), English painter, the son of E. Leader Williams, an engineer, received his art education first at the Worcester School of Design and later in the schools of the Royal Academy. He began to exhibit at the Academy in 1854, was elected A.R.A. in 1883 and R.A. in 1898, and became exceedingly popular as a painter of landscape. His subjects are attractive and skilfully composed. He was awarded a gold medal at the Paris Exhibition in 1889, and was made a knight of the Legion of Honour. One of his pictures, " The Valley of the Llugwy," is in the National Gallery of British Art. See The Life and Work of B. W. Leader, R.A., by Lewis Lusk, Art Journal Office (1901). LEADHILLJTE, a rare mineral consisting of basic lead sulphato- carbonate, Pb4 SO4 (CO3)2(OH)2. Crystals have usually the form of six-sided plates (fig. i) or sometimes of acute rhombohedra (fig. 2) ; they have a perfect basal cleavage (parallel to P in fig. i) on which the lustre is strongly pearly; they are usually white and translucent. The hardness is 2-5 and the sp. gr. 6-26-6-44. The crystallographic and optical characters point to the existence of three dis- tinct kinds of leadhillite, which are, however, identical in external ap- pearance and may even occur intergrown to- gether in the same cry- stal: (a) monoclinic with an optic axial angle of 20°; (6) rhombohedral (fig. 2) and optically FIG. i. FIG. 2. uniaxial; (c) orthorhombic (fig. i) with an optic axial angle of 72!°. The first of these is the more common kind, and the second has long been .known under the name susannite. The fact that the published analyses of leadhillite vary somewhat from the formula given above suggests that these three kinds may also be chemically distinct. Leadhillite is a mineral of secondary origin, occurring with cerussite, anglesite, &c., in the oxidized portions of lead-bearing lodes; it has also been found in weathered lead slags left by the Romans. It has been found most abundantly in the Susanna mine at Leadhills in Scotland (hence the names leadhillite and susannite). Good crystals have also been found at Red Gill in Cumberland and at Granby in Missouri. Crystals from Sardinia have been called maxite. (L. J. S.) LEADHILLS, a village of Lanarkshire, Scotland, 5! m. W.S.W. of Elvanfoot station on the Caledonian Railway Com- pany's main line from Glasgow to the south. Pop. (1901) 835. It is the highest village in Scotland, lying 1301 ft. above sea-level, near the source of Glengonner Water, an affluent of the Clyde. It is served by a h'ght railway. Lead and silver have been mined here and at Wanlockhead, 15 m. S.W., for many centuries — according to some authorities even in Roman days. Gold was discovered in the reign of James IV., but though it is said then to have provided employment for 300 persons, its mining has long ceased to be profitable. The village is neat and well built, and contains a masonic hall and library, the latter founded by the miners about the middle of the i8th century. Allan Ramsay, the poet, and William Symington (1763-1831), one of the earliest adaptors of the steam engine to the purposes of navigation, were born at Leadhills. LEAD POISONING, or PLUMBISM, a " disease of occupations," which is itself the cause of organic disease, particularly of the nervous and urinary systems. The workpeople affected are principally those engaged in potteries where lead-glaze is used; but other industries in which health is similarly affected are file- making, house-painting and glazing, glass-making, copper- working, coach-making, plumbing and gasfitting, printing, cutlery, and generally those occupations in which lead is concerned. The symptoms of chronic lead poisoning vary within very wide limits, from colic and constipation up to total blindness, paralysis, convulsions and death. They are thus described by Dr J. T. Arlidge (Diseases of Occupations): — The poison finds its way gradually into the whole mass of the circulating blood, and exerts its effects mainly on the nervous system, paralysing nerve-force and with it muscular power. Its victims become of a sallow-waxy hue; the functions of the stomach and bowels are deranged, appetite fails and painful colic with constipation supervenes. The loss of power is generally shown first in the fingers, hands and wrists, and the condition known as " wrist-drop " soon follows, rendering the victim useless for work. The palsy will extend to the shoulders, and after no long time to the legs also. Other organs frequently involved are the kidneys, the tissue of which becomes permanently damaged; whilst the sight is weakened or even lost. Dr M'Aldowie, senior physician to the North Staffordshire Infirmary, has stated that " in the pottery trade lead is very slow in producing serious effects compared with certain other industries." In his experience the average period of working in lead before serious lesions manifest themselves is 18 years for females and 225 years for males. But some individuals fall victims to the worst forms of plumbism after a few months' or even weeks' exposure to the danger. Young persons are more readily affected than those of mature age, and women more than men. In addition, there seems to be an element of personal susceptibility, the nature of which is not understood. Some persons " work in the lead " for twenty, forty or fifty years without the slightest ill effects; others have attacks whenever they are brought into contact with it. Possibly the difference is due to the general state of health; robust persons resist the poison successfully, those with impoverished blood and feeble constitution are mastered by it. Lead enters the body chiefly through the nose and mouth, being inspired in the form of dust or swallowed with food eaten with unwashed hands. It is very apt to get under the nails, and is possibly absorbed in this way through the skin. Personal care and cleanliness are therefore of the greatest importance. A factory surgeon of great experience in the English Potteries LEADVILLE 321 has stated that seventeen out of twenty cases of lead-poisoning in the china and earthenware industry are due to carelessness (The Times, 8th October 1898). The Home Office in England has from time to time made special rules for workshops and workpeople, with the object of minimizing or preventing the occurrence of lead-poisoning; and in 1895 notification of cases was made compulsory. The health of workpeople in the Potteries was the subject of a special inquiry by a scientific committee in 1893. The committee stated that " the general truth that the potteries occupation is one fraught with injury to health and life is beyond dispute, " and that " the ill effects of the trade are referable to two chief causes — namely, dust and the poison of lead." Of these the inhalation of clay and flint dust was the more important. It led to bronchitis, pulmonary tuberculosis and pneumonia, which were the most prevalent disorders among potters, and responsible for 70% of the mortality. That from lead the committee did not attempt to estimate, but they found that plumbism was less prevalent than in past times, and expressed the opinion " that a large part of the mortality from lead poisoning is avoidable; although it must always be borne in mind that no arrangements or rules, with regard to the work itself, can entirely obviate the effects of the poison to which workers are exposed, because so much depends upon the individual and the observance of personal care and cleanliness." They recommended the adoption of certain special rules in the workshops, with the objects of protecting young persons from the lead, of minimizing the evils of dust, and of promoting cleanliness, particularly in regard to meals. Some of these recommendations were adopted and applied with good results. With regard to the suggestion that " only leadless glazes should be used on earthenware," they did not " see any immediate prospect of such glazes becoming universally applicable to pottery manufacture," and therefore turned their attention to the question of " fritting " the lead. It may be explained that lead is used in china and earthenware to give the external glaze which renders the naturally porous ware watertight. Both white " and " red " lead are used. The lead is added to other ingredients, which have been " fritted " or fused together and then ground very fine in water, making a thick creamy liquid into which the articles are dipped. After dipping the glaze dries quickly, and on being " fired " in the kiln it becomes fused by the heat into the familiar glassy surface. In the manufacture of ware with enamelled colours, glaze is mixed with the pigment to form a flux, and such colours are used either moist or in the form of a dry powder. " Fritting " the lead means mixing it with the other ingredients of the glaze beforehand and fusing them all together under great heat into a kind of rough glass, which is then ground to make the glaze. Treated in this way the lead combines with the other ingredients and becomes less soluble, and therefore less dangerous, than when added afterwards in the raw state. The committee (1893) thought it " reasonable to suppose that the fritting of lead might ultimately be found universally practicable," but declared that though fritting " no doubt diminishes the danger of lead-poisoning," they " could not regard all fritts as equally innocuous." In the annual report of the chief inspector of factories for 1897, it was stated that there had been " material improvement in dust conditions " in the potting industry, but " of lead- poisoning unfortunately the same could not be said, the number of grave cases reported, and particularly cases of blindness, having ominously increased of late." This appears to have been largely due to the erroneous inclusion among potting processes of " litho-transfer making," a colour industry in which girls are employed. New special rules were imposed in 1899 prohibiting the employment of persons under fifteen in the dangerous processes, ordering a monthly examination of all women and young persons working in lead by the certifying surgeon, with power to suspend those showing symptoms of poisoning, and providing for the more effectual removal of dust and the better enforcement of cleanliness. At the same time a scientific inquiry was ordered into the practicability of dispensing with lead in glazes or of substituting fritted compounds for the raw carbonate. The scientific experts reported in 1899, recommending that the use of raw lead should be absolutely prohibited, and expressing the opinion that the greater amount of earthenware could be successfully glazed without any lead. These views were in advance of the opinions held by practical potters, and met with XVI. II a good deal of opposition. By certain manufacturers consider- able progress had been made in diminishing the use of raw lead and towards the discovery of satisfactory leadless glazes; but it is a long step from individual experiments to the wholesale compulsory revolution of the processes of manufacture in so large and varied an industry, and in the face of foreign com- petitors hampered by no such regulations. The materials used by each manufacturer have been arrived at by a long process of experience, and they are such as to suit the particular goods he supplies for his particular market. It is therefore difficult to apply a uniform rule without jeopardizing the prosperity of the industry, which supports a population of 250,000 in the Potteries alone. However, the bulk of the manufacturers agreed to give up the use of raw lead, and to fritt all their glazes in future, time being allowed to effect the change of process; but they declined to be bound to any particular composition of glaze for the reasons indicated. In 1901 the Home Office brought forward a new set of special rules. Most of these were framed to strengthen the provisions for securing cleanliness, removing dust, &c., and were accepted with a few modifications. But the question of making even more stringent regulations, even to the extent of making the use of lead-glaze illegal altogether, was still agitated; and in 1906 the Home Office again appointed an expert committee to reinvestigate the subject. They reported in 1910, and made various recommendations in detail for strengthening the existing regulations; but while encouraging the use of leadless glaze in certain sorts of common ceramic ware, they pointed out that, without the use of lead, certain other sorts could either not be made at all or only at a cost or sacrifice of quality which would entail the loss of important markets. In 1908 Dr Collis made an inquiry into the increase of plumbism in connexion with the smelting of metals, and he considered the increase in the cases of poisoning reported to be due to the third schedule of the Workmen's Compensation Act, (l) by causing the prevalence of pre-existing plumbism to come to light, (2) by the tendency this fostered to replace men suspected of lead impregnation by new hands amongst whom the incidence is necessarily greater. LEADVILLE, a city and the county seat of Lake county, Colorado, U.S.A., one of the highest (mean elevation c. 10,150 ft.) and most celebrated mining " camps " of the world. Pop. (1900) 12,455, of whom 3802 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 7508. It is served by the Denver & Rio Grande, the Colorado & Southern and the Colorado Midland railways. It lies amid towering mountains on a terrace of the western flank of the Mosquito Range at the head of the valley of the Arkansas river, where the river cuts the valley between the Mosquito and the Sawatch (Saguache) ranges. Among the peaks in the immediate environs are Mt. Massive (14,424 ft., the highest in the state) and Elbert Peak (14,421 ft.). There is a United States fish hatchery at the foot of Mt. Massive. In the spring of 1860 placer gold was discovered in California Gulch, and by July 1860 Oro City had probably 10,000 inhabitants. In five years the total yield was more than $5,000,000; then it dhninished, and Oro City shrank to a few hundred inhabitants. This settle- ment was within the present limits of Leadville. In 1876 the output of the mines was about $20,000. During sixteen years " heavy sands " and great boulders that obstructed the placer fields had been moved thoughtlessly to one side. These boulders were from enormous lead carbonate deposits extremely rich in silver. The discovery of these deposits was made on the hills at the edge of Leadville. The first building was erected in June 1877; in December there were several hundred miners, in January the town was organized and named; at the end of 1879 there were, it is said, 35,000 inhabitants. Leadville was already a chartered city, with the usual organization and all public facilities. In 1880 it was reached by the Denver & Rio Grande railway. In early years Leadville was one of the most turbulent, picturesque and in all ways extraordinary, of the mining camps of the West. The value of the output from 1879 to 1889 totalled $147,834,186, including one-fifth of the silver production and a third of the lead consumption of the country. The decline in the price of silver, culminating with the closing of the India mints 322 LEAF and the repeal of the Sherman Law in 1893, threatened Lead- ville's future. But the source of the gold of the old placers was found in 1892. From that year to 1899 the gold product rose from $262,692 to $2,183,332. From 1879 to 1900 the camp yielded $250,000,000 (as compared with $48,000,000 of gold and silver in five years from the Comstock, Nevada, lode; and $60,000,000 and 225,000 tons of lead, in fourteen years, from the Eureka, Nevada, mines). Before 1898 the production of zinc was unimportant, but in 1906 it was more valuable than that of silver and gold combined. This increased output is a result of the establishment of concentrating mills, in which the zinc content is raised from 18 or 20% in the raw ores to 25 or 45% in the concentrates. In 1904, per ton of Lake county ore, zinc was valued at $6.93, silver at $4.16, lead at $3.85, gold at $1.77 and copper at $.66. The copper mined at Leadville amounted to about one-third the total mined in the state in 1906. Iron and manganese have been produced here, and in 1906 Leadville was the only place in the United States known to have produced bismuth. There were two famous labour strikes in the " diggings " in 1879 and 1896. The latter attracted national attention; it lasted from the igth of June 1896 to the 9th of March 1897, when the miners, being practically starved out, declared the strike off. There had been a riot on the 2ist of September 1896 and militia guarded the mines for months afterwards. In January 1897 the mines on Carbonate Hill were flooded after the removal of their pumps. This strike closed many mines, which were not opened for several years. Leadville stocks are never on the exchange, and " flotation " and " promotion " have been almost unknown. The ores of the Leadville District occur in a blue limestone for- mation overlaid by porphyry, and are in the form of heavy sulphides, containing copper, gold, silver, lead and zinc; oxides containing iron, manganese and small amounts of silver and lead ; and siliceous ores, containing much silver and a little lead and gold. The best grade of ores usually consists of a mixture of sulphides, with some native gold. Nowhere have more wonderful advances in mining been apparent — in the size and character of furnaces and pumps; the development of local smelter supplies; the fall in the cost of coal, of explosives and other mine supplies; the development of railways and diminution of freight expenses; and the general im- provement of economic and scientific methods— than at Leadville since 1880. The increase of output more than doubled from 1890 to 1900, and many ores once far too low in grade for working now yield sure profits. The Leadville smelters in 1900 had a capacity of 35,000 tons monthly; about as much more local ore being treated at Denver, Pueblo and other places. See S. F. Emmons, Geology and Mining Industry of Leadville, Colorado, monograph United States Geological Survey, vol. 12 (1886), and with J. D. Irving, The Downtown District of Leadville, Colorado, Bulletin 320, United States Geological Survey (1907), particularly for the discussion of the origin of the ores of the region. LEAF (O. Eng. leaf, cf. Dutch loo}, Ger. Laub, Swed. Id}, &c.; possibly to be referred to the root seen in Gr. \tirfiv, to peel, strip), the name given in popular language to all the green expanded organs borne upon an axis, and so applied to similar objects, such as a thin sheet of metal, a hinged flap of a table, the page of a book, &c. Investigation has shown that many other parts of a plant which externally appear very different from ordinary leaves are, in their essential particulars, very similar to them, and are in fact their morphological equivalents. Such are the scales of a bulb, and the various parts of the flower, and assuming that the structure ordinarily termed a leaf is the typical form, these other structures were designated changed or metamorphosed leaves, a somewhat misleading interpretation. All structures morphologically equivalent with the leaf are now included under the general term phyllome (leaf-structure). Leaves are produced as lateral outgrowths of the stem in definite succession below the apex. This character, common to all leaves, distinguishes them from other organs. In the higher plants we can easily recognize the distinction between stem and leaf. Amongst the lower plants, however, it is found that a demarcation into stem and leaf is impossible, but that there is a structure which partakes of the characters of both — such is a Ihallus. The leaves always arise from the outer portion of the primary meristem of the plant, and the tissues of the leaf are continuous with those of the stem. Every leaf originates as a simple cellular papilla (fig i), which consists of a development from the cortical layers covered by epidermis; and as growth proceeds, the nbro-vascular bundles of the stem are continued outwards, and finally expand and terminate in the leaf. The increase in length of the leaf by growth at the apex is usually of a limited nature. In some ferns, however, there seems to be a provision for indefinite terminal growth, while in others this growth is periodically in- terrupted. It not unfre- quently happens, especially amongst Monocotyledons, that after growth at the apex has ceased, it is con- tinued at the base of the leaf, and in this way the length may be much in- creased. Amongst Dico- tyledons this is very rare. In all cases the dimensions of the leaf are enlarged by interstitial growth of its parts. The simplest leaf is found in some mosses, where it consists of a single layer of 11 T«I_ ' • i cells. The typical foliage leaf consists of several layers, and amongst vascular plants is distin- guishable into an outer of leaves* From Strasburger's I-ehrbuch der Bolanik by permission of Gustav Fischer. FIG. i. — Apex of a shoot showing origin of leaves: /, leaf rudiment; g, rudiment of an axillary bud (Xio). layer (epidermis) and a central tissue (parenchyma) with fibro-vascular bundles distributed through it. The epidermis (fig. 2, es, ei), composed of cells more or less com- pressed, has usually a different structure and aspect on the two surfaces of the leaf. The cells of the epidermis are very closely united laterally and contain no green colouring matter (chlorophyll) except in the pair of cells— guard-cells— which bound the stomata. The outer wall, especially of the upper epidermis, has a tough outer layer or cuticle which renders it impervious to water. The epidermis is continuous except where stomata or spaces bounded by specialized cells communicate with intercellular spaces in "*' the interior of the leaf. It is chiefly on the epi- dermis of the lower sur- face (fig. 2, ei) that/" stomata, st, are pro- duced, and it is there also that hairs, p, usually occur. The lower epi- dermis is often of a dull or pale-green colour, soft and easily detached. plants present on the f/ stomata ESS "veraf serve for storage of water "latous cells- nH irp tnnwn a a m> Air-spaces connected with stomata. aqueous tissue ?n '- Air-spaces between the loose cells in the leaves which float upon , *P°n>P Parenchyma, the surface of the water, >' Bundles of fibro-vascular tissue, as those of the water-lily, the upper epidermis alone possesses' stomata. taining the green chlorophyll-granules, but differing in form and arrangement. Below the epidermis of the upper side of the leaf :here are one or two layers of cells, elongated at right angles to the eaf surface (fig. 2, ps) , and applied so closely to each other as to leave LEAF 323 only small intercellular spaces, except where stomata happen to be present (fig. 2, m) ; they form the palisade tissue. On the other side of the leaf the cells are irregular, often branched, and are arranged more or less horizontally (fig. 2, pi), leaving air-spaces between them, /, which communicate with stomata; on this account the tissue has received the name of spongy. In leaves having a very firm texture, as those of Coniferae and Cycadaceae, the cells of the parenchyma immediately beneath the epidermis are very much thickened and elongated in a direction parallel to the surface of the leaf, so as to be fibre-like. These constitute a hypodermal layer, beneath which the chlorophyll cells of the parenchyma are densely packed together, and are elongated in a direction vertical to the surface of the leaf, forming the palisade tissue. The form and arrangement of the cells, however, depend much on the nature of the plant, and its exposure to light and air. Sometimes the arrange- ment of the cells on both sides of the leaf is similar, as occurs in leaves which have their edges presented to the sky. In very suc- culent plants the cells form a compact mass, and those in the centre are often colourless. In some cases the cellular tissue is deficient at certain points, giving rise to distinct holes in the leaf, as in Mon- stera Adansonii. The fibre-vascular system in the leaf constitutes the venation. The fibro-vascular bundles from the stem bend out into the leaf, and are there arranged in a definite manner. In skeleton leaves, or leaves in which the parenchyma is removed, this arrangement is well seen. In some leaves, as in the barberry, the veins are hardened, producing spines without any parenchyma. The hardening of the extremities of the fibro-vascular tissue is the cause of the spiny margin of many leaves, such as the holly, of the sharp-pointed leaves of madder, and of mucronate leaves, or those having a blunt end with a hard projection in the centre. The form and arrangement of the parts of a typical foliage leaf are intimately associated with the part played by the leaf in the life of the plant. The flat surface is spread to allow the maximum amount of sunlight to fall upon it, as it is by the absorption of energy from the sun's rays by means of the chloro- phyll contained in the cells of the leaf that the building up of plant food is rendered possible; this process is known as photo-synthesis; the first stage is the combination of carbon dioxide, absorbed from the air taken in through the stomata into the living cells of the leaf, with water which is brought into the leaf by the wood-vessels. The wood-vessels form part of the fibro-vascular bundles or veins of the leaf and are continuous throughout the leaf-stalk and stem with the root by which water is absorbed from the soil. The palisade layers of the mesophyll contain the larger number of chlorophyll grains (or corpuscles) while the absorption of carbon dioxide is carried on chiefly through the lower epidermis which is generally much richer in stomata. The water taken up by the root from the soil contains nitro- genous and mineral salts which combine with the first pro- duct of photo-synthesis — a carbohydrate— to form more complicated nitrogen-containing food substances of a proteid nature; these are then distributed by other elements of the vascular bundles (the phloem) through the leaf to the stem and so throughout the plant to wherever growth or development, is going on. A large proportion of the water which ascends to the leaf acts merely as a carrier for the other raw food materials and is got rid of from the leaf in the form of water vapour through the stomata — this process is known as transpiration. Hence the extended surface of the leaf exposing a large area to light and air is eminently adapted for the carrying out of the process of photo-synthesis and transpiration. The arrangement of the leaves on the stem and branches (see Phyllotaxy, below) is such as to prevent the upper leaves shading the lower, and the shape of the leaf serves towards the same end — the disposition of leaves on a branch or stem is often seen to form a " mosaic," each leaf fitting into the space between neighbouring leaves and the branch on which they are borne without overlapping. Submerged leaves, or leaves which are developed under water, differ in structure from aerial leaves. They have usually no fibro-vascular system, but consist of a congeries of cells, which sometimes become elongated and compressed so as to resemble veins. They have a layer of compact cells on their surface, but no true epidermis, and no stomata. Their internal structure consists of cells, disposed irregularly, and Sbmetimes leaving spaces which are filled with air for the purpose of floating the leaf. When exposed to the air these leaves easily part with their moisture, and become shrivelled and dry. In some cases there is only a network of filament-like cells, the spaces between which are not filled with parenchyma, giving a skeleton appear- ance to the leaf, as in Ouvirandra fenestralis (Lattice plant). A leaf, whether aerial or submerged, generally consists of a flat expanded portion, called the blade, or lamina, of a narrower portion called the petiole or stalk, and sometimes of a portion at the base of the petiole, which forms a sheath or vagina (fig. 5, s), or is developed in the form of outgrowths, called stipules (fig. 24, s). All these portions are not always present. The sheathing or stipulary portion is frequently wanting. When a leaf has a distinct stalk it is petiolate; when it has none, it is sessile, and if in this case it embraces the stem it is said to be amplexicaul. The part of the leaf next the petiole or the axis is the base, while the opposite extremity is the apex. The leaf is usually flattened and expanded horizontally, i.e. at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the shoot, so that the upper face is directed towards the heavens, and the lower towards the earth. In some cases leaves, as in Iris, or leaf -like petioles, as in Australian acacias and eucalypti, have their plane of expansion parallel to the axis of the shoot, there is then no distinction into an upper and a lower face, but the two sides are developed alike; or the leaf may have a cylindrical or polyhedral form, as in mesembry- anthemum. The upper angle formed between the leaf and the stem is called its axil; it is there that leaf-buds are normally developed. The leaf is sometimes articulated with the stem, and when it falls off a scar remains; at other times it is con- tinuous with it, and then decays, while still attached to the axis. In their early state all leaves are continuous with the stem, and it is only in their after growth that articulations are formed. When leaves fall off annually they are called deciduous; when they remain for two or more years they are persistent, and the plant is evergreen. The laminar portion of a leaf is occasionally articulated with the petiole, as in the orange, and a joint at times exists between the vaginal or stipulary portion and the petiole. The arrangement of the fibro-vascular system in the lamina constitutes the venation or nervation. In an ordinary leaf, as that of the elm, there is observed a large central vein running from the base to the apex of the leaf, this is the midrib (fig. 3); it gives off veins laterally (primary veins). A leaf with FIG. 3. — Leaf of Elm (Ulmus). Reticulated vena- tion ; primary veins going to the margin, which is ser- rated. Leaf unequal at the base. FIG. 4. — Multicostate leaf of Castor- oil plant (Ricinus communis). It is palmately-cleft, and exhibits seven lobes at the margin. The petiole is inserted a little above the base, and hence the leaf is called peltate or shield- like. only a single midrib is said to be unicostate and the venation is described as pinnate or feather-veined. In some cases, as sycamore or castor oil (fig. 4), in place of there being only a single midrib there are several large veins (ribs) of nearly equal size, which diverge from the point where the blade joins the petiole or stem, giving off lateral veins. The leaf in this case is multicostate and the venation palmate. The primary veins give off secondary veins, and these in their turn give off tertiary veins, and so on until a complete network of vessels is produced, and those veins usually project on the under surface of the leaf. To a distribution of veins such as this the name of reticu- lated or netted venation has been applied. I n the leaves of some plants there exists a midrib with large veins running nearly parallel to it from the base to the apex of the lamina, as in grasses (fig. 5) ; or with veins diverging from the base of the lamina in more or less 324 LEAF parallel lines, as in fan palms (fig. 6), or with veins coming off from it throughout its whole course, and running parallel to each other in a straight or curved direction towards the margin of the leaf, as in plantain and banana. In these cases the veins are often united by cross veinlets, which do not, however, form an angular network. Such leaves are said to be parallel-veined. The leaves of Mono- cotyledons have generally this kind of venation, while reticulated venation most usually occurs amongst Dicotyledons. Some plants, which in most points of their struc- ture are monocotyledonous, yet have reticulated venation ; as in Smilax and Dioscorea. In vascular acotyle- donous plants there is frequently a tendency to fork exhibited by the nbro-vascular bundles in the leaf; and when this is the case we have ^ork-veined leaves. This is well seen in many ferns. The distribution of the system of vessels in the leaf is FIG. 5. — Stem of a Grass FIG. 6. — Leaf of a Fan Palm (Poo) with leaf. The sheaths (Chamaerops), showing the veins ending in a process /, called running from the base to the mar- a ligule; the blade of the gin, and not forming an angular leaf, /. network. usually easily traced, but in the case of succulent plants, as Hoya, agave, stonecrop and mesembryanthemum, the veins are obscure. The function of the veins which consist of vessels and fibres is to form a rigid framework for the leaf and to conduct liquids. In all plants, except Thallophytes, leaves are present at some period of their existence. In Cuscuta (Dodder) (q.v.), however, we have an exception. The forms assumed by leaves vary much, not only in different plants, but in the same plant. It is only amongst the lower classes of plants — Mosses, Characeae, &c. — that all the leaves on a plant are similar. As we pass up the scale of plant life we find them becoming more and more variable. The structures in ordinary language designated as leaves are considered so par excellence, and they are frequently spoken of as foliage leaves. In relation to their production on the stem we may observe that when they are small they are always produced in great number, and as they increase in size their number diminishes correspondingly. The cellular process from the axis which develops into a leaf is simple and undivided; it rarely remains so, but in progress of growth becomes segmented in various ways, either longitudinally or laterally, or in both ways. By longitudinal segmentation we have a leaf formed consisting of sheath, stalk and blade; or one or other of these may be absent, and thus stalked, sessile, sheathing, &c., leaves are produced. Lateral segmentation affects the lamina, pro- ducing indentations, lobings or fissuring of its margins. In this way two marked forms of leaf are produced — (i) Simple form, in which the segmentation, however deeply it extends into the lamina, does not separate portions of the lamina which become articulated with the midrib or petiole; and (2) Com- pound form, where portions of the lamina are separated as detached leaflets, which become articulated with the midrib or petiole. In both simple and compound leaves, according to the amount of segmentation and the mode of development of the parenchyma and direction of the fibre-vascular bundles, many forms are produced. Simple Leaves. — When the parenchyma'is developed symmetrically on each side of the midrib or stalk, the leaf is equal; if otherwise, „. . the leaf is unequal or oblique (fig. 3). If the margins are leaves even anc* Prese.nt no divisions, the leaf is entire (fig. 7) ; if there are slight projections which are more or less pointed, the leaf is dentate or toothed; when the projections lie regularly over each other, like the teeth of a saw, the leaf is serrate (fig. 3); when they are rounded the leaf is crenate. If the divisions extend more deeply into the lamina than the margin, the leaf receives different names according to the nature of the segments; thus, when the divisions extend about half-way down (fig. 8), it is cleft; when the divisions extend nearly to the base or to the midrib the leaf is partite. If these divisions take place in a simple feather-veined leaf it becomes either pinnatifid (fig. 9), when the segments extend to about the middle, or pinnatipartite, when the divisions extend nearly to the midrib. These primary divisions may be again subdivided in a similar manner, and thus a feather-veined leaf will become bi- pinnatifid or bipinnatipartite ; still further subdivisions give origin to tripinnatifid and laciniated leaves. The same kinds of divisions FIG. 7. FIG. 9. FIG. 8. FIG. 7. — Ovate acute leaf of Corio.ro, myrtifolia. Besides the mid- rib there are two intra-marginal ribs which converge to the apex. The leaf is therefore tricostate. FIG. 8. — Runcinate leaf of Dandelion. It is a pinnatifid leaf, with the divisions pointing towards the petiole and a large triangular apex. FIG. 9. — Pinnatifid leaf of Valeriana dioica. taking place in a simple leaf with palmate or radiating venation, give origin to lobed, cleft and partite forms. The name palmate or palmatifid (fig. 4) is the general term applied to leaves with radiating venation, in which there are several lobes united by a broad expansion of parenchyma, like the palm of the hand, as in the sycamore, castor- oil plant, &c. The divisions of leaves with radiating venation may extend to near the base of the leaf, and the names bipartite, tripartite, quinquepartite, &c., are given according as the partitions are two, three, five or more. The term dissected is applied to leaves with radiating venation, having numerous narrow divisions, as in Geranium dissectum. When in a radiating leaf there are three primary partitions, and the two lateral lobes are again cleft, as in hellebore (fig. n), the leaf is called pedate or pedalifid, from a fancied resem- FlG. 10.- of Aconite. FIG. ii. — Pedate leaf of Stinking Hellebore (Helleborus foetidus). The venation is radiating. It is a palm- ately-partite leaf, in which the lateral lobes are deeply divided. When the -Five-partite leaf leaf hangs down it resembles the foot of a bird, and hence the name. blance to the claw of a bird. In all the instances already alluded to the leaves have been considered as flat expansions, in which the ribs or veins spread out on the same plane with the stalk. In some cases, however, the veins spread at right' angles to the stalk, form- ing a peltate leaf aa.in Indian cress (fig. 12). The form of the leaf shows a very great variety ranging from the narrow linear form with parallel sides, as in grasses or the needle-like leaves of pines and firs to more or less rounded or orbicular — descrip- tions of these will be found in works on descriptive botany — a few LEAF 325 examples are illustrated here (figs. 7, 13, 14, 15). The apex also varies considerably, being rounded, or obtuse, sharp or acute (fig. 7)1 notched (fig. 15), &c. Similarly the shape of the base may vary, when rounded lobes are formed, as in dog-violet, the leaf is cordate or heart-shaped ; or kidney-shaped or reniform (fig. 16), when the apex is rounded as in ground ivy. When the lobes are prolonged down- wards and are acute, the leaf is sagittate (fig. 17) ; when they proceed at right angles, as in Rumex Acetosella, the leaf is hastate or halbert- shaped. When a simple leaf is divided at the base into two leaf-like appendages, it is called auriculate. When the development of parenchyma is such that it more than fills up the spaces between the veins, the margins become wavy, crisp or undulated, as in Rumex crispus and Rheum undulatum. By cultivation the cellular tissue is often much increased, giving rise to the curled leaves of greens, savoys, cresses, lettuce, &c. Compound leaves are those in which the divisions extend to the midrib or petiole, and the sepa- * rated portions become each arti- culated with it, arid receive the name of leaflets. The midrib, or petiole, has thus the appearance of a branch with FIG. 13. — Lanceolate FIG. 12. — Peltate leaves of Indian Cress leaf of a species of (Tropaeolum majus). Senna. separate leaves attached to it, but it is considered properly as one leaf, because in its earliest state it arises from the axis as a single piece, and its subsequent divisions in the form of leaflets are all in one plane. The leaflets are either sessile (fig. 1 8) or have stalks, called petiolules (fig. 19). Compound leaves are pinnate (fig. 19) or palmate (fig. 18) according to the arrangement of leaflets. When a pinnate leaf ends in a pair of pinnae it is equally or abruptly pinnate (paripinnate) ; when there is a single terminal leaflet (fig. 19), the leaf is unequally pinnate (imparipinnate) ; when the leaflets or pinnae are placed alternately on either side of the midrib, and not directly opposite to each other, the leaf is alternately pinnate; and when the pinnae are of different sizes, the leaf is interruptedly pinnate, When the division FIG. 14. FIG. is. FIG. 16. FIG. 17. FIG. 14. — Oblong leaf of a species of Senna. FIG. 15. — Emarginate leaf of a species of Senna. The leaf in its contour is somewhat obovate, or inversely egg-shaped, and its base is oblique. FIG. 16. — Reniform leaf of Nepeta Glechoma, margin crenate. FIG. 17. — Sagittate leaf of Convolvulus. is carried into the second degree, and the pinnae of a compound leaf are themselves pinnately compound, a bipinnate leaf is formed. The petiole or leaf-stalk is the part which unites the limb or blade of the leaf to the stem. It is absent in sessile leaves, and this is also Petiole frequently the case when a sheath is present, as in grasses (fig- 5)- It consists of the fibro-vascular bundles with a varying amount of cellular tissue. When the vascular bundles reach the base of the lamina they separate and spread out in various ways, as already described under venation. The lower part of the petiole is often swollen (fig. 20, p), forming the pulvinus, formed of cellular tissue, the cells of which exhibit the phenomenon of irritability. In Mimosa pudica (fig. 20) a sensitiveness is located in the pulvinus which upon irritation induces a depression of the whole bipinnate leaf, a similar property exists in the pulvini at the base of the leaflets which fold upwards. The petiole varies in length, being usually shorter than the lamina, but sometimes much longer. In some palms it is 15 or 20 ft. long, and is so firm as to be used for poles or walking-sticks. In general, the petiole is more or less rounded in its form, the upper surface being flattened or grooved. Sometimes it is compressed laterally, as in the aspen, and to this peculiarity the trembling of the leaves of this tree is due. In aquatic plants the leaf- stalk is sometimes distended with air, as in Pontederia and Trapa, so as to float the leaf. At other times it is winged, and is either leafy, as in the orange (fig. 21, p_), lemon and Dionaea, or pitcher- like, as in Sarracenia (fig. 22). In some Australian acacias, and in some species of Oxalis and Bupleurum, the petiole is flattened in a vertical direction, the vascular bundles separating immediately after quitting the stem and running nearly parallel from base to apex. This kind of petiole (fig. 23, p) has been called a phyttode. In these plants the laminae or blades of the leaves are pin- nate or bipinnate. and are produced at the ( FIG. 19. — Imparipinnate (unequally pinnate) leaf of Robinia. There are nine pairs of shortly-stalked leaflets (foliola, pinnae), and an odd FIG. 1 8. — Palmately compound one at the extremity. At the leaf of the Horse-chestnut (Acs- base of the leaf the spiny culus Hippocastanum). stipules are seen, extremities of the phyllodes in a horizontal direction; but in many instances they are not developed, and the phyllode serves the purpose of a leaf. These phyllodes, by their vertical posi- tion and their peculiar form, give a remarkable aspect to vegetation. On the same acacia there occur leaves with the petiole and lamina perfect; others having the petiole slightly expanded or winged, and the lamina imperfectly developed; and others in which there is no lamina, and the petiole becomes large and broad. Some petioles are long, slender and sensitive to contact, and function as tendrils by means of which the plant climbs; as in the n a s t u rtiums (Tropaeolum), clematis and' others; and in compound leaves the midrib and some of the leaf- lets may similarly be transformed into tendrils, as in the pea and vetch. The leaf base is often de- veloped as a sheath (vagina) , which embraces Fic.2O.— Branch and leaves of the Sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica), showing the petiole in its erect state, a, and in its depressed state, b; also the ~, . leaflets closed, c, and the leaflets expanded, d. 5 Irritability resides in the pulvinus, p. paratively rare in dicotyledons, but is seen in umbelliferous plants. It is much more common amongst monocotyledons. In sedges the sheath forms a complete investment of the stem, whilst in reafta*e. grasses it is split on one side. In the latter plants there is also a membranous outgrowth, the ligule, at right angles to the median plane of the leaf from the point where the sheath passes into the lamina, there being no petiole (fig. 5, /). In leaves in which no sheath is produced we not infrequently find small foliar organs, stipules^, at the base of the petiole (fig. 24, s). The stipules are generally two in number, and they are important as supplying characters in certain natural orders. Thus they occur the whole or part of the circumfer- ence of the stem sheath is 326 LEAF r in the pea and bean family, in rosaceous plants and the family Rubiaceae. They are not common in dicotyledons with opposite leaves. Plants having stipules are called stipulate; those having none are exstipulate. Stipules may be large or small, entire or divided, deciduous or persistent. They are not usually of the same form as the ordinary foliage leaves of the plant, from which they are distinguished by their lateral position at the base of the petiole. In the pansy (fig. 24) the true leaves are stalked and crenate, while the stipules s are large, sessile and pin- natifid. InLathyrus Aphaca and some other plants the true pinnate leaves are abortive, the petiole forms a tendril, and the stipules alone are developed, perform- ing the office of leaves. When sti- pulate leaves are op- posite to each other, at the same height on the stem, it occa- FIG. 21. — Leaf of FIG. 22. — Pitcher sionally happens Orange (Citrus Auran- (ascidium) of a species that the stipules on tium), showing a of Side-saddle plant the two sides unite winged leafy petiole p, (Sarracenia purpurea). wholly or partially, which is articulated The pitcher is formed so as to form an in- to the lamina /. from the petiole, which terpetiolary or inter- is prolonged. foliar stipule, as in members of the family Rubiaceae. In the case of alternate leaves, the stipules at the base of each leaf are sometimes united to the petiole and to each other, so as to form an adnate, adherent or petiolary stipule, as in the rose, or an axillary stipule, as in Houttuynia cordata. In other in- stances the stipules unite together on the side of the stem opposite the leaf forming an ocrea, as in the dock family (fig. 25). In the development of the leaf the stipules frequently play a most important part. They begin to be formed after the origin of the leaves, but grow much more rapidly than the leaves, and in this way they arch over the young leaves and form protective chambers wherein the parts of the leaf may de- velop. In the figs, magnolia and pondweeds they are very large and completely envelop the young leaf-bud. The sti- pules are sometimes so minute as to be scarcely distinguish- able without the aid of a lens, and so fugacious as to be visible only in the very young state of the leaf. They may assume a hard and spiny char- acter, as in Robinia Pseud- acacia (fig. 19), or may be cir- rose, as in Smilax, where each stipule is represented by a tendril. At the base of the leaflets of a compound leaf, small stipules (stipels) are occasionally produced. Variations in the structure and forms of leaves and leaf- stalks are produced by the increased development of cel- lular tissue, by the abortion or degeneration of parts, by the multiplication or repetition of FIG. 23.-Leaf of an Acacia (Acacia Parts and by adhesion When heterophylla), showing a flattened j* "ulafr tlsfsuet » %£&£ to leaf-like petiole p, calfed aphyllode, a great C1xtent-, leaves ecome SS lamia"1 ™**' ***** ~ a £* pearance. Such changes take place naturally, but they are often increased by the art of the gardener, and the object of many horticultural operations is to increase the bulk and suc- culence of leaves. It is in this way that cabbages and savoys are rendered more delicate and nutritious. By a deficiency in development of parenchyma and an increase in the mechanical tissue, leaves are liable to become hardened and spinescent. The leaves of barberry and of some species of Astragalus, and the Modifica tions. stipules of the false acacia (Robinia) are spiny. To the same cause is due the spiny margin of the holly-leaf. When two lobes at the base of a leaf are prolonged beyond the stem and unite (fig. 26), the leaf is perfoliate, the stem appearing to pass through it, as in Bupleurum perfoliatum and Chlora perfoliata ; when two leaves unite by their bases they become connate (fig. 27), as in Lonicera Capri- folium; and when leaves adhere to the stem, forming a sort of winged or leafy ap- pendage, they are decurrenl, as in thistles. The for- mation of peltate leaves has been traced to the union of the lobes of a cleft leaf. In the leaf of the Victoria regia the transformation may be traced during germination. The first leaves produced , .... .... ,-. by the young plant \\N \U\\lf O— are linear,the second are sagittate and hastate, the third are rounded-cordate and the next are orbicular. The cleft indicating the union FIG. 24- — Leaf of the lobes remains of Pansy, s, Sti- in the large leaves. Pules- FIG. 25. — Leaf of Poly- gonum, with part of stem. o, Ocrea. The parts of the leaf are frequently transformed into tendrils, with the view of enabling the plants to twine round others for support. In Leguminous plants (the pea tribe) the pinnae are frequently modified to form tendrils, as in Lathyrus Aphaca, in which the stipules perform the function of true leaves. In Flagellaria indica, Gloriosa superba FIG. 27. — Connate leaves of a species of Honeysuckle FlG. 26. — Perfoliate leaf of a species of Hare's-ear (Bupleurum rotundifolium). The two lobes at the base of the leaf are united, so that the stalk appears to (Lonicera Caprifolium). Two come through the leaf. leaves are united by their bases, and others, the midrib of the leaf ends in a tendril. In Smilax there are two stipulary tendrils. The vascular bundles and cellular tissue are sometimes developed in such a way as to form a circle, with a hollow in the centre, and thus give rise to what are called fistular or hollow leaves, as in the onion, and to ascidia or pitchers. Pitchers are formed either by petioles or by laminae, and they are composed of one or more leaves. In Sarracenia (fig. 22) and Heliamphora the pitcher is composed of the petiole of the leaf. In the pitcher plant, Nepenthes, the pitcher is a modification of the lamina, the petiole often plays the part of a tendril, while the leaf base is flat and leaf-like (fig. 28). In Utricularia bladder-like sacs are formed by a modification of leaflets on the sub- merged leaves. In some cases the leaves are reduced to mere scales — cataphyllary leaves; they are produced abundantly upon underground shoots. In parasites (Lathraea, Orobanche) and in plants growing on decaying vegetable matter (saprophytes), in which no chloro- phyll is formed, these scales are the only leaves produced. In Pinus the only leaves produced on the main stem and the lateral Of shoots are scales, the acicular leaves of the pitcher-plant (Hep- tree growing from axillary shoots. In Cycas enthes distillatona) . whorls of scales alternate with large pinnate leaves. In many plants, as already noticed, phyllodia or stipules perform the function of leaves. The production of leaf-buds from 28.— Pitcher species of LEAF 327 leaves sometimes occurs as in Bryophyllum, and many plants of the order Gesneraceae. The leaf of Venus's fly-trap (Dionaea muscipula) when cut off and placed in damp moss, with a pan of water under- neath and a bell-glass for a cover, has produced buds from which young plants were obtained. Some species of saxifrage and of ferns also produce buds on their leaves and fronds. In Nymphaea micrantha buds appear at the upper part of the petiole. Leaves occupy various positions on the stem and branches, and have received different names according to their situation. Thus leaves arising from the crown of the root, as in 'tax's" t'le primrose> are called radical; those on the stem are cauline; on flower-stalks, floral leaves (see FLOWER). The first leaves developed are known as seed leaves or cotyledons. The arrangement of the leaves on the axis and its appendages is called phyllotaxis. In their arrangement leaves follow a definite order. The points on the stem at which leaves appear are called nodes; the part of the stem between the nodes is the internode. When two leaves are produced at the same node, one on each side of the stem or axis, and at the same level, they are opposite (fig. 29) ; when more than two are produced they are verticillate, and the circle of leaves is then called a verticil or whorl. When leaves are opposite, each successive pair may be placed at right angles to the pair immediately preceding. They are then said to decus- sate, following thus a law of alternation (fig. 29). The same occurs in the verticillate arrangement, the leaves of each whorl rarely being super- posed on those of the whorl next it, but usually alterna- ting so that each leaf in a whorl occupies the space be- tween two leaves of the whorl next to it. There are con- siderable irregularities, how- ever, in this respect, and the number of leaves in different whorls is not always uniform, as may be seen in Lysimachia FlG. 30. — A iiulgaris. When a single leaf stem with alter- is produced at a node, and leaves. The pairs nate leaves, ar- the nodes are separated so are placed at right ranged in a pen- that each leaf is placed at a angles alternately, tastichous or different height on the stem, or in what is called quincuncial man- the leaves are alternate (fig. a decussate man- ner. The sixth 30). A plane passing through leaf is directly the point of insertion of the above the first, leaf in the node, dividing and commences the leaf into similar halves, at the back; in the the second cycle, is the median plane of the second pair the The fraction of leaf ; and when the leaves are leaves are placed the circumference arranged alternately on an of the stem ex- axis so that their median pressing the di- planes coincide they form a vergence of the straight row or orthostichy. leaves is two- On every axis there are usually fifths. two or more orthostichies. In fig. 31, leaf I arises from a node n • leaf 2 is separated from it by an internode m, and is placed to the right or left; while leaf 3 is situated directly above leaf I. In this case, then, there are two orthostichies, and the arrangement is said to be distichous. When the fourth leaf is directly above the first, the arrangement is tristichous. The same arrangement continues throughout the branch, so that in the latter case the 7th leaf is above the 4th, the loth above the 7th; also the 5th above the 2nd, the 6th above the 3rd and so on. The size of the angle between the median planes of two consecutive leaves in an alternate arrangement is their divergence; and it is expressed in fractions of the circum- ference of the axis which is supposed to be a circle. In a regularly- formed straight branch covered with leaves, if a thread is passed from one to the other, turning always in the same direction, a spiral is described, and a certain number of leaves and of complete turns occur before reaching the leaf directly above that from which the enumeration commenced. If this arrangement is expressed by a fraction, the numerator of which indicates the number of turns, and the denominator the number of internodes in the spiral cycle, the fraction will be found to represent the angle of divergence of the consecutive leaves on the axis. Thus, in fig. 32, a, b, the cycle con- sists of five leaves, the 6th leaf being placed vertically over the 1st, the 7th over the 2nd and so on; while the number of turns between the 1st and 6th leaf is two; hence this arrangement is indicated by the fraction f. In other words, the distance or divergence between the first and second leaf, expressed in parts of a circle, is f of a circle or 36o°X£ =144°. In fig. 31, a, b, the spiral is J, i.e. one turn and FIG. 29. — Astern with opposite ner. In the lowest pair one leaf is in front and the other laterally, on. and two leaves; the third leaf being placed vertically over the first, and the divergence between the first and second leaf being one-half the circumference of a circle, 36o°Xj = l8o°. Again, in a tristichous arrangement the number is I, or one turn and three leaves, the angular divergence being 120°. By this means we have a convenient mode of expressing on paper the exact position of the leaves upon an axis. And in many cases such a mode of expression is of excellent service in enabling us readily to understand the relations of the leaves. The divergences may also be represented diagrammatically on a horizontal projection of the vertical axis, as in fig- 33- Here the outer- most circle represents a section of that portion of the axis bearing the lowest leaf, the inner- most represents the highest. The bro'ad dark lines represent the leaves, and they are numbered according to their age and position. It will be seen at once that the leaves are ar- „ ranged in orthostichies FlG-. 31— Portion of a branch of a Lime marked I -V. and that tree, with four leavesarranged madistichous these divide the circum- manner. or in two rows, a, The branch with ference into five equal l^e 'eaves numbered in their order, n being portions. But the t'le n°de and m the internode; b is a mag- divergence between leaf n'ned representation of the branch, show- I and leaf 2 is equal to '"8 tne points of insertion of the leaves and §ths of the circumfer- their spiral arrangement, which is expressed ence, and the same by the fraction J, or one turn of the spiral is the case, bet ween 2 for two internodes. and 3, 3 and 4, &c. The divergence, then, is |, and from this we learn that, starting from any leaf on the axis, we must pass twice round the stem in a spiral through five leaves before reaching one directly over that with which we started. The line which, wind- ing round an axis either to the right or to the left, passes through the points of insertion of all the leaves on the axis is termed the genetic or generating spiral; and that margin of each leaf which is towards the direction from which the spiral proceeds is the kathodic side, the other margin facing the point whither the spiral passes being the anodic side. In cases where the internodes are very short and the leaves are closely applied to each other, as in the house-leek, it is difficult to trace the generating spiral. Thus, in fig. 34 there are thirteen leaves which are numbered in their order, and five turns of the spiral marked by circles in the centre(^ indicating the arrange- ment) ; but this could not be detected at once. So also in fir cones (fig. 35), which are com- posed of scales or modified leaves, the generating spiral cannot be determined easily. But in such cases a series of secondary spirals or parastichies are seen running parallel with each other both right and left, which to a certain extent conceal the genetic spiral. Cherry with six leaves, the sixth The spiral is not always con- being placed vertically over the stant throughout the whole first, after two turns of the spiral, length of an axis. The angle of This is expressed by two-fifths, divergence may alter either a. The branch, with the leaves abruptly or gradually, and the numbered in order; b, a magnified phyllotaxis thus becomes very representation of the branch, complicated. This change may showing the points of insertion of be brought about by arrest of the leaves and their spiral arrange- development, by increased de- ment. velopment of parts or by a tor- sion of the axis. The former are exemplified in many Crassulaceae and aloes. The latter is seen well in the ecrew-pine (Pandanus). In the bud of the screw-pine the leaves are arranged in three orthostichies with the phyllotaxis \, but by torsion the developed leaves become arranged in three strong spiral rows running round the stem. These causes of change in phyllotaxis are also well exemplified in the altera- tion of an opposite or verticillate arrangement to an alternate, and vice versa; thus the effect of interruption of growth, in causing alternate leaves to become opposite and verticillate, can be distinctly shown in Rhododendron ponticum. The primitive or generating spiral may FIG. 32. — Part of a branch of a 328 LEAF pass either from right to left or from left to right. It sometimes follows a different direction in the branches from that pursued in the stem. When it follows the same course in the stem and branches, they are homodromous ; when the direction differs, they are hetero- dromous. In different species of the same genus the phyllotaxis frequently varies. All modifications of leaves follow the same laws of arrangement as true leaves — a fact which is of importance in a morphological point of view. In dicotyledonous plants the first leaves produced (the cotyledons) are opposite. This arrangement often continues during the life of the plant, but at other times it changes, passing into distichous and spiral forms. Some tribes of plants are distinguished by their opposite or ver- ticillate, others by their alternate, leaves. Labiate plants have decussate leaves, while Boragin- aceae have alternate leaves, and Tiliaceae usu- ally have distichous leaves ; Rubiaceae have opposite leaves. Such arrangements as |, f , ^ and j?f are common in Dicotyledons. The first of these, called a quin- cunx, is met with in the apple, pear and cherry (fig. 32); the second, in the bay, holly, Plantago media; the third, in the cones of Picea alba (fig. FlG. 33. — Diagram of a phyllotaxis repre- 35) ; and the fourth in sented by the fraction }. those of the silver fir. In monocotyledonous plants there is only one seed-leaf or cotyledon, and hence the arrangement is at first alternate; and it generally continues so more or less, rarely being verticillate. Such arrangements as £, J and jj are common in Monocotyledons, as in grasses, sedges and lilies. It has been found in general that, while the number 5 occurs in the phyllotaxis of Dicotyledons, 3 is common in that of Mono- cotyledons. In the axil of previously formed leaves leaf-buds arise. These leaf-buds contain the rudiments of a shoot, and consist of leaves covering a growing point. The buds of trees of temperate climates, which lie dormant during the winter, are protected by scale leaves. These scales or protective appendages of the bud consist either of 13 FIG. 35. — Cone of Picea alba with the scales or modified leaves numbered in the order of their arrangement on the axis of the cone. The lines indicate a rectilinear series of scales and two lateral second- ary spirals, one turning from left to right, the other from right to left. FIG. 34. — Cycle of thirteen leaves placed closely together so as to form a rosette, as in Sempervivum. A is the very short axis to which the leaves are attached. The leaves are numbered in their order, from below upwards. The circles in the centre indicate the five turns of the spiral, and show the insertion of each of the leaves. The divergence is expressed by the .fraction ^ths. the altered laminae or of the enlarged petiolary sheath, or of stipules, as in the fig and magnolia, or of one or two of these parts combined. These are often of a coarse nature, serving a temporary purpose, and then falling off when the leaf is expanded. They are frequently covered with a resinous matter, as in balsam-poplar and horse- chestnut, or by a thick downy covering as in the willow. In plants of warm climates the buds have often no protective appendages, and are then said to be naked. The arrangement of the leaves in the bud is termed vernation or prefoliation. In considering vernation we must take into account both the manner in which each individual leaf is folded and also the arrangement of the leaves in relation to each other. These vary in different plants, but in each species they follow a regular law. The leaves in the bud are either placed simply in apposition, as in the mistletoe, or they are folded or rolled up longitudinally or laterally, giving rise to different kinds of vernation, as delineated in figs. 36 to 45, where the folded or curved lines represent the leaves, the thickened part being the midrib. The leaf taken individually is either folded longitudinally from apex to base, as in the tulip-tree, and called reclinate or replicate; or rolled up in a circular manner from apex to base, as in ferns (fig. 36), and called circinate; or folded laterally, conduplicate (fig. 37), as in oak; or it has several folds like a fan, plicate or plaited (fig. 38), as in vine and sycamore, and in leaves with radiating vernation, where the ribs mark the foldings; or it is rolled upon itself, convolute (fig. 39), as in banana and apricot ; or its edges are rolled inwards, involute (fig. 40), as in violet; or FIG. 36. FIG. 37. FIG. 38. FIG. 39. FIG. 40. FIG. 41. FlG. 36. — Circinate vernation. FIG. 37. — Transverse section of a conduplicate leaf. FIG. 38. — Transverse section of a plicate or plaited leaf. FlG. 39. — Transverse section of a convolute leaf. FIG. 40. — Transverse section of an involute leaf. FIG. 41. — Transverse section of a revolute leaf. outwards, revolute (fig. 41), as in rosemary. The different divisions of a cut leaf may be folded or rolled up separately, as in ferns, while the entire leaf may have either the same or a different kind of vernation. The leaves have a definite relation to each other in the bud, being either opposite, alternate or verticillate ; and thus different kinds of vernation are produced. Sometimes they are nearly in a circle at the same level, remaining flat or only slightly convex externally, and placed so as to touch each other by their edges, thus giving rise to valvate_ vernation. At other times they are at different levels, and are applied over each other, so as to be imbricated, as in lilac, and in the outer scales of sycamore; and occasionally the margin of one leaf overlaps that of another, while it in its turn is overlapped by a third, so as to be twisted, spiral or contortive. When leaves are applied to each other face to face, without being folded or FIG. 42. FIG. 43. FIG. 44. FIG. 45. FIG. 42. — Transverse section of a bud, in which the leaves are arranged in an accumbent manner. FIG. 43. — Transverse section of a bud, in which the leaves are arranged in an equitant manner. FIG. 44. — Transverse section of a bud, showing two leaves folded in an obvolute manner. Each is conduplicate, and one embraces the edge of the other. FIG. 45. — Transverse section of a bud, showing two leaves arranged in a supervolute manner. rolled together, they are oppressed. When the leaves are more com- pletely folded they either touch at their extremities and are accumbent or opposite (fig. 42), or are folded inwards by their margin and become induplicate; or a conduplicate leaf covers another similarly folded, which in turn covers a third, and thus the vernation is equitant (fig. 43), as in privet; or conduplicate leaves are placed so that the half of the one covers the halt of another, and thus they become half-equitant or obvolute (fig. 44), as in sage. When in the case ot convolute leaves one leaf is rolled up within the other, it is s,uPer~ volute (fig. 45). The scales of a bud sometimes exhibit one kind of vernation and the leaves another. The same modes of arrangement occur in the flower-buds. Leaves, after performing their functions for a certain time, witt and die. In doing so they frequently change colour, and hence arise the beautiful and varied tints of the autumnal foliage. This change LEAF-INSECT—LEAMINGTON 329 of colour is chiefly occasioned by the diminished circulation in the leaves, and the higher degree of oxidation to which their chlorophyll has been submitted. Leaves which are articulated with the stem, as in the walnut and horse-chestnut, fall and leave a scar, while those which are con- tinuous with it remain attached for some time after they have lost their vitality. Most of the trees of Great Britain have deciduous leaves, their duration not extending over more than a few months, while in trees of warm climates the leaves often remain for two or more years. In tropical countries, however, many trees lose their leaves in the dry season. The period of defoliation varies in different countries according to the nature of their climate. Trees which are called evergreen, as pines and evergreen-oak, are always deprived of a certain number of leaves at intervals, sufficient being left, how- ever, to preserve their green appearance. The cause of the fall of the leaf in cold climates seems to be deficiency of light and heat in winter, which causes a cessation in the functions of the cells of the leaf. The fall is directly caused by the formation of a layer of tissue across the base of the leaf-stalk; the cells of this layer separate from one another and the leaf remains attached only by the fibres of the veins until it becomes finally detached by the wind or frost. Before its fall the leaf has become dry owing to loss of water and the removal of the protoplasm and food substances to the stem for use next season; the red and yellow colouring matters are products of decomposition of the chlorophyll. Inorganic and other waste matters are stored in the leaf-tissue and thus got rid of by the plant. The leaf scar is protected by a corky change (suberization) in the walls of the exposed cells. (A. B. R.) LEAF-INSECT, the name given to orthopterous insects of the family Phasmidae, referred to the single genus Phyllium and characterized by the presence of lateral laminae upon the legs and abdomen, which, in association with an abundance of green colouring-matter, impart a broad and leaf -like appearance to the whole insect. In the female this deceptive resemblance is enhanced by the large size and foliaceous form of the front wings which, when at rest edge to edge on the abdomen, forcibly suggest in their neuration the midrib and costae of an ordinary leaf. In this sex the posterior wings are reduced and functionless so far as flight is concerned; in the male they are ample, membranous and functional, while the anterior wings are small and not leaf-like. The freshly hatched young are reddish in colour; but turn green after feeding for a short time upon leaves. Before death a specimen has been observed to pass through the various hues of a decaying leaf, and the spectrum of the green colouring matter does not differ from that of the chlorophyll of living leaves. Since leaf-insects are purely vegetable feeders and not predaceous like mantids, it is probable that their re- semblance to leaves is solely for purposes of concealment from enemies. Their egg capsules are similarly protected by their like- ness to various seeds. Leaf-insects range from India to the Seychelles on the one side, and to the Fiji Islands on the other. (R. I. P.) LEAGUE, i. (Through Fr. ligue, Ital. llga, from Lat. ligare, to bind), an agreement entered into by two or more parties for mutual protection or joint attack, or for the furtherance of some common object, also the body thus joined or " leagued " to- gether. The name has been given to numerous confederations, such as the Achaean League (o% of tannin, and are generally used for the commercial supply of tannic acid, and not for tanning purposes. Gambier, terra japonica or catechu, is the product of a shrub cultivated in Singapore and the Malay Archipelago. It is made by boiling the shrub and allowing the extract to solidify. It is a LEATHER 333 peculiar material, and may be completely washed out of a leather tanned with it. It mellows exceedingly, and keeps the leather fibre open; it may be said that it only goes in the leather to prepare and make easy the way for other tannins. Block gambier contains from 35 % to 40 % and cube gambier from 50 % to 65 % of tannin. Hemlock generally reaches the market as extract, prepared from the bark of the American tree. It contains about 22 % of tannin, has a pine-like odour, but yields a rather dark-coloured red leather. Quebracho is imported mainly as solid extract, containing 63 % to 70% of tannin; it is a harsh, light-red tannage, but darkens rapidly on exposure to light. It is used for freshening up very mellow liquors, but is rather wasteful, as it deposits an enormous amount of its tannin as phlobaphenes. Mangrove or cutch is a solid extract prepared from the mangrove tree found in the swamps of Borneo and the Straits Settlements; it contains upwards of 60% of a red tannin. Mimosa is the bark of the Australian golden wattle (Acacia pycnantha), and contains from 36% to 50% of tannin. It is a rather harsh tannage, yielding a flesh-coloured leather, and is useful for sharpening liquors. This bark is now successfully cultivated in Natal. The tannin content of this Natal bark is somewhat inferior, but the colour is superior to the Australian product. Larch bark contains 9% to 10% of light-coloured tannin, and is used especially for tanning Scotch basils. Canaigre is the air-dried tuberous roots of a Mexican plant, containing 25% to 30% of tannin and about 8% of starch. It yields an orange-coloured leather of considerable weight and firm- ness. Its cultivation did not pay well enough, so that it is little used. Cutch, catechu or " dark catechu," is obtained from the wood of Indian acacias, and is not to be confounded with mangrove cutch. It contains 60 % of tanning matter and a large proportion of catechin similar to that contained in gambier, but much redder. It is used for dyeing browns and blacks with chrome and iron mordants. The willow and the white birch barks contain, respectively, 12% to 14% and 2% to 5% of tannin. In combination they are used to produce the,t famous Russia leather, whose insect-resisting odour is due to the birch bark. In America this leather is imitated with the American black birch bark (Betula lento), and also with the oil obtained from its dry distillation. In the list of materials two have been placed in a subsidiary class because they are a mixture of catechol and pyrogallol tannin. Oak bark produces the best leather known, proving that a blend of the two classes of tannins gives the best results. It is the bark of the coppice oak, and contains 12% to 14% of a reddish-yellow tannage. Valonia is the acorn cup of the Turkish and Greek oak. The Smyrna or Turkish valonia is best, and contains 32 % to 36 % of an almost white tannin. Greek valonia is greyer in colour, and contains 26 % to 30% of tannin. It yields a tough, firm leather of great weight, due to the rapid deposition of a large amount of bloom. Grinding and Leaching l Tanning Materials. — At first sight it would not seem possible that science could direct such a clumsy process as the grinding of tanning materials, and yet even here, the scientific smashing " of tanning materials may mean the difference between profit and loss to the tanner. In most materials the tannin exists imprisoned in cells, and is also to some extent free, but with this latter condition the science of grinding has nothing to do. If tanning materials are simply broken by a series of clean cuts, only those cells directly on the surfaces of the cuts will be ready to yield their tannin ; therefore, if materials are ground by cutting, a proportion of the total tannin is thrown away. Hence it is necessary to bruise, break and otherwise sever the walls of all the cells containing the tannin ; so that the machine wanted is one which crushes, twists and cuts the material at the same time, turning it out of uniform size and with little dust. The apparatus in most common use is built on the same principle as the coffee mill, which consists of a series of segmental cutters; as the bark works down into the smaller cutters of the mill it is twisted and cut in every direction. This is a very good form of mill, but it requires a considerable amount of power and works slowly. The teeth require constant renewal, and should, therefore, be replaceable in rows, not, as in some forms, cast on the bell. The disintegrator is another form of mill, which produces its effect by violent concussion, obtained by the revolution in opposite directions of from four to six large metal arms fitted with projecting spikes inside a drum, the faces of which are also fitted with protruding pieces of metal. The arms make from 2000 to 4000 revolutions per minute. The chief objection to this apparatus is that it forms much dust, which is caught in silken bags fitted to gratings in the drum. The myrobalans crusher, a very useful machine for such materials as myrobalans and valonia, consists of a pair of toothed rollers above and a pair of fluted rollers beneath. The material is dropped upon the toothed rollers first, where it is broken and crushed ; then the crushing is finished and any sharp corners rounded off in the fluted rollers. It must not be thought that now the material is ground it is necessarily ready for leaching. This may or may not be so, de- pending upon whether the tanner is making light or heavy leathers. ~' See LYE. If light leathers are being considered, it is ready for immediate leaching, i.e. to be infused with water in preparation of a liquor. If heavy leathers are in process of manufacture, he would be a very wasteful tanner who would extract his material raw. It must be borne in mind that when an infusion is made with fresh tanning material, the liquor begins to deposit decomposition products after standing a day or two, and the object of the heavy-feather tanner is to get this material deposited in the leather, to fill the pores, produce weight and make a firm, tough product. With this end in view he dusts his hides with this fresh material in the layers, i.e. he spreads a layer between each hide as it is laid down, so that the strong liquors penetrate and deposit in the hides. When most of this power to deposit has been usefully utilized in the layers, then the material (which is now, perhaps, half spent) is leached. The light-leather maker does not want a hard, firm leather, but a soft and pliable product; hence he leaches his material fresh, and does not trouble as to whether the tannin deposits in the pits or not. Whether fresh or partially spent material is leached, the process is carried out in the same way. There are several methods in vogue ; the best method only will be described, viz. the " press leach " system. The leaching is carried out in a series of six square pits, each holding about 3 to 4 tons of material. The method depends upon the fact that when a weak liquor is forced over a stronger one they do not mix, by reason of the higher specific gravity of the stronger one; the weaker liquor, therefore, by its weight forces the stronger liquor downwards, and as the pit in which it is contained is fitted with a false bottom and side duct running over into the next pit, the stronger liquor is forced upwards through this duct on to the next stronger pit. There the process is repeated, until finally the weak liquor or water, as the case may be, is run off the last vat as a very strong infusion. As a concrete example let us take the six pits shown in the figure. 4 5 6 3 2 i No. 6 is the last vat, and the liquor, which is very strong, is about to be run off. No. I is spent material, over which all six liquors have passed, the present liquor having been pumped on as fresh water. The liquor from No. 6 is run off into the pump well, and liquor No. I is pumped over No. 2, thus forcing all liquors one forward and leaving pit No. I empty; this pit is now cast and filled with clean fishings and perhaps a little new material, clean water is then pumped on No. 2, which is now the weakest pit, and all liquors are thus forced forward one pit more, making No. I the strongest pit. After infusing for some time this is run off to the pump well, and the process repeated. It may be noted that the hotter the water is pumped on the w.eakest pit, the better will the material be spent, and the nearer the water is to boiling-point the better; in fact, a well-managed tanyard should have the spent tan down to between I % and 2 % of tannin, although this material is fre- quently thrown away containing up to 10% and sometimes even more. There is a great saving of time and labour in this method, since the liquors are self-adjusting. Testing Tan Liquors. — The methods by which the tanning value of any substance may be determined are many, but few are at once capable of simple application and minute accuracy. An old method of ascertaining the strength of a tan liquor is by means of a hydro- meter standardized against water, and called a barkometer. It consists of a long graduated stem fixed to a hollow bulb, the opposite end of which is weighted. It is placed in the liquor, the weighted end sinks to a certain depth, and the reading is taken on the stem at that point which touches " water mark." The graduations are such that if the specific gravity is multiplied by 1000 and then 1000 is subtracted from the result, the barkometer strength of the liquor is obtained. Thus 1029 specific gravity equals 29° barkometer. This method affords no indication of the amount of tannin present, but is useful to the man who knows his liquors by frequent analysis. A factor which governs the quality of the leather quite as much as the tannin itself is the acidity of the liquors. It is known that gallic and tannic acids form insoluble calcium salts, and all the other acids present as acetic, propionic, butyric, lactic, formic, &c., form comparatively soluble salts, so that an easy method of deter- mining this important factor is as follows: — Take a quantity, say 100 c.c., of tan liquor, filter till clear through paper, then pipette 10 c.c. into a small beaker (about i| in. dia- meter), place it on some printed paper and note how clear the print appears through the liquor; now gradually add from a burette a clear solution of saturated lime water until the liquor becomes just cloudy, that is until it just loses its brilliancy. Now read off the number of cubic centimetres required in the graduated stem of the burette, and either read as degrees (counting each c.c. as one degree), to which practice at once gives a useful signification, or calculate out in terms of acetic acid per 100 c.c. of liquor, reckoning saturated lime water as -fa normal. The methods which deal with the actual testing for tannin itself 334 LEATHER depend mostly upon one or other of two processes; either the precipitation of the tannin by means of gelatin, or its absorption by means of prepared hide. Sir Humphry Davy was the first to propose a method for analysing tanning materials, and he pre- cipitated the tannin by means of gelatin in the presence of alum, then dried and weighed the precipitate, after washing free from excess of reagents. This method was improved by Stoddart, but cannot lay claim to much accuracy. Warington and Miiller again modified the method, but their procedure being tedious and difficult to work could not be regarded as a great advance. Wagner then proposed precipitation by means of the alkaloids, with special regard to cinchonine sulphate in the presence of rosaniline acetate as indicator, but this method also proved useless. After this many metallic precipitants were tried, used gravi- metrically and volumetrically, but without success. The weighing of precipitated tannates will never succeed, because the tannins are such a diverse class of substances that each tannin precipitates different quantities of the precipitants, and some materials contain two or three different tannins. Then there are also the difficulties of incomplete precipitation and the precipitation of colouring matter, &c. Among this class of methods may be mentioned Garland's, in which tartar emetic and sal ammoniac were employed. It was improved by Richards and Palmer. Another class of methods depends upon the destruction of the tannin by some oxidizing agent, and the estimation of the amount required. Terreil rendered the tannin alkaline, and after agitating it with a known quantity of air, estimated the volume of oxygen absorbed. The method was slow and subject to many sources of error. Commaille oxidized with a known quantity of iodic acid and estimated the excess of iodate. This process also was troublesome, besides oxidizing the gallic acid (as do all the oxidation processes), and entailing a separate estimation of them after the removal of the tannin. Ferdinand Jean (1877) titrated alkaline tannin solution with standard iodine, but the mixture was so dark that the end reaction with starch could not be seen; in addition the gallic acid had again to be estimated. Monier proposed permanganate as an oxidizing agent, and Lowenthal made a very valuable improvement by adding indigo solution to the tannin solution, which controlled the oxidation and acted as indicator. This method also required double titration because of the gallic acid present, the tanning matters being removed from solution by means of gelatin and acidified salt. The indirect gravimetric hide-powder method first took form about 1886. It was published in Der Gerber by Simand and Weiss, other workers being Eitner and Meerkatz. Hammer, Muntz and Ramspacher did some earlier work on similar lines, depending upon the specific gravity of solutions. Professor H. R. Procter perfected this method by packing a bell, similar in shape to a bottomless bottle of about 2 oz. (liq.) capacity, with the hide-powder, and siphon- ing the tan liquor up through the powder and over into a receiver. This deprives the tan liquor of tannin, and a portion of this non- tannin solution is evaporated to dryness and weighed till constant; similarly a portion of the original solution containing non-tannins and tannins is evaporated and weighed till constant; then the weight of the non-tannins subtracted from the weight of the non- tannins and tannins gives the weight of tannin, which is calculated to percentage on original solutions. This method was adopted as official by the International Association of Leather Trades Chemists until September 1906, when its faults were vividly brought before them by Gordon Parker of London and Bennett of Leeds, working in collaboration, although other but not so complete work had been previously done to the same end. The main faults of the method were that the hide-powder absorbed non-tannins, and therefore registered them as tannins, and the hide-powder was partially soluble. This difficulty has now been overcome to a large extent in the present official method of the I.A.L.T.C. Meanwhile, Parker and Munro Payne proposed a new method of analysis, the essence of which is as follows: — A definite excess of lime solution is added to a definite quantity of tannin solution and the excess of lime estimated; the tan solution is now deprived of tannin by means of a soluble modification of gelatin, called " collin," and the process is repeated. Thus we get two sets of figures, viz. total absorption and acid absorption (i.e. acids other than tan) ; the latter subtracted from the former gives tannin absorption, and this is calculated out in percentage of original liquor. The method failed theoretically, because a definite mole- cular weight had to be assumed for tannins which are all different. There are also several other objections, but though, like the hide- powder method, it is quite empirical, it gives exceedingly useful results if the rules for working are strictly adhered to. The present official method of the I.A.L.T.C. is a modification of the American official method, which is in turn a modification of a method proposed by W. Eitner, of the Vienna Leather Research Station. The hide-powder is very slightly chrome-tanned with a basic solution of chromium chloride, 2 grammes of the latter being used per loo grammes of hide-powder, and is then washed free from soluble salts and squeezed to contain 70% of moisture, and is ready for use. This preliminary chroming does away with the difficulty of the powder being soluble, by rendering it quite in- soluble; it also lessens the tendency to absorb non-tannins. Such a quantity of this wet powder as contains 6'5 grammes of dry hide is now taken, and water is added until this quantity contains exactly 20 grammes of moisture, i.e. 26-5 grammes in all; it is then agitated for 15 minutes with 100 c.c. of the prepared tannin solution, which is made up to contain tannin within certain definite limits, in a mechanical rotator, and filtered. Of this non-tannin solution 50 c.c. is then evaporated to dryness. The same thing is done with 50 c.c. of original solution containing non-tannins and tannins, and both residues are weighed. The tannin is thus determined by difference. The method does all that science can do at present. The rules for carrying out the analysis are necessarily very strict. The object in view is that all chemists should get exactly concordant results, and in this the I.A.L.T.C. has succeeded. The work done by Wood, Trotman, Procter, Parker and others on the alkaloidal precipitation of tannin deserves mention. Heavy Leathers. — The hides of oxen are received in the lanyard in four different conditions: (i) market or slaughter hides, which, coming direct from the local abattoirs, are soft, moist and covered with dirt and blood; (2) wet salted hides; (3) dry salted hides; (4) sun-dried or " flint " hides — the last three forms being the condition in which the imports of foreign hides are made. The first operalion in Ihe tannery is to clean the hides and bring them back as nearly as possible to the flaccid condition in which they left the animal's back. The blood and other matter on market hides must be removed as quickly as possible, the blood being of itself a cause of dark stains and bad grain, and with the other refuse a source of putrefaction. When the hides are sound they are given perhaps two changes of water. Salted hides need a longer soaking than market hides, as it is not only essential to remove the salt from the hide, but also necessary to plump and soften the fibre which has been partially dehydrated and contracted by the salt. It must also be borne in mind that a 10% solution of salt dissolves hide substance, thereby causing an undesirable loss of weight, and a weak solution prevents plumping, especially when taken into the limes, and may also cause" buckling," which cannot easily be removed in after processes. Dried and dry salted hides require a much longer soaking than any other variety. Dried hides are always uncertain, as they may have putrefied before drying, and also may have been dried at top high a temperature; in the former case they fall to pieces in the limes, and in the latter case it is practically impossible to soak them back, unless putrefactive processes are used, and such are always dangerous and difficult to work because of the Rivers Pollution Acts. Prolonged soaking in cold water dissolves a serious amount of hide substance. Soaking in brine may be advantageous, as it prevents putrefaction to some extent. Caustic soda, sodium sulphide and sulphurous acid may also be advantageously employed on account of their softening and antiseptic action. In treating salted goods, the first wash water should always be rapidly changed, because, as mentioned, strong salt solutions dissolve hide; four changes of water should always be given to these goods. There are other and mechanical means of softening obstinate material, viz. by stocking. The American hide mill, or double- acting stocks, shown diagrammatically in fig. 2, is a popular piece of apparatus, but the goods should never be sub- jected to violent me- chanical treatment until soft enough to stand it, else severe grain crack- ing may result. Perhaps the use of sodium sul- phide or caustic soda in conjunction with the American wash wheel is the safest method. Whatever means are used the ultimate object is first to swell and open up the fibres as much as possible, and secondly to remove putrefactive refuse and dirt, which FIG. 2. — Double-acting Stocks. if left in is fixed by the lime in the process of depilation, and causes a dirty buff. After being thus brought as nearly as possible into a uniform condition, all hides are treated alike. The first operation to which they are subjected is depilation, which removes not only the hair but also the scarf skin or epidermis. When the goods are sent to the limes for depilation they are, first of all, placed in an old lime, highly charged with organic matter and bacteria. It is the common belief that the lime causes the hair to loosen and fall out, but this is not so; in fact, pure lime has the opposite LEATHER 335 effect of tightening the hair. The real cause of the loosening of the hair is that the bacteria in the old lime creep down the hair, enter the rete Malpighi and hair sheath, and attack and decompose the soft cellular structure of the sheath and bulb, also altering the composition of the rete Malpighi by means of which the scarf skin adheres to the true skin. These products of the bacterial action are soluble in lime, and immediately dissolve, leaving the scarf skin and hair unbound and in a con- dition to leave the skin upon scraping. In this first " green " lime the action is mainly this destructive one, but the goods have yet to be made ready to receive the tan liquor, which they must enter in a plump, open and porous condition. Consequently, the " green " lime is followed with two more, the second being less charged with bacteria, and the third being, if not actually a new one, a very near approach to it; in these two limes the bundles of fibre are gradually softened, split up and distended, causing the hide to swell, the interfibrillar substance is rendered soluble and the whole generally made suitable for transference to the tan liquors. The hide itself is only very slightly soluble; if care is taken, the grease is transformed into an insoluble calcium soap, and the hair is hardly acted upon at all. The time the goods are in the limes and the method of making new limes depends upon the quality of the leather to be turned out. The harder and tougher the leather required the shorter and fresher the liming. For instance, for sole leather where a hard result is required, the time in the limes would be from 8 to 10 days, and a perfectly fresh top lime would be used, with the addition of sodium sulphide to hasten the process. Every tanner uses a different quantity of lime and sulphide, but a good average quantity is 7 ft lime per hide and 10-15 ft> sodium sulphide per pit of 100 hides. The lime is slaked with water and the sulphide mixed in during the slaking; if it is added to the pit when the slaking is finished the greater part of its effect is lost, as it does not then enter into the same chemical combinations with the lime, forming polysulphides, as when it is added during the process of slaking. For softer and more pliable leathers, such as are required for harness and belting, a "lower" or mellower liming is given, and the time in the limes is increased from 9 to 12 days. Some of the old mellow liquor is added to the fresh lime in the making, so as just to take off the sharpness. It would be made up as for sole leather, but with less sulphide or none at all, and then a dozen buckets of an old lime would be added. For lighter leathers from 3 to 6 weeks' liming is given, and a fresh lime is never used. " Sweating " as a method of depilation is obsolete in England so far as heavy leathers are concerned. It consists of hanging the goods in a moist warm room until incipient putrefaction sets in. This first attacks the more mucous portions, as the rete Malpighi, hair bulb and sheath, and so allows the hair to be removed as before. The method pulls down the hide, and the putrefaction may go too far, with disastrous results, but there is much to recommend it for sheepskins where the wool is the main consideration, the main point being that while lime entirely destroys wool, this process leaves it intact, only loosening the roots. It is consequently still much used. Another method of fellmongering (dewooling) sheepskins is to paint the flesh side with a cream of lime made with a 10% solution of sodium sulphide and lay the goods in pile flesh to flesh, taking care that none of the solution comes in contact with the wool, which is ready for pulling in from 4 to 8 hours. Although this process may be used for any kind of skin, it is practically only used for sheep, as if any other skin is depilated in this manner all plumping effect is lost. Since this must be obtained in some way, it is an economy of time and material to place the goods in lime in the first instance. Sometimes, in the commoner classes of sole leather, the hair is removed by painting the hair side with cream of lime and sulphide, or the same effect Is produced by drawing the hides through a strong solution of sulphide; this completely destroys the hair, actually taking it into solution. But the hair roots remain embedded in the skin, and for this reason such leather always shows a dirty buff. Arsenic sulphide (realgar) is slaked with the lime for the pro- duction of the finer light leathers, such as glace kid and glove kid. This method produces a very smooth grain (the tendency of sodium sulphide being to make the grain harsh and bold), and is therefore very suitable for the purpose, but it is very expensive. Sufficient proof of the fact that it is not the lime which causes skins to unhair is found in the process of chemical liming patented by Payne and Pullman. In this process the goods are first treated with caustic soda and then with calcium chloride; in this manner lime is formed in the skin by the reaction of the two salts, but still the hair remains as tight as ever. If this process is to be used for unhairing and liming effect, the goods must be first subjected to a putrid soak to loosen the hair, and afterwards limed. Experi- ments made by the present writer also prove this theory. A piece of calf skin was subjected to sterilized lime for several months, at the end of which time the hair was as tight as ever; then bacterial influence was introduced, and the skin unhaired in as many days. After liming it is necessary to unhair the goods. This is done by stretching a hide over a tanner's beam (fig. 3), when with an unhairing knife (a, fig. 4) the beamsman partially scrapes and partially shaves off the hair and epidermis. Another workman, a " flesher," removes the flesh or " net skin " (panniculus adiposus), a fatty matter from the flesh side of the skin, with the fleshing knife (two- edged), seen in b, fig. 4. For these opera- tions several machines have been adapted, working mostly with revolv- ing spiral blades or vibrating cutters, under which the hides pass in a fully extended state. Among these may be mentioned the Leidgen unhairer, which works on a rubber bed, which " gives " with the irregularities of the FlG' 3-— Tanner s Beam, hide, and the Wilson flesher, consisting of a series of knives attached to a revolving belt, and which also " give " in contact with irregularities. At this stage the hide is divided into several parts, the process being known as " rounding." The object of the division is this: certain parts of the hide termed the " offal " are of less value than the " butt," which consists of the prime part. The grain of the butt is fine and close in texture, whereas the offal grain is loose, coarse and open, and if the offal is placed in the same superior liquors as the butt, being open and porous, it will absorb the best of the tannin first; consequently the offal goes to a set of inferior liquors, often consisting of those through which the butts have passed. The hides are " rounded " with a sharp curved butcher's knife; the divisions are seen in fig. 5_ The bellies, cheeks and shoulders constitute the offal, and are tanned separately al- though the shoulder is not often detached from the butt until the end of the " suspenders," being of slightly better quality than the bellies. The butt is divided into two " bends." This separation is not made until the tanning of the butt FIG. 4.— Tanner's Knives and Pin. is finished, when it is cut in two, and the components sold as " bends," although as often as not the butt is not divided. In America the hides are only split down the ridge of the back, from head to tail, and tanned as hides. Dressing hides are more frequently rounded after tanning, the mode depending on the purpose for which the leather is required. The next step is to remove as much " scud " and lime as possible, the degree of removal of the latter depending upon the kind of leather to be turned out. " Scudding " consists of working the already unhaired hide over the beam with an unhairing knife with increased pressure, squeezing out the dirt, which is composed of pigment cells, semi-soluble compounds of lime, and hide, hair sacks and soluble hide substance, &c. This exudes as a dirty, milky, viscid liquid, and mechanically brings the LEATHER FIG. 5. lime out with it, but involves a great and undesirable loss of hide substance, heavy leather being sold by weight. This difficulty is now got over by giving the goods an acid bath first, to delime the surface; the acid fixes this soluble hide substance (which is only soluble in alkalies) and hardens it, thus preventing its loss, and the goods may then be scudded clean with safety. The surface of all heavy leathers must be delimed to obtain a good coloured leather, the demand of the present day boot manufacturer; it is also necessary to carry this further with milder leathers than sole, such as harness and belly, &c., as excess of lime causes the leather to crack when finished. Per- haps the best material for this purpose is boracic acid, using about 10 Ib per 100 butts, and suspending the goods. This acid yields a character- istic fine grain, and because of its limited solubility cannot be used in excess. Other acids are also used, such as acetic, lac- tic, formic, hydro- chloric,with varying success. Where the water used is very soft, it is only necessary to wash in water for a few hours, when the butts are ready for tanning, but if the water is hard, the lime is fixed in the hide by the bicarbonates it contains, in the form of carbonate, and the result is somewhat disastrous. After ell-liming, the butts are scudded, rinsed through water or weak acid, and go off to the tan pits for tanning proper. Any lime which remains is sufficiently removed by the acidity of the early tan liquors. The actual tanning now begins, and the operations involved may be divided into a series of three: (i) colouring, (2) handling, (3) laying away. The colouring pits or " suspenders," perhaps a series of eight pits, consist of liquors ranging from 16° to 40° barkometer, which were once the strongest liquors in the yard, but have gradually worked down, having had some hundreds of hides through them; they now contain very little tannin, and consist mainly of developed acids which neutralize the lime, plump the hide, colour it off, and generally prepare it to receive stronger liquors. The goods are suspended in these pits on poles, which are lifted up and down several times a day to ensure the goods taking an even colour; they are moved one pit forward each day into slightly stronger liquors, and take about from 7 to 18 days to get through the suspender stage. The reason why the goods are suspended at this stage instead of being laid flat is that it the latter course were adopted, the hides would sink and touch one another, and the touch-marks, not being accessible to the tan liquor, would not colour, and uneven colouring would thus result; in addition the weight of the top hides would flatten the lower ones and prevent their plumping, and this con- dition would be exceedingly difficult to remedy in the after liquors. Another question which might occur to the non-technical reader is, why should not the process be hastened by placing the goods in strong liquors ? The reason is simple. Strong tanning solutions have the effect of " drawing the grain " of pelt, i.e. contracting the fibres, and causing the leather to assume a very wrinkled appearance which cannot afterwards be remedied; at the same time "case tanning " results , i.e. the outside only gets tanned, leaving the centre still raw hide, and once the outside is case-hardened it is impossible for the liquor to penetrate and finish the tanning. This condition being almost irremediable, the leather would thus be rendered useless. After the " suspenders " the goods are transferred to a series FIG. 6. — Tanner's Hook (without handle). of " handlers " or " floaters," consisting of, perhaps, a dozen pits containing liquors ranging from 30° to 55° barkometer. These liquors contain an appreciable quantity of both tannin and acid, once formed the " lay-aways," and are destined to constitute the " suspenders." In these pits the goods, having been evenly coloured off, are laid flat, handled every day in the " hinder " (weaker) liquors and shifted forward, perhaps every two days, at the tanner's convenience. The " handling " consists of lifting the butts out of the pit by means of a tanner's hook (fig. 6) , piling them on the side of the pit to drain , and return- ing them to the pit, the top butt in the one handler being returned as the bottom in the next. This operation is continued throughout the process, only, as the hides advance, the neces- sity for frequent handling decreases. The top two handler pits are sometimes converted into " dusters," i.e. when the hides have advanced to these pits, as each butt is lowered, a small quantity of tanning material is sprinkled on it. Some tanners, now that the hides are set flat, put them in suspension again before laying away; the method has its advantages, but is not general. The goods are generally laid away immediately. The layer liquors consist of leached liquors from the fishings, strengthened with either chestnut or oakwood extract, or a mixture of the two. The first layer is made up to, say, 60° barkometer in this way, and as the hides are laid down they are sprinkled with fresh tanning material, and remain undisturbed for about one week. The second layer is a 70° barkometer liquor, the hides are again sprinkled and allowed to lie for perhaps two weeks. The third may be 80° barkometer and the fourth 90°, the goods being " dusted " as before, and lying undisturbed for perhaps three or four weeks respectively. Some tanners give more layers, and some give less, some more or less time, or greater or lesser strengths of liquor, but this tannage is a typical modern one. As regards " dusting " material, for mellow leather, mellow materials are required, such as myrobalans being the mellowest and mimosa bark the most astringent of those used in this connexion. For harder leather, as sole leather, a much smaller quantity of myrobalans is used, if any at all, a fair quantity of mimosa bark as a medium, and much valonia, which deposits a large amount of bloom, and is of great astringency. About 3 to 4 cwt. of a judicious mixture is used for each pit, the mellower material predominating in the earlier liquors and the most astringent in the later liquors. The tanning is now finished, and the goods are handled out of the pits, brushed free from dusting material, washed up in weak liquor, piled and allowed to drip for 2 or 3 days so that the tan may become set. Finishing. — From this stage the treatment of sole leather differs from that of harness, belting and mellower leathers. As regards the first, it will be found on looking at the dripping pile of leather that each butt is covered with a fawn-coloured deposit, known technically as " bloom "; this disguises the under colour of the leather, just like a coat of paint. The theory of the formation of this bloom is this. Strong solutions of tannin, such as are formed between the hides from dusting materials, are not able to exist for long without decomposition, and consequently the tannin begins to condense, and forms other acids and in- soluble anhydrides; this insoluble matter separates in and on the leather, giving weight, firmness, and rendering the leather water- proof. It is known technically as bloom and chemically as ellagic acid. After dripping, the goods are scoured free from surface bloom in a Wilson scouring machine, and are then ready for bleaching. There are several methods by which this is effected, or, more correctly several materials or mixtures are used, the method of application being the same, viz. the goods are " vatted " (steeped)^ for some hours in the bleaching mixture at a temperature of no" F. The mixture may consist of either sumach and a light-coloured chestnut extract made to 110° barkometer, and_ no" F., or some bleaching extract made for the purpose, consisting of bisulphited liquid quebracho, which bleaches by reason of the free sulphurous acid it LEATHER 337 contains. The former method is best (though more expensive), as it removes less weight, and the light shade of colour is more per- manent than that obtained by using bisulphited extracts. After the first vatting the goods are laid up in pile to drip; meanwhile the liquor is again heated, and they are then returned for another twenty-four hours, again removed and allowed to drip for 2 to 3 days, after which they are oiled with cod oil on the grain and hung up in the sheds to dry in the dark. When they have dried to an indiarubber-like condition, they are piled and allowed to heat slightly until a greyish " bloom " rises to the surface, they are then set out and stretched in a Wilson scouring machine; using brass slickers instead of the stone ones used for scouring, " pinned " over by hand (with the three-edged instrument seen in c, fig. 4, and known as a " pin ") to remove any bloom not removed by the machine, oiled and dried. When of a damp even colour they are " rolled on " between two heavy rollers like a wringing machine, the pressure being applied from above, hung up in the dark sheds again until the uneven colour so produced has dried in, and then " rolled off " through the same machine; the pressure being applied from below. They are now dried right out, brushed on the grain to produce a slight gloss, and are finished. As regards the finishing of harness leather, &c., the goods, after thorough dripping for a day or two, are brushed, lightly scoured, washed up in hot sumach and extract to improve the colour, and are again laid up in pile for two days; they are then given a good coat of cod oil, sent to the sheds, and dried right out. Only sufficient scouring is given to clean the goods, the object of the tanner being to leave as much weight in as possible, although all this superfluous tan has to be washed out by the currier before he can proceed. Currying. — When the goods are dried from the sheds they are purchased by the currier. If, as is often the case, the tanner is his own currier, he does not tan the goods so heavily, or trouble about adding superfluous weight, but otherwise the after pro- cesses, the art of the currier, are the same. Currying consists of working oil and grease into the leather to render it pliable and increase its strength. It was once thought that this was a mere physical effect produced by the oil, but such is not the case. Currying with animal oils is a second tannage in itself; the oils oxidize in the fibres and produce aldehydes, which are well-known tanning agents; and this double tannage renders the leather very strong. Then there is the lubricating effect, a very important physical action so far as the strength of the leather is concerned. Mineral oils are much used, but they do not oxidize to aldehydes, or, for the matter of that, to anything else, as they are not subject to decomposition. They, therefore, produce no second tannage, and their action is merely the physical one of lubrication, and this is only more or less temporary, as, except in the case of the heavier greases, they slowly evaporate. Where animal fats and oils are used, the lomger the goods are left in contact with the grease the better and stronger will be the leather. In the " Einbrennen " process (German for " burning in "), the hides are thoroughly scoured, and when dry are dipped into hot grease, which is then allowed to cool; when it is nearly set the goods are removed and set out. This process is not much used in Great Britain. In hand-stuffing belting butts the goods are first thoroughly soaked in water to which has been added some soda, and then scoured and stretched by machine. They are then lightly shaved, to take off the 'loose flesh and thin the neck. The whole of the mechanically deposited tannin is removed by scouring, to make room for the grease, and they are then put into a sumach vat of 40° barkometer to brighten the colour, horsed up to drip, and set out. If any loading, to produce fictitious weight, is to be done, it is done now, by brushing the solution of either epsom salts, barium chloride or glucose, or a mixture, into the flesh, and laying away in pile for some days to allow of absorption, when, perhaps, another coat is given. Whether this is done or not, the goods are hung up until " tempered " (denoting a certain degree of dryness), and then treated with dubbin. This is manufactured by melting down tallow in a steam-jacketed pan, and adding cod oil, the mixture being stirred continually; when quite clear, it is cooled as rapidly as possible by running cold water through the steam pan, the stirring being continued until it has set. The tempered leather having been set out on a glass table, to which the flesh side adheres, is given a thin coat of the dubbin on the grain, turned, set out on the flesh, and given a thick coat of dubbin. Then it is hung up in a wind shed, and as the moisture dries out the grease goes in. After two or three days the goods are " set out in grease " with a brass slicker, given a coat of dubbin on the grain slightly thicker than the first coat, then flesh dubbined, a slightly thinner coat being applied than at first, and stoved at 70° F. The grease which is slicked off when " setting out in grease " is collected and sold. After hanging in the warm stove for 2 or 3 days the butts are laid away in grease for a month; they are then slicked out tight, flesh and grain, and buck tallowed. Hard tallow is first rubbed on the grain, when a slight polish is induced by rubbing with the smoothed rounded edge of a thick slab of glass; they are then hung up in the stove or stretched in frames to dry. A great deal of stuffing is now carried out by drumming the goods in hot hard fats in previously heated drums; and in modern times the tedious process of laying away in grease for a month is either left undone altogether or very considerably shortened. In the tanning and dressing of the commoner varieties of kips arid dried hides, the materials used are of a poorer quality, and the time taken for all processes is cut down, so that whereas the time taken to dress the better class of leather is from 7 to 10 months, and in a few cases more, these cheaper goods are turned out in from 3^ to 5 months. A considerable quantity of the leather which reaches England, such as East India tanned kips, Australian sides, &c., is bought up and retanned, being sold then as a much better-class leather. The first operation with such goods is to " strip " them of any grease they may contain, and part of their original tannage. This is effectually carried out by first soaking them thoroughly, laying them up to drip, and drumming for half an hour in a weak solution of soda; they are then washed by drumming in plenty of water, the water is run off and replaced by very weak sulphuric acid to neutralize any remaining soda; this is in turn run off and replaced by weak tan liquor, and the goods are so tanned by drumming for some days in a liquor of gradually increasing strength. The liquor is made up as cheaply as possible with plenty of solid quebracho and other cheap extract, which is dried in with, perhaps, glucose, epsom salts, &c. to produce weight. Sometimes a better tannage is given to goods of fair quality, in which they are, perhaps, started in the drum and finished in layers, slightly better materials being used all through, and a longer time taken to complete the tannage. The tannage of dressing hides for bag and portmanteau work is rather different from the other varieties described, in that the goods, after having had a rather longer liming, are " bated " or " puered." Bating consists of placing the goods in a wheel or paddle with hen or pigeon excrement, and paddling for from a few hours to 2 or 3 days. In puering, dog manure is used, and this bting rather more active, the process does not take so long. This baHng or puering is carried out in warm liquors, and the actions involved are several. From a practical point of view the action is the removal of the lime and the solution of the hair sacs and a certain amount of inter- fibrillar substance. In this way the goods are pulled down to a soft flaccid condition, which allows of the removal of short hair, hair sacs and other filth by scudding with an unhairing knife upon the beam. The lime is partially taken into solution and partially removed mechanically during the scudding. A large quantity of hide substance^ semi-soluble and soluble, is lost by being pressed out, but this matters little, as for dressing work, area, and not weight, is the main consideration. Theoretically the action is due to bacteria and bacterial products (organized ferments and enzymes), unorganized ferments or vegetable ferments like the yeast ferment, such as pancreadine, pepsin, &c. and chemicals, such as ammonium and calcium salts and phosphates, all of which are present in the manure. The evolved gases also play their part in the action. There are several bates upon the market as substitutes for dung bate. A most popular one was the American " Tiffany " bate, made by keeping a weak glue solution warm for some hours and then introducing a piece of blue cheese to start fermentation ; when fermenting, glucose was added, and the bate was then ready for work. This and all other bates have been more or less supplanted by " erodin," discovered after years of research by Mr Wood (Notting- ham) and Drs Poppand Becker (Vienna). This is an artificial bate, containing the main constituents of the dung bate. It is supplied 338 LEATHER in the form of a bag of nutrient material for bacteria to thrive on and a bottle of bacterial culture. The nutrient material is dissolved in water and the bacterial culture added, and after allowing the mixture to get working it is ready for use. Many tons of this bate are now being used per annum. Its advantages are: (i) that it is clean, (2) that it is under perfect control, and (3) that stains and bate burns, which so often accompany the dung bate, are absolutely absent. Bate burns are caused by not filtering the dung bate through coarse sacking before use. The accumulation of useless solid matter settles on the skins if they are not kept well in motion, causing excessive action in these places. After pulling down the goods to a soft, silky condition by bating or puering, it is necessary, after scudding, to plump them up again and bring them into a clean and fit condition for re- ceiving the tan. This is done by " drenching " in a bran drench. A quantity of bran is scalded and allowed to ferment. When the fermentation has reached the proper stage the goods are placed, together with the bran liquor, in a suitable pit or vat, and are allowed to remain until they have risen three times; this rising to the surface is caused by the gaseous products of the fermenta- tion being caught by the skin. The plumping action of the bran is due to the acids produced during fermentation and also in part to the gases, and the cleansing action is due to the mechanical action of the particles of bran rubbing against the grain of the skins. After drenching, the goods are washed free from bran, and are ready for the tanning process. Drenching, now that all kinds of acids are available, is not so much used for heavy hides as for light skins, it being found much more convenient and cheaper to use acids. In fact, bating and puering are being gradually replaced by acid baths in the case of heavy leathers, the process being carried out as deliming for sole leather, only much more thoroughly in the case of dressing leather. The tanning of dressing hides, which are not rounded into butts and offal, is briefly as follows. They first enter a series of colour- ing pits or suspenders, and then a series of handlers, by which time they should be plump and coloured through; in this con- dition they are split either by means of a union or band-knife splitting machine (fig. 7). FIG. 7. — Band Knife Splitting Machine. This latter is the most popular machine, and consists essentially of an endless band knife a, which revolves at considerable speed with its cutting edges close to the sides of a pair of rollers through which the leather is fed and pressed against the knife. The lower of these rollers is made of short segments or rings, each separately capable of yielding so as to accommodate itself to the unequal thicknesses of various parts of a hide. The thickness of the leather to be cut is gauged to the utmost minuteness by means of the hand screws b b which raise or lower the upper roller. The knife edge of the cutter is kept keen by rubbing against revolving emery wheels c as it passes round. So delicately can this machine effect its work that slices of leather uniform throughout and as thin as paper can be easily prepared by it, and by its aid it is quite common to split hides into as many as three useful splits. The dressing hides are usually split in two. Here we will leave the split (flesh) for a time and continue with the treatment of the grain. After splitting, they enter another series of handlers, are then piled up for a day or two, and thrown into a large drum with sumach mixed to a paste with hot water and a light-coloured extract. They are drummed in this for one hour to brighten and mellow the grain, washed up in tepid liquor, piled for two days, and drummed with cod oil or some other suitable oil or mixture; they are now piled for a day or two to absorb, dried out, flattened on the grain, and flesh folded. The splits are rinsed up in old sumach liquor and drummed with cheap extracts and adulterants, such as size, glucose, barium chloride, epsom salts, &c. after which they are piled up to drain, dried to a " sammied " condition, rolled to make firm, and dried right out. In the dressing hide tannage very mellow materials are used. Gambier and myrobalans form the main body of the tannage, together with a little quebracho extract, mimosa bark, sumach and extracts. Upper Leather. — Under the head of upper leather are included the thin, soft and pliable leathers, which find their principal, but by no means exclusive, application in making the uppers of boots and shoes, which may be taken as a type of a class of leathers. They are made from such skins as East Indian kips, light cow and horse hides, thin split hides, such as those described under dressing leather, but split rather thinner, and calf. The preparatory dressing of such skins and the tanning operations do not differ essentially from those already described. In pro- portion to the thinness of the skin treated, the processes are more rapidly finished and less complex, the tannage is a little lighter, heavy materials such as valonia being used sparsely if at all. Generally speaking, the goods have a longer and mellower liming and bating, the lime being more thoroughly removed than for the leathers previously described, to produce greater pliability, and everything must tend in this direction. The heavier hides and kips are split as described under dressing leather, and then tanned right out. Currying of the Lighter Leathers. — The duty of the currier is not solely directed towards heavier leathers; he is also entrusted with the dressing and fitting of the lighter leathers for the shoemaker, coachbuilder, saddler, &c. He has to pare the leather down and reduce inequalities in thickness, to impregnate it with fatty matter in order to render it soft and pliable, and to give it such a surface dressing, colour and finish as will please the eye and suit the purposes of ifs consumers. The fact that machinery is used by some curriers for nearly every mechanical operation, while others adhere to the manual system, renders it almost impossible to give in brief an outline of operations which will be consistent with any considerable number of curriers. The following may be taken as a typical modern dressing of waxed calf or waxed kips. The goods are first of all soaked down and brought to a " sammied " condition for shaving. In the better- class leathers hand-shaving is still adhered to, as it is maintained that the drag of the shaving machine on the leather causes the " nap " finish to be coarser. Hand-shaving is carried out on a beam or strong frame of wood, supporting a stout plank faced with lignum vitae, and set vertically, or nearly so. The knife (fig. 8) is a double-edged rectangular blade about 12 in. by 5 in., girded on either side along its whole length and down the centre with two bars 3 in. wide, leaving each blade protruding I in. be- yond them; it has a straight handle at one end and a cross handle at the other in the plane of the blade. The edges of this knife are first made very keen, and are then turned over so as to form a wire edge, by means of the thicker of the two straight steel tools shown in fig. 9. The wire edge is FIG. 8. — Currying Knife. preserved by drawing the thinner of the two steel tools along the interior angle of the wire edge and then along the outside of the turnover edge. The skin being thrown flesh uppermost over the vertical beam, the shaver presses his body against it, and leaning over the top holds the knife by its two handles almost at right angles to the leather, and proceeds to shave it by a scraping stroke downwards which the wire edge, being set at right angles to the knife and almost parallel with the skin, turns into a cut. The skin is shifted so as to bring all parts under the action of the knife, the shaver frequently passing a fold between his finger to test the progress of his work. After shaving, the goods are thoroughly soaked, allowed to drip, and are ready for " scouring." This operation has for its object the removal of bloom (ellagic acid) and any other superfluous adherent matter. The scouring solution consists of a weak solution of soft soap and borax. This is first well brushed into the flesh of the leather, which is then " sleeked " (slicked) out with a steel slicker shown at S fig. 9. The upper part LEATHER 339 of the " slicker " is wooden, and into it a steel, stone, brass or vulcanite blade is forced and fastened. The wooden part is grasped in both hands, and the blade is half rubbed and half scraped over the surface of the leather in successive strokes, the angle of the slicker being a continuation of the angle which the thrust out arms of the worker form with the body, perhaps 30° to 45°, with the leather, depending upon the pressure to be applied, The soap and borax solution is continually dashed on the leather to supply a body, for the removal of the bloom with the steel slicker. The hide is now turned, and the grain is scoured with a stone slicker and brush, with soap and borax solution, it is then rinsed up, and sent to dry ; when sammied, it is " set " i.e. the grain is laid smooth with^a brass or steel slicker and dried right out. It is now ready for " stuffing," which is invariably done in the drum with a mixture of stearine and " sod " oil, to which is sometimes added cod oil and wool fat; it is then set out on the grain and " canked " on the flesh, the grain side is glassed, and the leather dried right out. The goods are now " rounded," i.e. the lighter coloured parts of the grain are damped with a mix- ture of dubbin and water to bring them to even colour, and are then laid in pile for a few days to mel- low, when they are FIG 9. — Currying Apparatus. C, pommel ; R, raising board ; S, slicker. ready for whitening. The goods are damped down and got to the right temper with a weak soap and water solution, and are then " whitened," an operation similar to shaving, carried out with a turned edge slicker. By this means a. fine flesh surface is obtained upon which to finish by waxing; after this they are " boarded" with an arm board (R, fig. 9) to bring up the grain, or give a granular appearance to the leather and make it supple, when they may be turned flesh inwards and bruised, a similar operation to graining, essentially to soften and make them pliant. At this stage the goods are known as " finished russet," and are stored until ready for waxing. For waxing, the first operation is to black the goods. In England this is generally done by hand, but machinery is much more used in the United States. The process consists of well brushing into the flesh side of the skins a black preparation made in one of two ways. The older recipe is a mixture of lampblack, oil and perhaps a little tallow; the newer recipe consists of soap, lampblack, logwood extract and water. Either of these is brushed well into the flesh side, which is then glassed up by means of a thick slab of glass, the smooth rounded edges being used with a slicking motion, and the goods are hung up to dry. When dry they are oiled with cod oil, and are ready for sizing. Goods blacked with soap blacking are sized once, those prepared with oil blacking are sized twice. The size used for soap black skins may consist of a mixture of beeswax, pitch, linseed oil, tallow, soap, glue and logwood extract. For oil blacked skins the " bottom sizing " may be glue, soap, logwood extract and water, after the application of which the goods are dried and the " top sizing " applied; this consists of glue, cod oil, beeswax, tallow, Venice turps, black dye and water. The sizings having been applied with a sponge or soft brush, thoroughly rubbed in with a glass slicker, crush marks are removed by padding with a soft leather pad, and the goods, after being dried out, are ready for the market. In the dressing of waxed grain leathers, such as French calf, satin leather, &c., the preparatory processes are much the same as for waxed leathers described above as far as stuffing, after which the grain is prepared to take the colour by light hand scouring with weak soap and borax solution. The dye is now applied, and so that it may take well on the grain of the greasy leather, a quantity of either soap, turkey red oil or methylated spirit is added to the solution. Acid colours are preferably used, and three coats are given to the dry leather, which is then grained with an arm board, and finished by the application of hard buck tallow to the grain and brushing. The dye or stain may consist of aniline colours for coloured leathers, or, in the case of blacks, consecutive applications of logwood and iron solutions are given. Finishing dressing Hides for Bag and Portmanteau Work. — The hides as received from the tanner are soaked down, piled to sammy, and shaved, generally by machine, after which they are scoured, as under waxed leather, sumached and hung up to dry; when just damp they are set out with a brass slicker and dried right out. The grain is now filled by applying a solu- tion of either Irish moss, linseed mucilage or any other mucilagin- ous filling material, and the flesh is sized with a mixture of mucilage and French chalk, after which the goods are brush- stained with an aniline dye, to which has been added linseed mucilage to give it body; two coats are applied to the sammied leather. When the goods have sammied, after the last coat of stain, they are " printed " with a brass roller in a " jigger," or by means of a machine embosser. This process consists of im- printing the grain by pressure from a brass roller, on which the pattern is deeply etched. After printing, the flesh side is sponged with a weak milk solution, lightly glassed and dried, when the grain is sponged with weak linseed mucilage, almost dried, and brushed by machine. The hides are now finished, by the application either of pure buck tallow or of a mixture of carnauba wax and soap; this is rubbed up into a slight gloss with a flannel. Light Leathers. — So far only the heavier leathers have been dealt with; we will now proceed to discuss lighter calf, goat, sheep, seal, &c. In tanning light leathers everything must tend towards suppleness and pliability in the finished leather, in contrast to the firmness and solidity required in heavy leathers. Consequently, the liming is longer and mellower; puering, bating or some bacterial substitute always follows; the tannage is much shorter; and mellow materials are used. A deposition of bloom in the goods is not often required, so that very soon after they are struck through they are removed as tanned. The materials largely used are sumach, oak bark, gambier, myrobalans, mimosa bark, willow, birch and larch barks. As with heavy leathers, so also with light leathers, there are various ways of tanning; and quality has much to do with the elaboration or modification of the methods employed. The tan- ning of all leathers will be dealt with first, dyeing and finishing operations being treated later. The vegetable-tanned leather de luxe is a bottle-tanned skin. It is superior to every other class of vegetable-tanned leather in every way, but owing to competition not a great deal is now produced, as it is perhaps the most expensive leather ever put on the market. The method of preparation is as follows. The skins are usually hard and dry when received, so they are at once soaked down, and when sufficiently soft are either milled in the stocks, drummed in a lattice drum (American dash wheel, fig. 10), or " broken down " over the beam by working on the flesh with a blunt unhairing knife. They are next mellow limed (about 3 weeks), sulphide being used if convenient, unhaired and fleshed as described under heavy leathers, and are then ready for puering. This process is carried through at about 80° F., when the goods are worked on the beam, rinsed, drenched in a bran drench, scudded, and are ready for tanning. The skins are now folded down the centre of the back from neck to butt (tail end), flesh outwards, and the edges are tightly stitched all round to form bags, leav- ing an aperture at one of the shanks for filling; they are now turned grain out- wards and filled with strong sumach liquor and some quantity of solid sumach to fill up the interstices and prevent leakage, after which the open shank is tied up, and they are thrown into warm sumach liquor, where they float about like so many pigs, being continually pushed under the surface with a FIG. io.— Dash Wheel. dole. When struck through they are piled on a shelf above the vat, and by their own weight the liquor is forced through the skins. The tannage takes about 24 hours, and when finished the stitching is ripped up, the skins are slicked out, " strained " on frames and dried. " Straining " consists of nailing the skins out on boards in a stretched condition, or the stretching in frames by means of strings laced in the edge of the frame and attached to the edge of the skin. The commoner sumach-tanned skins (but still of very good quality) are tanned in paddle wheels, a series of three being most 340 LEATHER conveniently used in the same manner as the three-pit system of liming, each wheel having three packs of skins through it before being thrown away. This paddling tends to make a bolder grain, as the skins are kept in continual motion, and work over one another. Some manufacturers finish the tannage with a mixture of sumach and oak bark; this treatment yields a less porous product. Others, when the skins are strained and in a semi-dry condition, apply neatsfoot or other oil, or a mixture of glycerine and oil, to the grain to lubricate it and make it more supple; the glycerine mixture is generally used for " chrome " leather, and will be discussed later under that head. The skins tanned as above are largely dressed as morocco. Originally " morocco " was produced by the Moors in southern Spain and Morocco, whence the industry spread to the Levant, Turkey and the Mediterranean coast of Africa generally, where the leather was made from a species of sumach. Peculiarly enough, the dyeing was carried out before the tanning, with Roman alum as " mordant " and kermes, which with the alum produced a fine red colour. Such leather was peculiarly clear in colour, elastic and soft, yet firm and fine in grain and texture, and has long been much prized for bindings, being the material in which most of the artistic work of the 16th-century binders was executed. Now, in addition to the genuine morocco made from goat skins, we have imitation or French moroccos, for which split calf and especially sheep skins are employed, and as the appearance of morocco is the result of the style of graining and finish, which can now be imitated by printing or embossing machines, morocco can be made from all varieties of thin leather. Great quantities of " Persian " (East India tanned) sheep and goat are now dressed as moroccos and for innumerable other purposes, the method being as follows: The goods are tanned with turwar bark and cassia bark, besides being impregnated with sesame oil, even to the extent of 30%. The first operation is to " strip " them of the oil and original tannage as far as possible, by drumming in a solution of soda ; the soap thus formed is got rid of by thoroughly washing the goods, when they are " soured " in a weak bath of sulphuric acid to brighten the colour and remove iron stains, after which they are washed up and re-tanned by drumming in warm sumach, allowing about 4 oz. per skin. They are then slicked out, dried and are ready for dyeing. The tanning of sheep and lamb skins differs very essentially from the tanning of goat and other leathers, mainly in the preparatory processes. As the wool is completely destroyed by lime, other methods have to be resorted to. The process usually practised is known as " sweating "; this consists of hanging the moist skins up in a warm, badly-ventilated chamber and allowing incipient putre- faction to set in. The chamber is always kept warm and saturated with moisture, either by means of a steam jet or water sprinklers. During the process large quantities of ammoniacal vapours are given off, and after two or three days the skins become slimy to the touch, and the wool slips easily; at this stage the goods are removed, for if the putrefaction goes too far the grain of the skin is irretriev- ably ruined. The wool is now " pulled " by pullers, who throw it into bins arranged to receive the different qualities; for one pelt may have three different grades of wool on it. Other methods of dewooling are to paint the flesh with a solution of sodium sulphide, or cream of lime made with a solution of sodium sulphide; in either case the goods are piled flesh to flesh for an hour or so, and care is taken that the dewooling agent does not touch the wool. The pelt is then pulled and rapidly swilled in a stream of running water. The goods are now, in some yards, lightly limed to plump them superficially, by paddling in a milk of lime, and at this stage, or when the goods have been " struck through " with tan liquor, they are " degreased " either by hydraulic pressure or by benzene decreasing. This is to expel the oleaginous or fatty matter with which sheep skins are richly impregnated ; the average yield is about 4 oz. per skin. The tannage is carried out in much the same way as for goat skins, the goods being started in old acid bark liquors; the general tannage consists of sumach and bark. Basils are sheep skins tanned in various ways. English basils are tanned with oak bark, although, as in all other leathers, inferior tannages are now common; Scotch basils are tanned with larch bark, Australian and New Zealand basils with mimosa bark and Turkish basils with galls. The last are the commonest kind of skins imported into Great Britain, and are usually only semi-tanned. Roans are sumach-tanned sheep skins. Skivers are the grain splits of sheep skins, the fleshes of which are finished for chamois leather. The goods are split in the limed state, just as the grains are ready for tanning, and are sub- sequently treated much as sumach-tanned goat skins, or in any other convenient way; the fleshes, on the other hand, go back into the limes, as it is necessary to get a large quantity of lime into leather which is to be finished as chamois. Russia Leather was originally a speciality of Russia, where it was made from the hides of young cattle, and dressed either a brownish red or black colour for upper leather, bookbinding, dressing-cases, purses, &c. It is now made throughout Europe and America, the best qualities being obtained from Austria. The empyreumatic odour of the old genuine " Russia " leather was derived from a long-continued contact with willow and the bark of the white birch, which contains the odorous betulin oil. Horse hides, calf, goat, sheep skins and even splits are now dressed as " Russia leather," but most of these are of a decidedly inferior quality, and as they are merely treated with birch bark oil to give them something of the odour by which Russia leather is ordinarily recognized, they scarcely deserve the name under which they pass. The present-day genuine Russia leather is tanned like other light leathers, but properly in willow bark, although poplar and spruce fir barks are used. After tanning and setting out the goods are treated with the empyreumatic oil obtained by the dry distillation of birch bark. The red colour commonly seen in Russia leather is now produced by aniline colours, but was originally gained by the application of an in- fusion of Brazil wood, which was rubbed over the grain with a brush or sponge. Some time ago Russia leather got into disrepute because of its rapid decay; this was owing to its being dyed with a very acid solution of tin salts and cochineal, the acid completely destroying the leather in a year or two. The black leather is obtained by staining with logwood infusion and iron acetate. The leather, if genuine quality, is very watertight and strong, and owing to its impregnation with the empyreumatic oil, it wards off the attacks of insects. Seal Leathers, &*c. — The tannage of seal skins is now an important department of the leather industry of the United Kingdom. The skins form one of the items of the whaling industry which principally centres in Dundee, and at that port, as well as at Hull and Peterhead, they are received in large quantities from the Arctic regions. This skin is that of the white hair seal, and must not be confused with the expensive seal fur obtained from Russian and Japanese waters. These white hair seal skins are light but exceedingly close in texture, yielding a very strong tough leather of large area and fine bold grain, known as Levant morocco. The area of the skins renders them suitable for upholstery work, and the flesh splits are dressed in considerable quantity for " japanned " (" patent ") leather and " bolsters," which are used to grain other skins on, the raised buff affording a grip on the skin being grained and thus prevent- ing slipping. When the skins arrive in the lanyard (generally lightly salted) they are drummed in old drench liquors until soft, dipped into warm water and " blubbered " with a sharp knife; they are then alternately dipped in warm water and drummed several times to remove fat, after which they are heavily limed, as they are still very greasy, and after unhairing and fleshing they are heavily puered for the same reason. The tannage takes about a month, and is much the same as for other leathers, the skins being split when " struck through." Alligator leather is now produced to some extent both in the United States and India. The belly and flanks alone are useful. There are no special tanneries or processes for dressing the skins. Layers are not given. The leather is used mostly for small fancy goods, and is much imitated on sheepskin by embossing. Snake and frog skins are also dressed to some extent, the latter having formed a considerable item in the exports of Japan ; they are dressed mostly for cigar cases and pocket books. The general procedure is first to lime the goods and then to remove any scales (in the case of snake skins) by scraping with an unhairing knife on a small beam, after which the skins are bated and tanned in sumach by paddling. A considerable amount of leather is now produced in Australia from the skins of kangaroo, wallaby and other marsupials. These skins are both tanned and " tawed," the principal tanning agents being mimosa bark, mallet bark and sugar bush, which abound in Australia. The leather produced is of excellent quality, strong and pliable, and rivals in texture and appearance the kid of Europe; but the circumstance that the animals exist only in the wild state renders them a limited and insecure source of leather. LEATHER Japan and Enamel Leathers. — Japanning is usually done on flesh splits, whereas enamelling is done on the grain, and i splits are used they are printed and boarded. The leathe should be mellow, soft, free from grease, with a firm grain and no inclination to stretch. It is first shaved very smooth thoroughly scoured with a stone, sumached, washed, slickec out tight and dried; when " sammied," the grain is buffed to remove scratches and oiled, the goods are then whitened or fluffed and if too hard, bruised by boarding; enamel goods are now grained. The skins are now tightly nailed on boards and any holes patched up with brown paper, so that the japan shall not touch the flesh when the first thick coat of japan or the " daub " is put on. This is applied so thickly that it cannot soak in, with fine-toothed slicker, and then placed in a hot stove for twenty- four hours until quite dry; the coating is then pumiced smooth and the second thinner coat, termed " blanback," is applied This is dried and pumiced, and a fine coating of japan or copa varnish is finally given. This is dried and cooled, and if the goods are for enamel they are boarded. English japans sometimes contain light petroleum, but no turps. The secret of successful japanning lies in the age of the oil used; the older the linseed oil is, the better the result. To prepare the ground coat, boil 10 gallons linseed oil for one hour with 2 Ib litharge at 600° F. to jellify the oil, and then add 2 Ib prussian blue and boil the whole for half an hour longer. Before application the mixture is thinned with 10 gallons light petroleum. For the second coat, boil 10 gallons linseed oil for 2 hours with 2 Ib prussian blue and 2 ft lampblack; when of a thin jelly consistency thin with 5 gallons of benzine or light petroleum. For the finishing coat, boil 5 gallons of linseed oil for I hour, then add I ft prussian blue, and boil for another hour; thin with 10 gallons petroleum and apply with a brush in a warm room. After drying, the goods are mellowed by exposure to the sun for at least three days. Tawing. — Wool rugs are, after the preliminary processes, sometimes tanned in oak bark liquors by paddling, but are generally " tawed," that is, dressed with alum and salt, and are therefore more suitably dealt with under that head. Tawing implies that the conversion of skins into leather is carried out by means of a mixture of which the more important constituents are mineral salts, such as alum, chrome and iron, which may or may not be supplemented with fatty and albuminous matter, both animal and vegetable. As an example of alum tawing, calf kid may be taken as characteristic of the process; glove kid is also treated on similar lines. The goods are prepared for tawing in a manner similar to the preparation of tanned leathers, arsenical limes being used to ensure a fine grain. After being well drenched and washed the goods are ready for the tawing process. On the continent of Europe it is usual for the goods to be thrown into a tub with the tawing paste and trodden with the bare feet, although this old- fashioned method is gradually being driven out, and the drum or tumbler is being used. The tawing paste consists of a mixture of alum, salt, flour, egg yolk and water; the quantities of each constituent diverge widely, every dresser having his own recipe. The following has been used, but cannot well be classed as typical: For 100 ft skin take 9 ft alum, 5 ft salt, dissolve in water, and mix to a thin paste with from 5 to 13 ft flour, using 4 to 6 egg yolks for every pound of flour used. Olive oil is also mixed in sometimes. The skins are drummed or trodden, at intervals, in the warm paste for some hours, removed, allowed to drain, and dried rapidly, damped down or " sammied " and " staked " by drawing them to and fro over a blunt knife fixed in the top of a post, and known as a knee stake; this process softens them very considerably. After staking, the goods are wet back and shaved smooth, either with a moon knife, i.e. a circular concave convex knife, the centre of which has been cut out, a piece of wood bridging the cavity forming the grip, or with an ordinary currier's shaving knife; the skins are now ready for dyeing and finishing. Wool Rug Dressing. — Wool rugs are first thoroughly soaked, well washed and clean-fleshed, scoured well by rubbing into the wool a solution of soft soap and soda, and then leathered by rubbing into the flesh of the wet skins a mixture consisting of three parts of alum and two parts of salt until they are practically dry; they are now piled up over-night, and the mixture is again applied. After the second or third application the goods should be quite leathered. Other methods consist of stretching the skins in frames and painting the flesh with a solution of alum and salt, or, better, with a solution of basic alum and salt, the alum being made basic by the gradual addition of soda until a permanent precipitate is produced. The goods are now bleached, for even the most vigorous scouring will not remove the yellow tint of the wool, especially at the tips. There are several methods of bleaching, viz. by hydrogen peroxide following up with a weak vitriol bath; by potassium permanganate! following up with a bath of sulphurous acid; or by fumigating in an air-tight chamber with burning sulphur. The last-named method is the more general ; the wet skins are hung in the chamber, an iron pot containing burning sulphur is introduced, and the exposure is continued for several hours. If the goods are to be finished white, they are now given a vitriol sour, scoured, washed, retanned, dried, and when dry softened" by working with a moon knife. If they are to be dyed, they must be prepared for the dye solution by " chloring," which consists of immersion in a cold solution of bleaching powder for some hours, and then souring in vitriol. The next step is dyeing. If basic dyes are to be used, it is neces- sary to neutralize the acidity of the skins by careful addition of soda, and to prevent the tips from being dyed a darker colour than the roots. Glauber salts and acetic acid are added to the dye-bath. The tendency of basic colours to rub off may be overcome by passing the goods through a solution of tannin in the form of cutch, sumach, quebracho, &c.; in fact, some of the darker-coloured materials may be used as a ground colour, thus economizing dyestuff and serving two purposes. If acid colours are used, it is necessary to add sulphuric acid to the dye bath, and in either case colours which will strike below 50° C. must be used, as at that temperature alum leather perishes. After being dyed, the goods are washed up, drained, and if neces- sary retanned, the glossing finish is then produced by passing them through a weak emulsion or "fat liquor" of' oil, soap and water, after which they are dried, softened by working with a moon knife and beating, when they are combed out, and are ready for the market. Blacks are dyed by immersing the goods alternately in solutions of logwood and iron, or a one-solution method is used, consisting of a mixture of these two, with, in either case, varying additions of lactic acid and sumach, copper salts, potassium bichromate, &c. ; the time of immersion varies from hours to days. After striking, the goods are exposed to the air for some hours in order to oxidize to a good black; they are then well scoured, washed, drained, retanned, dried, softened and combed. Chrome Tanning. — The first chrome tanning process was described by Professor Knapp in 1858 in a paper on "Die Natur und Wesen der Gerberie," but was first brought into commercial prominence by Dr Heinzerling about 1878, and was worked in a most persevering way by the Eglinton Chemical Company, who owned the English patents, though all their efforts failed to produce any lasting effects. Now chrome tanning is almost the most important method of light leather dressing, and has also taken a prominent place in the heavy department, more especially in curried leathers and cases where greater tensile itrength is needed. The leather produced is much stronger than any other leather, and will also stand boiling water, whereas vegetable-tanned leather is completely destroyed at 70° C. and alum leather at 50° C. The theory of chrome tanning is not perfectly understood, but in general terms it consists of a partial chemical combination between the hide fibre and the chrome salts, and a partial mechanical de- position of chromium oxide in and on the fibre. The wet work, or preparation for tanning, may be taken as much the same as for any other leather. ,There are two distinct methods of chrome tanning, and several different methods of making the solutions. The " two bath process " consists of treating the skins with a bichromate in which the •hromium is in the acidic state, and afterwards reducing it to the >asic state by some reducing agent. The exact process is as pllows: To prevent wrinkled or "drawn" grain the goods are irst paddled for half an hour in a solution of vitriol and salt, when they are piled or " horsed " up over night, and then, without washing, placed in a solution consisting of 7 ft of potassium bichromate, 3J ft of hydrochloric acid to each loo ft of pelts, with sufficient water to conveniently paddle in; it is recommended that 5% of salt be added to this mixture. The goods are run in this for about 3 hours, or until struck through, when they are horsed up for some hours, care being taken to cover them up, and are then ready for he reducing bath. This consists of a 14% solution of plain " hypo," Jr hyposulphite of soda, to which, during the process of reduction, requent additions of hydrochloric acid are made to free the sul- phurous and thiosulphuric acids, which are the active reducing agents. After about 3 hours' immersion, during which time the goods will have changed in colour from bright yellow to bright freen, one or two skins are cut in the thickest part, and if the green has struck right through, the pack is removed as tanned, washed up, nd allowed to drain. 342 LEATHER The " single-bath process " consists of paddling, drumming, or otherwise introducing into the skins a solution of a chrome salt, usually chrome alum, which is already in the basic condition, and therefore does not require reducing. The basic solutions are made as follows: For 100 ft of pelts 9 Ib of chrome alum are dissolved in 9 gallons of water, and 2j tb of washing soda already dissolved in I gallon of water are gradually added, with constant stirring. One- third of the solution is added to 80 gallons of water, to which is added 7 ft of salt, and the skins are introduced; the other two- thirds are introduced at intervals in two successive portions. Another liquor, used in the same way, is made by dissolving 3 ft of potassium bichromate in hot water, adding 5 gallon strong hydrochloric acid and then, gradually, about ij ft of glucose or grape sugar; this redifces the acidic chrome salt, vigorous effervescence ensuing. The whole is made up to 2 gallons and 5% to 15% of salt is added. In yet another method a chrome alum solution is rendered basic by boiling with " hypo," and after the reaction has ceased the solution is allowed to settle and the clear portion used. After tanning, which takes from 8 hours to as many, and even more, days, depending upon the method used and the class of skin being dressed, the skins tanned by both methods are treated in a similar manner, and are neutralized by drumming in borax solution, when they are washed free from borax by drumming in warm water, and are ready for dyeing, a process which will be dealt with further on. The goods are sometimes tanned by suspension, but this method is generally reserved for the tanning of the heavier leathers, which are treated in much the same way, the several processes taking longer. Iron Tannage. — Before leaving mineral tanning, mention may be made of iron tannage, although this has gained no prominent position in commerce. Ferric salts possess powerful tanning pro- perties, and were thoroughly investigated by Professor Knapp, who took out several patents, but the tendency to produce a brittle leather has never been entirely overcome, although it has been greatly modified by the incorporation of organic matter, such as blood, rosin, paraffin, urine, &c. Knapp's basic tanning liquor is made as follows: A strong solution of ferrous sulphate is boiled and then oxidized to the ferric state by the careful addition of nitric acid. Next, to destroy excess of nitric acid, ferrous sulphate is added until effervescence ceases and the resulting clear orange- coloured solution is concentrated to a varnish-like consistency. It does not crystallize or decompose on concentration. The hides or skins are prepared for tanning in the usual way, and then handled or otherwise worked in solutions of the above iron salt, the solutions, which are at first weak, being gradually strengthened. The tannage occupies from 2 to 8 days, and the goods are then stuffed in a ventilated drum with greases, or soap. If the latter is used, an insoluble iron soap is precipitated on the fibres of the leather, which may then be finally impregnated with stearin and paraffin, and finished in the usual manner as described under Curried Leathers. A very fair leather may also be manufactured by using iron alum and salt in the same manner as described under ordinary alum and salt. Combination Tannages. — Leathers tanned by mixtures or separate baths of both mineral and vegetable tanning agents have now taken an important position in commerce. Such leathers are the Swedish and Danish glove leathers, the United States " dongola leather," and French glazed kid. The useful- ness of such a combination will be evident, for while vegetable tanning produces fullness, plumpness and resistance to water, the mineral dressing produces a softness unnatural to vegetable tannages without the use of large quantities of oils and fats. It may also be noted that once a leather has been thoroughly tanned with either mineral or vegetable materials, although it will absorb large quantities of the material which has not been first used, it will retain in the main the characteristics of the tannage first applied. The principle had long been used in the manufacture of such tough and flexible leathers as " green leather," " combing leather " and " picker bands," but was first applied to the manufacture of imitation glazed kid by Kent in America, who, about 1878, discovered the principle of " fatliquor- ing," and named his product " dongola leather." The discovery of this process revolutionized the manufacture of combination leathers. The Swedish and Danish glove leathers were first given a dressing of alum and salt, with or without the addition of flour and egg, and were then finished and coloured with vegetable materials, generally with willow bark, although, in cases of scarcity, sumach, oak bark, madder and larch were resorted to. The " green leathers " manu- factured in England generally receive about a week's tannage in gambler liquors, and are finished off in hot alum and salt liquors, after which they are dried, have the crystallized salts slicked off, are damped back, and heavily stuffed with moellon, degras or sod oil. Kent, in the manufacture of his dongola leather, used mixed liquors of gambier alum and salt, and when tanned, washed the goods in warm water to remove excess of tanning agent, piled up to samm, and fatliquored. In making alum combinations it must be borne in mind that alum leather will not glaze, and if a glazed finish is required, a fairly heavy vegetable tannage should be first applied. For dull finishes the mineral tannage may advantageously precede the vegetable. Very excellent chrome combination leather is also manufactured by the application of the above principles, gambier always being in great favour as the vegetable agent. The use of other materials deprives the leather of its stretch, although they may be advantage- ously used where the latter property is objectionable. Oil Tanning. — Under the head of oil tanning is included " buff leather," " buck leather," " piano leather," " chamois leather," and to a greater or lesser extent, " Preller's crown or helvetia leather." The process of oil tanning dates back to antiquity, and was known as " shamoying," now spelt " chamois- ing." Chamoising yields an exceedingly tough, strong and durable leather, and forms an important branch of the leather industry. The theory of the process is the same as the theory of currying, which is nothing more or less than chamoising, viz. the lubrica- tion of the fibres by the oil itself and the aldehyde tanning which takes place, due to the oxidation and decomposition of the esters of the fatty acids contained in the oil. The fact that an aldehyde tannage takes place seems to have been first discovered by Payne and Pullman, who took out a patent in 1898, covering formalde- hyde and other aldehydes used in alkaline solutions. Their product, " Kaspine " leather, found considerable application in the way of military accoutrements. Chamois, buff, buck and piano leathers are all manufactured by the same process slightly modified to suit the class of hide used, the last three being heavy leathers, the first light. As regards the process used for chamois leather, the reader will remember, from the account of the vegetable tannage of sheep skins, that after splitting from the limes, the fleshes were thrown back into the pits for another three weeks' liming (six weeks in all) preparatory to being dressed as chamois leather. It is necessary to lime the goods for oil dressing very thoroughly, and if the grain has not been removed by splitting, as in the case of sheep skins, it is " frized " off with a sharp knife over the beam. The goods are now rinsed, scudded and drenched, dried out until stiff, and stocked in the faller stocks with plenty of cod oil for 2 to 3 hours until they show signs of heating, when they are hung up in a cool shed. This process is repeated several times during a period of from 4 to 6 days, the heat driving the water out of the skins and the oil replacing it. At the end of this time the goods, which will have changed to a brown colour, are hung up and allowed to become as dry as possible, when they are hung in a warm stove for some hours, after which they are piled to heat off, thrown into tepid water and put through a wringing machine. The grease which is recovered from the wringing machine is known commercially as " degras " or " moellon," and fetches a good price, as it is unrivalled for fatliquoring and related processes, such as stuffing, producing a very soft product. They next receive a warm soda lye bath, and are again wrung; this removes more grease, which forms soap with the lye, and is re- covered by treatment with vitriol, which decomposes the soap. The grease which floats on top of the liquor is sold under the name of " sod oil." This also is a valuable material for fatliquoring, &c.t but not so good as degras. After being wrung out, the goods are bleached by one of the processes mentioned in the section on wool rug dressing, the per- manganate method being in general use in England. In countries where a fine climate prevails the soap bleach or " sun bleach " is adopted; this consists of dipping the goods in soap solution and exposing them to the sun's rays, the process being repeated three or more times as necessary. The next step is fatliquoring to induce softness, after which they are dried out slowly, staked or " perched " with a moon knife, fluffed on a revolving wheel covered with fine emery to produce the fine " nap " or surface, brushed over with french chalk, fuller's earth or china clay, and finally finished on a very fine emery wheel. Preller's Helvetia or Crown Leather. — This process of leather manufacture was discovered in 1850 by Theodor Klemm, a cabinetmaker of Wiirttemberg, who being then in poor circum- stances, sold his patent to an Englishman named Preller, who manufactured it in Southwark, and adopted a crown as his trade mark. Hence the name " crown " leather. The manufacture then spread through Switzerland and Germany, the product being used in the main for picker straps, belting and purposes where waterproof goods were required, such as hose pipes and military water bags. No taste is imparted to the water by this leather. LEATHER 343 The process of manufacture is as follows: The hides are unhaired by short liming, painting with lime and sulphide, or sweating, and cleansed by scudding and washing, after which they are coloured in bark liquors, washed up through clean water, and hung up to dry partially. When in a sammied condition the goods are placed on a table and a thick layer of the tanning paste spread on the flesh side. The tanning paste yaries with each manufacturer, but the following is the mixture originally used by Preller: 100 parts flour, 100 parts soft fat or horse tallow, 35 parts butter, 88 parts ox brains, 50 parts milk, 15 parts salt or saltpetre. The hides are now rolled in bundles, placed in a warm drum and worked for 8 to 10 hours, after which they are removed and hung up until half dry, when the process is repeated. Thus they are tumbled 3 to 4 times, set out flesh and grain, rinsed through tepid water, set out, sammied, and curried by coating with glycerin, oil, tallow and degras. The table grease is now slicked off, and the goods are set out in grease, grained and dried. Transparent Leather. — Transparent leather is a rather horny product, somewhat like raw hide, and has been used for stitching belts and picker bands. The goods to be dressed are limed, un- haired, very thoroughly delimed with acids, washed in water, scudded and clean-fleshed right to the veins; they are now stretched in frames, clean-fleshed with a moon knife, and brushed with warm water, when several coats of glycerin, to which has been added some antiseptic such as salicylic or picric acid, are applied; the goods are then dried out, and another coat is applied, and when semi-dry they are drummed in a mixture of glycerin, boracic acid, alum and salt, with the addition of a little bichromate of potash to stain them a yellow colour. After drumming for 2 to 3 hours they are removed, washed up, lightly set out, and stretched in frames to dry, when they are ready for cutting into convenient lengths for use. Parchment. — A certain class of sheep skin known as Hampshires is generally used in the manufacture of this speciality. The skins as received are first very carefully washed to remove all dirt, de- wooled, limed for 3 to 4 weeks, they are then cleanly fleshed, un- haired, rinsed up in water, and thickly split, the poorer hides being ultilized for chamois; they are now re-split at the fatty strata so that all fat may be easily removed, and while the grains are dressed as skivers, the fleshes are tied in frames, watered with hot water, scraped and coated on both sides with a cream consisting of whiting, soda and water, after which they are dried out in a hot stove. In the drying the whiting mixture absorbs the grease from the skins; in fact, this method of degreasing is often employed in the manufac- ture of wool rugs. When dry, both sides of the skins are flooded to remove the whiting, and are then well rubbed over with a flat piece of pumice-stone, swilled, dried, re-pumiced, again swilled, and when sammied are rolled off with a wooden roller and dried out. Tar and Peat Tanning. — Tar tanning was discovered by a French chemist named Philippi, who started with the idea that, if coal was a decomposition product of forests, it must still necessarily possess the tanning properties originally present in the trees. However far-fetched such an argument may seem, Philippi succeeded in pro- ducing a leather from wood and coal tar at a fairly cheap rate, the product being of excellent texture and strength, but rather below the average in the finish, which was inclined to be patchy, showing oily spots. His method consisted of impregnating the goods with refined tar and some organic acid, but the product does not seem to have taken any hold upon the market, and is not much heard of now. Peat tanning was discovered by Payne, an English chemist, who was also the co-discoverer of the Payne-Pullman formaldehyde tan- ning process. His peat or humic acid tannage was patented by him about 1905, and is now worked on a commercial scale. The humic acid is first extracted from the peat by means of alkalis, and the hides are treated with this solution, the humic acid being after- wards precipitated in the hides by treatment with some stronger organic or mineral acid. Dyeing, Staining and Finishing. — These operations are practised almost exclusively on the lighter leathers. Heavy leathers, except coloured and black harness and split hides for bag work, are not often dyed, and their finishing is generally considered to be part of the tannage. In light leathers a great business is done in buying up " crust " stock, i.e. rough tanned stock, and then dyeing and finishing to suit the needs and demands of the various markets. The carrying out of these operations is a distinct and separate business from tanning, although where possible the two businesses are carried on in the same works. Whatever the goods are and whatever their ultimate finish, the first operation, upon receipt by the dyer of the crust stock, is sorting, an operation requiring much skill. The sorter must be familiar with the why and wherefore of all subsequent processes through which the leather must go, so as to judge of the suitability of the various qualities of leather for these processes, and to know where any flaws that may exist will be sufficiently sup- pressed or hidden to produce a saleable product, or will be rendered entirely unnoticeable. The points to be considered in the sorting are coarseness or fineness of texture, boldness or fineness of grain, colour, flaws including stains and scratches, substance, &c. Light-coloured and flawless goods are parcelled out for fine and delicate shades, those of darker hue and few flaws are parcelled out for the darker shades, such as maroons, greens (sage and olive), dark blues, &c., and those which are so badly stained as to be unsuitable for colours go for blacks. After sorting, the goods are soaked back to a limp condition by immersion in warm water, and are then horsed up to drip, having been given, perhaps, a preliminary slicking out. Up to this point all goods are treated alike, but the subsequent processes now diverge according to the class of leather being treated and the finish required. Persian goods for glaces, moroccos, &c., require special pre- paration for dyeing, being first re-tanned. As received, they are sorted and soaked as above, piled to samm, and shaved. Shaving consists of rendering the flesh side of the skins smooth by shaving off irregularities, the skin, which is supported on a rubber roller actuated by a foot lever, being pressed against a series of spiral blades set on a steel roller, which is caused to revolve rapidly. When shaved, the goods are stripped, washed up, soured, sweetened and re-tanned in sumach, washed up, and slicked out, and are then ready for dyeing. There are three distinct methods of dyeing, with several minor modifications. Tray dyeing consists of immersing the goods, from 2 to 4 dozen at a time, in two separate piles, in the dye solution at 60° C., contained in a flat wooden tray about 5 ft.X4 ft.Xi ft., and keeping them constantly moving by continually turning them from one pile to the other. The disadvantages of this method are that the bath rapidly cools, thus dyeing rapidly at the beginning and slowly at the termination of the operation; hence a large excess of dye is wasted, much labour is required, and the shades obtained are not so level as those obtained by the other methods. But the goods are under observation the whole time, a very distinct advantage when matching shades, and a white flesh may be preserved. The paddle method of dyeing consists of paddling the goods in a large volume of liquor contained in a semi-circular wooden paddle for from half to three-quarters of an hour. The disadvantages are that the liquor cools fairly rapidly, more dye is wasted than in the tray method, and a white flesh cannot be preserved. But larger packs can be dyed at the one operation, the goods are under observation the whole time, and little labour is required. The drum method of dyeing is perhaps best, a drum somewhat similar to that used by curriers being preferable. The goods are placed on the shelves inside the dry drum, the lid of which is then fastened on, and the machinery is started; when the drum is revolving at full speed, which should be about 12 to 15 revolutions per minute, the dye solution is added through the hollow axle, and the dyeing continued for half an hour, when, without stopping the drum, if desired, the goods may be fatliquored by running in the fatliquor through the hollow axle. The disadvantages are that the flesh is dyed and the goods cannot be seen. The advantages are that little labour is required, a large pack of skins may be treated, level shades are produced, heat is retained, almost complete exhaustion of the dye-bath is effected, and subsequent processes, such as fatliquoring, may be carried out without stopping the drum. Of the great number of £oal-tar dyes on the market comparatively few can be used in leather manufacture. The four chief classes are: (i) acid dyes; (2) basic or tannin dyes; (3) direct or cotton dyes; (4) mordant (alizarine) dyes. Acid dyes are not so termed because they have acid characteristics ; the name simply denotes that for the development of the full shade of colour it is necessary to add acid to the dye-bath. These dyes are generally sodium salts of sulphonic acids, and need the addition of an acid to free the dye, which is the sulphonic acid Although theoretically any acid (stronger than the sulphonic acid present) will do for this purpose, it is found in practice that only sulphuric and formic acids may be employed, because others, such as acetic, lactic, &c., do not develop the full shade of colour. Acid sodium sulphate may also be successfully used. 344 LEATHER Acid colours produce a full level shade without bronzing, and do not accentuate any defects in the leather, such as bad grain, &c. They are also moderately fast to light and rubbing. They are generally applied to leather at a temperature between 50° and 60° C., with an equal weight of sulphuric acid. The quantity of dye used varies, but generally, for goat, persians, &c., from 25 to 30 oz. are used per ten dozen skins, and for calf half as much again, dissolved in such an amount of water as is most convenient according to the method being used. If sodium bisulphate is substituted for) sulphuric acid twice as much must be used, and if formic acid three times as much (by weight). Basic dyes are salts of organic colour bases with hydrochloric or some other suitable acid. Basic colours precipitate the tannins, and thus, because of their affinity for them, dye very rapidly, tending to produce uneven shades, especially if the tannin on the skin is un- evenly distributed. They are much more intense in colour than the acid dyes, have a strong tendency to bronze, and accentuate weak and defective grain. They are also precipitated by hard waters, so that the hardness should be first neutralized by the addition of acetic acid, else the precipitated colour lake may produce streakily dyed leather. To prevent rapid dyeing, acetic acid or sodium bisulphate should always be added in small quantity to the dye-bath, preferably the latter, as it prevents bronzing. The most important point about the application of basic dyes to leather is the previous fixation of the tannin on the surface of the leather to prevent its bleeding into the dye-bath and precipitating the dye. All soluble salts of the heavy metals will fix the tannin, but few are applicable, as they form colour lakes, which are generally un- desirable. Antimony and titanium salts are generally used, the forms being tartar emetic (antimony potassium tartrate), antimonine (antimony lactate), potassium titanium oxalate, and titanium lactate. The titanium salts are economically used when dyeing browns, as they produce a yellowish-brown shade; it is therefore not necessary to use so much dye. About 2 oz. of tartar emetic and 8 oz. of salt is a convenient quantity for I dozen goat skins. The bath is used at 30° to 40" C., and the goods are immersed for about 15 minutes, having been thoroughly washed before being dyed. Iron salts are sometimes used by leather-stainers for saddening (dulling) the shade of colour produced, iron tannate, a black salt, being formed. It is often found economical to " bottom " goods with acid, direct, or other colours, and then finish with basic colours; this procedure forms a colour lake, and colour lakes are always faster to light and rubbing than the colours themselves. Direct cotton dyes produce shades of great delicacy, and are used for the dyeing of pale and " art " shades. They are applied in neutral or very slightly acid baths, formic and acetic acids being most suitable with the addition of a quantity of sodium chloride or sulphate. After dyeing, the goods are well washed to free from excess of salt. The cosine colours, including erythrosine, phloxine, rose Bengal, &c., are applied in a similar manner, and are specially used for the beautiful fluorescent pink shades they produce; acid and basic colours and mineral acids precipitate them. The mordant colours, which include the alizarine and anthracene colours, are extremely fast to light, and require a mordant to develop the colour. They are specially applicable to chamois leather, al- though a few may be used for chrome and alum leathers, and one or two are successfully applied to vegetable-tanned leather without a mordant. Sulphur or sulphide colours, the first of which to appear were the famous Vidal colours, are applied in sodium sulphide solution, and are most successfully used on chrome leather, as they produce a colour lake with chrome salts, the resulting colour being very fast to light and rubbing. A very serious disadvantage in connexion with them is that they must necessarily be applied in alkaline solution, and the alkali has a disintegrating effect upon the fibre of the leather, which cannot be satisfactorily overcome, although formaldehyde and glycerin mixtures have been patented for the purpose. The Janus colours are perhaps worth mentioning as possessing both acid and basic characteristics; they precipitate tannin, and are best regarded as basic dyes from a leather-dyer's standpoint. The goods after dyeing are washed up, slicked out on an inclined glass table, nailed on boards, or hung up by the hind shanks to dry out. Coal-tar dyes are not much used for the production of blacks, as they do not give such a satisfactory result as logwood with an iron mordant. In the dyeing of blacks the preliminary operation of souring is always omitted and that of sumaching sometimes, but if much tan has been removed it will be found necessary to use sumach, although cutch may be advantageously and cheaply substituted. After shaving, the goods, if to be dressed for " blue backs " (blue-coloured flesh), are dyed as already described, with methyl violet or some other suitable dye; they are then folded down the back and drawn through a hot solution of logwood and fustic extracts, and then rapidly through a weak, cold iron sulphate and copper acetate solution. Immediately afterwards they are rinsed up and either drummed in a little neatsfoot oil or oiled over with a pad, flesh and grain, and dried. When dry the goods are damped back and staked, dried out and re-staked. After dry-staking, the goods are " seasoned," i.e. some suitable mixture is applied to the grain to enable it to take the glaze. The following is typical: 3 quarts logwood liquor, j pint bullock's blood, £ pint milk, 3 gill ammonia, ^ gill orchil and 3 quarts water. This season is brushed well into the grain, and the goods are dried in a warm stove and glazed by machine. The skins are glazed under considerable pressure, a polished glass slab or roller being forced over the surface of the leather in a series of rapid strokes, after which the goods are re-seasoned, re-staked, fluffed, re-glazed, oiled over with a pad, dipped in linseed oil and dried. They are now ready for market. If the goods are to be finished dull they are seasoned with linseed mucilage, casein or milk (many other materials are also used), and rolled, glassed with a polished slab by hand, or ironed with a warm iron. Coloured glaces are finished in a similar manner to black glaces, dye (instead of logwood and iron) being added to the season, which usually consists of a simple mixture of dye, albumen and milk. Moroccos and grain leathers are boarded on the flesh side before and after glazing, often being " tooth rolled " between the several operations. Tooth rolling consists of forcing, under pressure, a toothed roller over the grain; this cuts into the leather and helps to produce many grains, which could not be produced naturally by boarding, besides fixing them. Many artificial grains and patterns are also given to leather by printing and embossing, these processes being carried out by passing the leather between two rollers, the top one upon which the pattern is engraved being generally steam heated. This impresses the pattern upon the grain of the leather. The above methods will give a very general idea of the processes in vogue for the dressing of goods for fancy work. The dressing of chrome leathers for uppers is different in important particulars. Chrome Box and Willow Calf. — Willow calf is coloured calf, box calf is dressed black and grained with a " box " grain. A large quantity of kips is now dressed as box calf; these goods are the hides of yearling Indian cattle, and are dressed in an exactly similar manner as calf. After tanning and boraxing to neutralize the acidity of the chrome liquor, the goods are washed up, sammied, shaved, and are ready for mordanting previous to dyeing. Very few dyes will dye chrome leather direct, i.e. without mordanting. Sulphide colours are not yet in great demand, nor are the alizarines used as much as they might be. The ordinary acid and basic dyes are more generally employed, and the goods consequently require to be first mordanted. The mordanting is carried out by drumming the goods in a solution containing tannin, and, except for pale shades, some dyewood extract is used; for reds peachwood extract, for browns fustic or gambier, and for dark browns a little logwood is added. For all pale shades sumach is exclusively used. After drumming in the warm tannin infusion for half an hour, if the goods are to be dyed with basic colours the tannin is first fixed by drumming in tartar emetic and salt, or titanium, as previously described; the dyeing is also carried out as described for persians, except that a slightly higher temperature may be maintained. If the goods are to be dyed black they are passed through logwood and iron solutions. After dyeing and washing up, &c., the goods are fatliquored by placing them in a previously heated drum and drumming them with a mixture known as a " fatliquor," of which the following recipe is typical: Dissolve 3 Ib of soft soap by boiling with 3 gallons of water, then add 9 Ib of neatsfoot oil and boil for some minutes; now place the mixture in an emulsifier and emulsify until cooled to 35° C., then add the yolks of 5 fresh eggs and emulsify fora further half hour. The fatliquor is added to the drum at 55° C., and the goods are drummed for half an hour, when all the fatliquor should be absorbed; they are then slicked out and dried. After drying, they are damped back, staked, dried, re-staked and seasoned with materials similar to those used for persians; when dry they are glazed, boarded on the flesh (" grained ") from neck to butt and belly to belly to give them the box grain, fluffed, reseasoned, reglazed and rcgrained. Finishing of Bag Hides.— The goods are first soaked back, piled to samm, split or shaved, scoured by machine, finished off by hand, washed up and retanned by drumming in warm sumach and ex- tract, after which they are washed up, struck out, hung up to samm, and " set." " Setting " consists of laying the grain flat and smooth by striking out with a steel or sharp brass slicker. They are then dried out, topped with linseed mucilage, and again dried. LEATHER— LEAVENWORTH 345 This brushing over with linseed mucilage prevents the dye from sinking too far into the leather; gelatine, Irish moss, starch and gums are also used for the same purpose. These materials are also added to the staining solution to thicken it and further prevent its sinking in. When dry, the goods are stained by applying a J% (usually) solution of a suitable basic dye, thickened with linseed, with a brush. Two men are usually employed on this work; one starts at the right-hand flank and the other at the left-hand shank, and they work towards each other, staining in sections; much skill is needed to obviate markings where the sections overlap. The goods may advantageously be bottomed with an acid dye or a dye-wood extract, and then finished with basic dyes. Whichever method is used, two to three coats are given, drying between each. After the last coat of stain, and while the goods are still in a sammied condition, a mixture of linseed mucilage and French chalk is applied to the flesh and glassed off wet, to give it a white appearance, and then the goods are printed with any of the usual bag grains by machine or hand, and dried out. For a bright finish the season may consist of a solution of 15 parts carnauba wax, 10 parts curd soap and 100 parts water boiled together; this is sponged into the grain, dried and the hides are finished by either glassing or brushing. For a duller finish the grain is simply rubbed over with buck tallow and brushed. Hide bellies for small work are treated in much the same manner. Glove Leathery. — As these goods were tanned in alum, salt, flour and egg, any undue immersion in water removes the tannage; for this reason they are generally stained like bag hides, one man only being employed on the same skin. The skins are first thoroughly soaked in warm water and then drummed for some minutes in a fresh supply, when they are re-egged to replace that which has been lost. This is best done by drumming them for about i| hours in 40 to 50 egg yolks and 5 Ib of salt for every hundred skins; they are then allowed to be in pile for 24 hours, and are set out on the table ready for mordanting. The mordants universally used are ammonia or alkaline soft soap; I in 1000 of the former or a I % solution of the latter. When the goods have partially dried in, bottoming follows, and usually the natural wood dyestuffs are used for this operation, such as fustic, Brazil wood, peachwood, logwood and turmeric. After application of these colours the goods are sammied and topped with a I % solution of an acid dye, to which has been added 20% of methylated spirit to prevent frothing with the egg yolk; they are then dried out slowly, staked, pulled in shape, fluffed and brushed by machine. The season, which is sponged on, may consist of I part dye, I part albumen, 2 parts dextrine and j part glycerine, made up to 100 parts with water; when it has been applied, the goods are sammied, brushed and ironed with a warm flat iron such as is used in laundry work. Bookbinding Leathers. — A committee of the Society of Arts (London) has investigated the question of leather for bookbinding, attention having been drawn to this subject by the rotten and decayed condition often observed in bindings less than fifty years old. This committee engaged in research work extending over several years, and the report in which its results were given was edited for the Society of Arts and the Leathersellers' Company (which also did much important work in connexion with it) by Lord Cobham, chairman of the committee, and Sir Henry Trueman Wood, secretary of the society. The essence of the report, so far as leather manufacture is concerned, is as follows: The goods should be soaked and limed in fresh liquors, and bating and puering should be avoided, weak organic acids or erodine being used ; they should also be tanned with pyrogallol tanning materials, and preferably with sumach. In shaving, they should only be necked and backed, i.e. only irregularities should be removed, as further shaving has a considerable weakening effect on the fibre. The striking out should not be heavy enough to lay the fibre. In dyeing, acid dyes and a few direct colours only are permissible, and in connexion with the former the use of sulphuric acid is strongly condemned, as it ab- solutely disintegrates the fibre; the use of formic, acetic and lactic acids is permitted. The use of salts of mineral acids is to be avoided, and in finishing, tight setting out and damp glazing is not to be recommended ; oil may be advantageously used. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — H. G. Bennett, The Manufacture of Leather (1909); S. R. Trotman, Leather Trades Chemistry (1908); M. C. Lamb, Leather Dressing (1907); A. Watt, Leather Manufacture (1906); H. R. Procter, Principles of Leather Manufacture (1903), and LealJier Industries Laboratory Book (1908); L. A. Flemming, Practical Tanning (1910); A. M. Villon, Practical Treatise on the Leather Industry^ (1901); C. T. Davis, Manufacture of Leather (1897). German works include J. Borgman, Die Rotlederfabrikation (Berlin, 1904-1905), and Feinlederfabrikation (1901); J. Jettmar, Handbuch der Chromgerbung (Leipzig, 1900); J. von Schroeder, Gerberei- chemie (Berlin, 1898). (J. G. P.*) LEATHER, ARTIFICIAL. Under the name of artificial leather, or of American leather cloth, large quantities of a material having, more or less, a leather-like surface are used, principally for upholstery purposes, such as the covering of chairs, lining the tops of writing desks and tables, &c. There is considerable diversity in the preparation of such materials. A common variety consists of a web of calico coated with boiled linseed oil mixed with dryers and lamp-black or other pigment. Several coats of this mixture are uniformly spread, smoothed and compressed on the cotton surface by passing it between metal rollers, and when the surface is required to possess a glossy enamel-like appearance, it receives a finishing coat of copal varnish. A grained morocco surface is given to the material by passing it between suitably embossed rollers. Preparations of this kind have a close affinity to cloth waterproofed with indiarubber, and to such manufactures as ordinary waxcloth. An artificial leather which has been patented and proposed for use as soles for boots, &c., is composed of powdered scraps and cuttings of leather mixed with solution of guttapercha dried and compressed. In place of the guttapercha solution, oxidized linseed oil or dissolved resin may be used as the binding medium for the leather powder. LEATHERHEAD, an urban district in the Epsom parliamentary division of Surrey, England, 18 m. S.S.W. of London, on the London, Brighton & South Coast and the London & South- western railways. Pop. (1901) 4694. It lies at the foot of the North Downs in the pleasant valley of the river Mole. The church of St Mary and St Nicholas dates from the i4th century. St John's Foundation School, opened in London in 1852, is devoted to the education of sons of poor clergymen. Leatherhead has brick-making and brewing industries, and the district is largely residential. LEATHES, STANLEY (1830-1900), English divine and Orientalist, was born at Ellesborough, Bucks, on the 2ist of March 1830, and was educated at Jesus College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1852, M.A. 1853. In 1853 he was the first Tyrwhitt's Hebrew scholar. He was ordained priest in 1 85 7, and after serving several curacies was appointed professor of Hebrew at King's College, London, in 1863. In 1868-1870 he was Boyle lecturer (The Witness of the Old Testament to Christ), in 1873 Hulsean lecturer (The Gospel its Own Witness), in 1874 Bampton Lecturer (The Religion of the Christ) and from 1876 to 1880 Warburtonian lecturer. He was a member of the Old Testament revision committee from 1870 to 1885. In 1876 he was elected prebendary of St Paul's Cathedral, and he was rector of Cliffe-at-Hoo near Gravesend (1880-1889) and of Much Hadham, Hertfordshire (1880-1900). The university of Edin- burgh gave him the honorary degree of D.D. in 1878, and his own college made him an honorary fellow in 1885. Besides the lectures noted he published Studies in Genesis (1880), The Foundations of Morality (1882) and some volumes of sermons. He died in May 1900. His son, Stanley Mordaunt Leathes (b. 1861), became a fellow of Trinity, Cambridge, and lecturer on history, and was one of the editors of the Cambridge Modern History; he was secretary to the Civil Service Commission from 1903 to 1907, when he was appointed a Civil Service Commissioner. LEAVEN (in Mid. Eng. levain, adapted from Fr. levain, in same sense, from Lat. levamen, which is only found in the sense of alleviation, comfort, levare, to lift up), a substance which produces fermentation, particularly in the making of bread, properly a portion of already fermented dough added to other dough for this purpose (see BREAD). The word is used figura- tively of any element, influence or agency which effects a subtle or secret change. These figurative usages are mainly due to the comparison of the kingdom of Heaven to leaven in Matt. xiii. 33, and to the warning against the leaven of the Pharisees in Matt. xvi. 6. In the first example the word is used of a good nfluence, but the more usual significance is that of an evil agency. There was among the Hebrews an association of the idea of fermentation and corruption, which may have been one source of the prohibition of the use of leavened bread in sacrificial offerings. For the usage of unleavened bread at the feasts of the Passover and of Mass&th, and the connexion of the two, see PASSOVER. LEAVENWORTH, a city and the county-seat of Leavenworth county, Kansas, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Missouri river. 346 LEBANON Pop. (1900) 20,735, of whom 3402 were foreign-born and 2925 were negroes; (1910 census) 19,363. It is one of the most important railway centres west of the Missouri river, being served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago, Bur- lington & Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Chicago Great Western, the Missouri Pacific, the Union Pacific and the Leavenworth & Topeka railways. The city is laid out regularly in the bottom-lands of the river, and its streets are named after Indian tribes. Rolling hills surround it on three sides. The city has many handsome public buildings, and contains the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, Leavenworth being the see of a Roman Catholic bishop. The public institutions include the Kansas State Protective Home (1889) for negroes, an Old Ladies' Rest (1892), St Vincent's Orphans' Asylum (1886, open to all sects) and a Guardian Angels' Home (1889), for negroes — all private charities aided by the state; also St John's Hospital (1879), Gushing Hospital (1893) and Leavenworth Hospital (1900), which are training schools for nurses. There is also a branch of the National Home for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers. In the suburbs there are state and United States penitentiaries. Leavenworth is a trading centre and has various manufactures, the most important being foundry and machine shop and flouring and grist-mill products, and furniture. The city's factory products increased in value from $3,251,460 in 1900 to $4,151,767 in 1905, or 27-7%. There are valuable coal mines in Leavenworth and the immediate vicinity. About 3 m. N. of the city, on a reservation of about 6000 acres, is Fort Leavenworth, an important United States military post, associated with which are a National Cemetery and Service Schools of the U.S. Army (founded in 1881 as the U.S. Infantry and Cavalry School and in 1901 developed into a General Service and Staff College). In 1907 there were three general divisions of these schools: the Army School of the Line, for officers (not below the grade of captain) of the regular army and for militia officers recommended by the governors of their respective states or territories, offering courses in military art, engineering, law and languages; the Army Signal School, also open to regular and militia officers, and having departments of field signalling, signal engineering, topography and languages; and the Army Staff College, in which the students are the highest graduates from the Army School of the Line, and the courses of instruction are included in the departments of military art, engineering, law, languages and care of troops. The course is one year in each school. At Fort Leavenworth there is a colossal bronze statue of General U. S. Grant erected in 1889. A military prison was established at Fort Leavenworth in 1875; it was used as a civil prison from 1895 to 1906, when it was re-established as a military prison. Its inmates were formerly taught various trades, but owing to the opposition of labour organizations this system was discontinued, and the prisoners are now employed in work on the military reservation. The fort, from which the city took its name, was built in 1827, in the Indian country, by Colonel Henry Leavenworth (1783-1834) of the 3rd Infantry, for the protection of traders plying between the Missouri river and Sante F6. The town site was claimed by Missourians from Weston in June 1854, Leavenworth thus being the oldest permanent settlement in Kansas; and during the contest in Kansas between the anti-slavery and pro-slavery settlers, it was known as a pro-slavery town. It was first incorporated by the Territorial legislature in 1855; a new charter was obtained in 1881 ; and in 1908 the city adopted the commission plan of government. On the 3rd of April 1858 a free-state convention adopted the Leaven- worth Constitution here; this constitution, which was as radically anti-slavery as the Lecompton Constitution was pro-slavery, was nominally approved by popular vote in May 1858, and was later submitted to Congress, but never came into effect. During the Civil War Leavenworth enjoyed great prosperity, at the expense of more inland towns, partly owing to the proximity of the fort, which gave it immunity from border raids from Missouri and was an important depflt of supplies and a place for mustering troops into and out of the service. Leavenworth was, in Territorial days and until after 1880, the largest and most thriving commercial city of the state, and rivalled Kansas City, Missouri, which, however, finally got the better of it in the struggle for railway facilities. LEBANON (from Semitic laban, " to be white," or " whitish," probably referring not to snow, but to the bare white walls of chalk or limestone which form the characteristic feature of the whole range), in its widest sense is the central mountain mass of Syria, extending for about 100 m. from N.N.E. to S.S.W. It is bounded W. by the sea, N. by the plain Jun Akkar, beyond which rise the mountains of the Ansarieh, and E. by the inland plateau of Syria, mainly steppe-land. To the south Lebanon ends about the point where the river Litany bends westward, and at Banias. A valley narrowing towards its southern end, and now called the Buka'a, divides the mountainous mass into two great parts. That lying to the west is still called Jebel Libnan; the greater part of the eastern mass now bears the name of the Eastern Mountain (Jebel el-Sharki). In Greek the western range was called Libanos, the eastern Antilibanos. The southern extension of the latter, Mount Hermon (q.v.), may in many respects be treated as a separate mountain. Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon have many features in common ; in both the southern portion is less arid and barren than the northern, the western valleys better wooded and more fertile than the eastern. In general the main elevations of the two ranges form pairs lying opposite one another; the forms of both ranges are monotonous, but the colouring is splendid, especially when viewed from a distance; when seen close at hand only a few valleys with perennial streams offer pictures of landscape beauty, their rich green contrasting pleasantly with the bare brown and yellow mountain sides. The finest scenery is found in N. Lebanon, in the Maronite districts of Kesrawan and Bsherreh, where the gorges are veritable canyons, and the villages are often very picturesquely situated. The south of the chain is more open and undulating. Anti-Lebanon is the barest and most inhospitable part of the system. The district west of Lebanon, averaging about 2O m. in breadth, slopes in an intricate series of plateaus and terraces to the Medi- terranean. The coast is for the most part abrupt and rocky, often leaving room for only a narrow path along the shore, and when viewed from the sea it does not suggest the extent of country lying between its cliffs and the lofty summits behind. Most of the moun- tain spurs run from east to west, but in northern Lebanon the pre- vailing direction of the valleys is north-westerly, and in the south some ridges run parallel with the principal chain. The valleys have for the most part been deeply excavated by mountain streams; the apparently inaccessible heights are crowned by numerous villages, castles or cloisters embosomed among trees. The chief perennial streams, beginning from the north, are the Nahr Akkar, N. Arka, N. el-Barid, N. Kadisha, " the holy river " (the valley of which begins in the immediate neighbourhood of the highest summits, and rapidly descends in a series of great bends till the river reaches the sea at Tripoli), Wadi el-Joz (falling into the sea at Batrun), Wadi Fidar, Nahr Ibrahim (the ancient Adonis, having its source in a recess of the great mountain amphitheatre where the famous sanctuary Apheca, the modern Afka, lay), Nahr el-Kelb (the ancient Lycus), Nahr Beirut (the ancient Magoras, entering the sea at Beirut), Nahr Damur (ancient Tamyras), Nahr el-'Auwali (the ancient Bostrenus, which in the upper part of its course is joined by the Nahr el-Baruk). The 'Auwali and the Nahr el-Zaherani, the only other considerable streams before we reach the Litany, flow north- east to south-west, in consequence of the interposition of a ridge subordinate and parallel to the central chain. On the north, where the mountain bears the special name of Jebel Akkar, the main ridge of. Lebanon rises gradually from the plain. A number of valleys run to the north and north-east, among them that of the Nahr el-Kebir, the Eleutherus of the ancients, which rises in the Jebel el-Abiag" on the eastern slope of Lebanon, and afterwards, skirting the district, flows westward to the sea. South of Jebel el-Abiad, beneath the main ridge, which as a rule falls away suddenly towards the east, occur several small elevated terraces having a southward slope; among these are the Wadi en-Nusur (" vale of eagles "), and the basin of the lake Yammuna, with its intermittent spring Neb 'a el-Arba'in. Of the streams which descend into the Buka'a, the Berdani rises in Jebel Sunnin, and enters the plain by a deep and picturesque moun- tain cleft at Zaljleh. The most elevated summits occur in the north, but even these are of very gentle gradient. The " Cedar block " consists of a double line of four and three summits respectively, ranged from north to south, with a deviation of about 35°. Those to the east are 'Uyun Urghush, Makmal, Muskiyya (or Naba' esh-Shemaila) and Ras Zahr el-Kazib; fronting the sea are Karn Sauda or Timarun, Fumm el-Mizab and Zahr el-Kandil. The height of Zahr el-Kazib, by barometric measurement, is 10,018 ft.; that of the others does not reach 10,000 ft. South from them is the pass (8351 ft.) which leads from Baalbek to Tripoli; the great mountain amphitheatre on the west side of its summit is remarkable. Farther south is a second group of lofty summits — the snow-capped Sunnin. visible LEBANON 347 from Beirut; its height is 8482 ft. Between this group and the more southerly Jebel Keniseh (about 6700 ft.) lies the pass (4700 ft.) traversed by the French post road between Beirut and Damascus. Among the Dare summits still farther south are the long ridge of Jebel el-Baruk (about 7000 ft.), the Jebel Niha, with the Tau'amat Niha (about 6100 ft.) near which is a pass to Sidon, and the Jebel Rihan (about 5400 ft.). The Buka'a the broad valley which separates Lebanon from Anti-Lebanon is watered by two rivers having their watershed near Baalbek, at an elevation of about 3600 ft., and separated only by a short mile at their sources. That flowing northwards, El-'Asi, is the ancient Orontes (.) ; the other is the Litany. In the lower part of its course the lacter has scooped out a deep and narrow rocky bed; at Burghuz it is spanned by a great natural bridge. Not far from the point where it suddenly trends to the west lie, immediately above the romantic valley, at an elevation of 1500 ft., the imposing ruins of the old castle Kal'at esh-Shakif, near one of the passes to Sidon. In its lower part the Litany bears the name of Nahr el- Kasimiya. Neither the Orontes nor the Litany has any important affluent. -The Buka'a used to be known as Coelesyria (Strabo. xvi. 2, 21); but that word as employed by the ancients had a much more ex- tensive application. At present its full name is Buka'a el-'Aziz (the dear Buka'a), and its northern portion is known as Sahlet Ba'albek (the plain of Baalbek). The valley is from 4 to 6 m. broad, with an undulating surface. The Anti-Lebanon chain has been less fully explored than that of Lebanon. Apart from its southern offshoots it is 67 m. long, while its width varies from 16 to 13! m. It rises from the plain of Hasya-Homs, and in its northern portion is very arid. The range has not so many offshoots as occur on the west side of Lebanon; under its precipitous slopes stretch table-lands and broad plateaus, which, especially on the east side looking towards the steppe, steadily increase in width. Along the western side of northern Anti-Lebanon stretches the Khasha'a, a rough red region lined with juniper trees, a succession of the hardest limestone crests and ridges, bristling with bare rock and crag that shelter tufts of vegetation, and are divided by a succession of grassy ravines. On the eastern side the parallel valley of 'Asal el-Ward deserves special mention; the descent towards the plain eastwards, as seen for example at Ma'lula, is singular — first a spacious amphitheatre and then two deep very narrow gorges. Few perennial streams take their rise in Anti-Lebanon; one of the finest and best watered valleys is that of Helbun, the ancient Chalybon, the Helbon of Ezek. xxvii. 18. The highest points of the range, reckoning from the north, are Halimat el-Kabu (8257 ft.), which has a splendid view; the Fatli block, including Tal'at Musa (8721 ft.) and the adjoining Jebel Nebi Baruh (7900 ft.) ; and a third group near Bludan, in which the most promi- nent names are Shakif, Akhyar and Abu'1-Hin (8330 ft.). Of the valleys descending westward the first to claim mention is the Wadi Yafufa; a little farther south, lying north and south, is the rich upland valley of Zebedani, where the Barada has its highest sources. Pursuing an easterly course, this stream receives the waters of the romantic 'Ain Fije (which doubles its volume), and bursts out by a rocky gateway upon the plain of Damascus, in the irrigation of which it is the chief agent. It is the Abana of 2 Kings v. 12; the portion of Anti-Lebanon traversed by it was also called by the same name (Canticles iv. 8). From the point where the southerly continuation of Anti-Lebanon begins to take a more westerly direction, a low ridge shoots out towards the south-west, trending farther and farther away from the eastern chain and narrowing the Buka'a; upon the eastern side of this ridge lies the elevated valley or hilly stretch known as Wadi et-Teim. In the north, beside 'Ain Faluj, it is connected by a low watershed with the Buka'a; from the gorge of the Litany it is separated by the ridge of Jebel ed-Dahr. At its southern end it contracts and merges into the plain of Banias, thus enclosing Mount Hermon on its north-west and west sides; eastward from the Hasbany branch of the Jprdan lies the meadow-land Merj 'lyun, the ancient Ijon (i Kings xv. 20). Vegetation. — The western slope of Lebanon has the common characteristics of the flora of the Mediterranean coast, but the Anti-Lebanon belongs to the poorer region of the steppes, and the Mediterranean species are met with only sporadically along the water-courses. Forest and pasture land do not properly exist: the place of the first is for the most part taken by a low brushwood ; grass is not plentiful, and the higher ridges maintain alpine plants only so long as patches of snow continue to lie. The rock walls harbour some rock plants, but many absolutely barren wildernesses of stone occur. (l) On the western slope, to a height of 1600 ft., is the coast region, similar to that of Syria in general and of the south of Asia Minor. Characteristic trees are the locust tree and the stone pine; in Melia Azedarach and Ficus Sycomorus (Beirut) is an admixture of foreign and partially subtropical elements. The great mass of the vegetation, however, is of the low-growing type (maquis or garrigue of the western Mediterranean), with small and stiff leaves, and frequently thorny and aromatic, as for example the ilex (Quercus coccifera), Smilax, Cistus, Lentiscus, Calycotome, &c. (2) Next comes, from 1600 to 6500 ft., .the mountain region, which may also be called the forest region, still exhibiting sparse woods and isolated trees wherever shelter, moisture and the inhabitants have permitted their growth. From 1600 to 3200 ft. is a zone of dwarf hard-leaved oaks, amongst which occur the Oriental forms Fontanesia phillyraeoides, Acer syriacum and the beautiful red- stemmed Arbutus Andrachne. Higher up, between 3700 and 4200 ft., a tall pine, Pinus Brutia, is characteristic. Between 4200 and 6200 ft. is the region of the two most interesting forest trees of Lebanon, the cypress and the cedar. The former still grows thickly, especially in the valley of the Kadisha; the horizontal is the prevailing variety. In the upper Kadisha valley there is a cedar grove of about three hundred trees, amongst which five are of gigantic size. (See also CEDAR.) The cypress and cedar zone exhibits a variety of other leaf -bearing and coniferous trees; of the first may be mentioned several oaks — Quercus subalpina (Kotschy), Q. Cerris and the hop-hornbeam (Ostrya) ; of the second class the rare Cilician silver fir (Abies_ cilicica) may be noticed. Next come the junipers, sometimes attaining the size of trees (Juniperus excelsa, J. rufescens and, with fruit as large as plums, J. drupacea). But the chief orna- ment of Lebanon is the Rhododendron ponticum, with its brilliant purple flower clusters; a peculiar evergreen, Vinca libanotica, also adds beauty to this zone. (3) Into the alpine region (6200 to 10,400 ft.) penetrate a few very stunted oaks (Quercus subalpina), the junipers already mentioned and a barberry (Berberis cretica), which sometimes spreads into close thickets. Then follow the low, dense, prone, pillow-like dwarf bushes, thorny and grey, common to the Oriental highlands — Astragalus and the peculiar Acantholimon. They are found to within 300 ft. of the highest summits. Upon the exposed mountain slopes a species of rhubarb (Rheum Ribes) is noticeable, and also a vetch ( Vicia canescens) excellent for sheep. The spring vegetation, which lasts until July, appears to be rich, especially as regards showy plants, such as Corydalis, Gagea, Colchicum, Puschkinia, Geranium, Ornithogalum , &c. The flora of the highest ridges, along the edges of the snow patches, exhibits no forms related to the northern alpine flora, but suggestions of it are found in a Draba, an Androsace, an Alsine and a violet, occurring, however, only in local species. Upon the highest summits are found Saponaria Pumilio (resembling our Silene acaulis) and varieties of Galium, Euphorbia, Astragalus, Veronica, Jurinea, Festuca, Scrophularia, Geranium, Asphodeline, Allium, Asperula; and, on the margins of the snow fields, a Taraxacum and Ranunculus demissus. The alpine flora of Lebanon thus connects itself directly with the Oriental flora of lower altitudes, and is unrelated to the glacial flora of Europe and northern Asia. Zoology. — There is nothing of special interest about the fauna of Lebanon. Bears are no longer numerous; the panther and the ounce are met with; the wild hog, hyaena, wolf and fox are by no means rare ; jackals and gazelles are very common. The polecat and hedgehog also occur. As a rule there are not many birds, but the eagle and the vulture may occasionally be seen; of eatable kinds partridges and wild pigeons are the most abundant. Population. — In the following sections the Lebanon proper will alone be considered, without reference to Anti-Lebanon, because the peculiar political status of the former range since 1864 has effectually differentiated it; whereas the Anti-Lebanon still forms an integral part of the Ottoman province of Syria (q.v.), and neither its population nor its history is readily dis- tinguishable from those of the surrounding districts. The total population in the Lebanon proper is about 400,000, and is increasing faster than the development of the province will admit. There is consequently much emigration, the Christian surplus going mainly to Egypt, and to America, the Druses to the latter country and to the Hauran. The emigrants to America, however, usually return after making money, build new houses and settle down. The singularly complex population is com- posed of Christians, Maronites, and Orthodox Eastern and Uniate; of Moslems, both Sunni and Shiah (Metawali); and of Druses. (a) Maronites (q.v.} form about three-fifths of the whole and have the north of the Mountain almost to themselves, while even in the south, the old Druse stronghold, they are now numerous. Feudalism is practically extinct among them and with the decline of the Druses, and the great stake they have acquired in agriculture, they have laid aside much of their warlike habL together with their arms. Even their instinct of nationality is being sensibly impaired by their gradual assimilation to the Papal Church, whose agents exercise from Beirut an increasing influence on their ecclesiastical elections and church government. They are strong also in the Buka'a, and have colonies in most of the Syrian cities. (b) Orthodox Eastern form a little more than one-eighth of the whole, and are strongest in S. Lebanon (Metn and Kurah districts). Syrians by race and Arab-speaking, they are descendants of those " Melkites " who took the side of the Byzantine church in the time of Justinian II. against the Moslems and eventually the Maronites. They are among the most progressive of the Lebanon elements. (c) Greek Uniate are less numerous, forming little more than 348 LEBANON one-twelfth, but are equally progressive. Their headquarters is Zahleh; but they are found also in strength in Metn and Jezzin, where they help to counterbalance Druses. They sympathize with the Maronites against the Orthodox Eastern, and, like both, are of Syrian race, and Arab speech. (d) Sunnite Moslems are a weak element, strongest in Shuf and Kurah, and composed largely of Druse renegades and " Druse " families, which, like the Shehab, were of Arab extraction and never conformed to the creed of Hamza. (e) Shiite Moslems outnumber the Sunni, and make about one twenty-fifth of the whole. They are called Metawali and are strongest in North Lebanon (Kesrawan and Batrun), but found also in the south, in Buka'a and in the coast-towns from Beirut to Acre. They are said to be descendants of Persian tribes; but the fact is very doubtful, and they may be at least as aboriginal as the Maronites, and a remnant of an old Incarnationist population which did not accept Christianity, and kept its heretical Islam free from those influences which modified Druse creed. They own a chief sheikh, resident at Jeba'a, and have the reputation, like most heretical communities in the Sunni part of the Moslem world, of being ex- ceedingly fanatical and inhospitable. It is undoubtedly the case that they are suspicious of strangers and defiant of interference. Another small body of Shiites, the Ismailites (Assassins (q.v.) of the crusading chronicles), also said to be of Persian origin, live about Kadmus at the extreme N. of Lebanon, but outside the limits of the privileged province. They are about 9000 strong. m Druses (q.v.), now barely an eighth of the whole and confined to Shuf and Metn in S. Lebanon, are tending to emigrate or conform to Sunni Islam. Since the establishment of the privileged province they have lost the Ottoman support which used to compensate for their numerical inferiority as compared with the Christians; and they are fast losing also their old habits and distinctiveness. No longer armed or wearing their former singular dress, the remnant of them in Lebanon seems likely ere long to be assimilated to the " Osmanli " Moslems. Their feud with the Maronites, whose accentuation in the middle of the igth century was largely due to the tergiversations of the ruling Shehab family, now reduced to low estate, is dying away, but they retain something of their old clan feeling and feudal organization, especially in Shut. The mixed population, as a whole, displays the usual charac- teristics of mountaineers, fine physique and vigorous independent spirit; but its ancient truculence has given way before strong government action since the middle igth century, and the great increase of agricultural pursuits, to which the purely pastoral are now quite secondary. The culture of the mulberry and silk, of tobacco, of the olive and vine, of many kinds of fruits and cereals, has expanded enormously, and the Lebanon is now probably the most productive region in Asiatic Turkey in proportion to its area. It exports largely through Beirut and Saida, using both the French railway which crosses S. Lebanon on its way to Damascus, and the excellent roads and mule-paths made since 1883. Lebanon has thick deposits of lignite coal, but of inferior quality owing to the presence of iron pyrites. The abundant iron is little worked. Manufactures are of small account, the raw material going mostly to the coast; but olive-oil is made, together with various wines, of which the most famous is the vino d'oro, a sweet liqueur-like beverage. This wine is not exported in any quantity, as it will not bear a voyage well and is not made to keep. Bee-keeping is general, and there is an export of eggs to Egypt. History. — The inhabitants of Lebanon have at no time played a conspicuous part in history. There are remains of prehistoric occupation, but we do not even know what races dwelt there in the historical period of antiquity. Probably they belonged chiefly to the Aramaean group of nationalities; the Bible mentions Hivites (Judges iii. 3) and Giblites (Joshua xiii. 5). Lebanon was included within the ideal boundaries of the land of Israel, and the whole region was well known to the Hebrews, by whose poets its many excellences are often praised. How far the Phoenicians had any effective control over it is unknown; the absence of their monuments does not argue much real jurisdiction . Nor apparently did the Greek Seleucid kingdom have much to do with the Mountain. In the Roman period the district of Phoenice extended to Lebanon. In the 2nd century, with the inland districts, it constituted a subdivision of the province of Syria, having Emesa (Horns) for its capital. From the time of Diocletian there was a Phoenice ad Libanum, with Emesa as capital, as well as a Phoenice Marilima of which Tyre was the chief city. Remains of the Roman period occus through- out Lebanon. By the 6th century it was evidently virtually independent again; its Christianization had begun with the immigration of Monothelite sectaries, flying from persecution in the Antioch district and Orontes valley. At all times Lebanon has been a place of refuge for unpopular creeds. Large part of the mountaineers took up Monothelism and initiated the national distinction of the Maronites, which begins to emerge in the history of the 7th century. The sectaries, after helping Justinian II. against the caliph Abdalmalik, turned on the emperor and his Orthodox allies, and were named Mardaites (rebels). Islam now began to penetrate S. Lebanon, chiefly by the immigration of various more or less heretical elements, Kurd, Turkoman, Persian and especially Arab, the latter largely after the break-up of the kingdom of Hira; and early in the nth century these coalesced into a nationality (see DRUSES) under the congenial influence of the Incarnationist creed brought from Cairo by Ismael Darazi and other emissaries of the caliph Hakim and his vizier Hamza. The subsequent history of Lebanon to the middle of the igth century will be found under DRUSES and MARONITES, and it need only be stated here that Latin influence began to be felt in N. Lebanon during the Frank period of Antioch and Palestine, the Maronites being inclined to take the part of the crusading princes against the Druses and Moslems; but they were still regarded as heretic Monothelites by Abulfaragius (Bar-Hebraeus) at the end of the 1 3 th century; nor is their effectual reconciliation to Rome much older than 1736, the date of the mission sent by the pope Clement XII., which fixed the actual status of their church. An informal French protection had, however, been exercised over them for some time previously, and with it began the feud of Maronites and Druses, the latter incited and spasmodically supported by Ottoman pashas. The feudal organization of both, the one under the house of Khazin, the other under those of Maan and Shehab successively, was in full force during the 1 7th and i8th centuries; and it was the break-up of this in the first part of the ipth century which produced the anarchy that culminated after 1840 in the civil war. The Druses renounced their Shehab amirs when Beshir al-Kassim openly joined the Maronites in 1841, and the Maronites definitely revolted from the Khazin in 1858. The events of 1860 led to the formation of the privileged Lebanon province, finally constituted in 1864. It should be added, however, that among the Druses of Shuf, feudalism has tended to re-establish itself, and the power is now divided between the Jumblat and Yezbeki families, a leading member of one of which is almost always Ottoman kaimakam of the Druses, and locally called amir. The Lebanon has now been constituted a sanjak or mutessariflik, dependent directly on the Porte, which acts in this case in consulta- tion with the six great powers. This province extends about 93 m. from N. to S. (from the boundary of the sanjak of Tripoli to that of the caza of Saida), and has a mean breadth of about 28 m. from one foot of the chain to the other, beginning at the edge of the littoral plain behind Beirut and ending at the W. edge of the Buka'a : but the boundaries are ill-defined, especially on the E. where the original line drawn along the crest of the ridge has not been adhered to, and the mountaineers have encroached on the Buka'a. The Lebanon is under a military governor (m«ifct>)who must bea Christian in the service of the sultan, approved by the powers, and has, so far, been chosen from the Roman Catholics owing to the great preponderance of Latin Christians in the province. He resides at Deir al-Kamar, an old seat of the Druse amirs. At first appointed for three years, then for ten, his term has been fixed since 1892 at five years, the longer term having aroused the fear of the Porte, lest a personal domination should become established. Under the fovernor are seven kaimakams, all Christians except a Druse in huf, and forty-seven mudirs, who all depend on the kaimakams except one in the home district of Deir al-Kamar. A central mejliss or Council of twelve members is composed of four Maronites, three Druses, one Turk, two Greeks (Orthodox), one Greek Uniate and one Metawali. This was the original proportion, and it has not been altered in spite of the decline of the Druses and increase of the Maronites. The members are elected by the seven cazas. In each mudirieh there is also a local mejliss. The. old feudal and mukataji (see DRUSES) jurisdictions are abolished, i.e. they often persist under Ottoman forms, and three courts of First Instance, under the mejliss, and superior to the petty courts of the mudirs and the village sheikhs, administer justice. Judges are appointed by the governor, but sheikhs by the villages. Commercial cases, and litigation in which strangers are concerned, are carried to Beirut. The police is recruited locally, and no regular troops appear in the LEBANON— LEBEL 349 province except on special requisition. The taxes are collected directly, and must meet the needs of the province, before any sum is remitted to the Imperial Treasury. The latter has to make deficits good. Ecclesiastical jurisdiction is exercised only over the clergy, and all rights of asylum are abolished. This constitution has worked well on the whole, the only serious hitches having been due to the tendency of governors-general and kaimakams to attempt to supersede the mejliss by autocratic action, and to impair the freedom of elections. The attention of the porte was called to these tendencies in 1892 and again in 1902, on the appointments of new governors. Since the last date there has been no complaint. Nothing now remains of the former French pre- dominance in the Lebanon, except a certain influence exerted by the fact that the railway is French, and by the precedence in ecclesi- astical functions still accorded by the Maronites to official repre- sentatives of France. In the Lebanon, as in N. Albania, the tradi- tional claim of France to protect Roman Catholics in the Ottoman Empire has been greatly impaired by the non-religious character of the Republic. Like Italy, she is now regarded by Eastern Catholics with distrust as an enemy of the Holy Father. See DRUSES. Also V. Cuinet, Syrie, Liban et Palestine (1896); N. Verney and G. Dambmann, Puissances etrangeres en Syrie, &c. (1900) ; G. Young, Corps de droit ottoman, vol. i. (1905) ; G. E. Post, Flora of Syria, &c. (1896); M. von Oppenheim, Vom Mittel- meer, &c. (1899). (A. So. ; D. G. H.) LEBANON, a city of Saint Clair county, Illinois, U.S.A., on Silver Creek, about 24 m. E. of Saint Louis, Missouri. Pop. (1910) 1907. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio South-Western railroad and by the East Saint Louis & Suburban Electric line. It is situated on a high tableland. Lebanon is the seat of McKendree College, founded by Methodists in 1828 and one of the oldest colleges in the Mississippi valley. It was called Lebanon Seminary until 1830, when the present name was adopted in honour of William McKendree (1757-1835), known as the " Father of Western Methodism," a great preacher, and a bishop of the Methodist Church in 1808-1835, who had en- dowed the college with 480 acres of land. In 1835 the college was chartered as the " McKendreean College," but in 1839 the present name was again adopted. There are coal mines and excellent farming lands in the vicinity of Lebanon. Among the city's manufactures are flour, planing-mill products, malt liquors, soda and farming implements. The municipality owns and operates its electric-lighting plant. Lebanon was chartered as a city in 1874. LEBANON, a city and the county-seat of Lebanon county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., in the fertile Lebanon Valley, about 25 m. E. by N. of Harrisburg. Pop. (1900) 17,628, of whom 618 were foreign-born, (1910 census) 19,240. It is served by the Philadelphia & Reading, the Cornwall and the Cornwall & Lebanon railways. About 5 m. S. of the city are the Cornwall (magnetite) iron mines, from which about 18,000,000 tons of iron ore were taken between 1740 and 1902, and 804,848 tons in 1906. The ore yields about 46% of iron, and contains about 2-5% of sulphur, the roasting of the ores being necessary — ore-roasting kilns are more extensively used here than in any other place in the country. The area of ore exposed is about 4000 ft. long and 400 to 800 ft. wide, and includes three hills; it has been one of the most productive magnetite deposits in the world. Limestone, brownstone and brick-clay also abound in the vicinity; and besides mines and quarries, the city has extensive manufactories of iron, steel, chains, and nuts and bolts. In 1905 its factory products were valued at $6,978,458. The municipality owns and operates its water-works. The first settlement in the locality was made about J73O, and twenty years later a town was laid out by one of the landowners, George Steitz, and named Steitztown in his honour. About 1760 the town became known as Lebanon, and under this name it was incorporated as a borough in 1821 and chartered as a city in 1885. LE BARGY, CHARLES GUSTAVE AUGUSTE (1858- ), French actor, was born at La Chapelle (Seine). His talent both as a comedian and a serious actor was soon made evident, and he became a member of the Comedie Francaise, his chief successes being in such plays as Le Duel, L'£nigme, Le Marquis de Priola, L'Autre Danger and Le Dedale. His wife, Simone le Bargy nee Benda, an accomplished actress, made her debut at the Gymnase in 1902, and in later years had a great success in La Rafale and other plays. In 1910 he had differences with the authorities of the Comedie Francaise and ceased to be a societaire. LE BEAU, CHARLES (1701-1778), French historical writer, was born at Paris on the i5th of October 1701, and was educated at the College de Sainte-Barbe and the College du Plessis; at the latter he remained as a teacher until he obtained the chair of rhetoric in the College des Grassins. In 1 748 he was admitted a member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and in 1752 he was nominated professor of eloquence in the College de France. From 1755 he held the office of perpetual secretary to the Academy of Inscriptions, in which capacity he edited fifteen volumes (from the 25th to the 39th inclusive) of the Histoire of that institution. He died at Paris on the i3th of March 1778. The only work with which the name of Le Beau continues to be associated is his Histoire du Bas-Empire, en commenfant d Constanlin le Grand, in 22 vols. I2mo (Paris, 1756-1779), being a continuation of C. Rollin's Histoire Romaine and J. B. L. Crevier's Histoire des empereurs. Its usefulness arises entirely from the fact of its being a faithful resumfi of the Byzantine historians, for Le Beau had no originality or artistic power of his own. Five volumes were added by H. P. Ameilhon (1781-1811), which brought the work down to the fall of Constantinople. A later edition, under the care of M. de Saint-Martin and afterwards of Brosset, has had the benefit of careful revision throughout, and has received considerable additions from Oriental sources. See his " Eloge " in vol. xlii. of the Histoire de I'Academie des Inscriptions (1786), pp. 190-207. LEBEAU, JOSEPH (1794-1865), Belgian statesman, was born at Huy on the 3rd of January 1794. He received his early education from an uncle who was parish priest of Hannut, and became a clerk. By dint of economy he raised money to study law at Liege, and was called to the bar in 1819. At Liege he formed a fast friendship with Charles Rogier and Paul Devaux, in conjunction with whom he founded at Liege in 1824 the Mathieu Laensbergh, afterwards Le politique, a journal which helped to unite the Catholic party with the Liberals in their opposition to the ministry, without manifesting any open disaffection to the Dutch government. Lebeau had not con- templated the separation of Holland and Belgium, but his hand was forced by the revolution. He was sent by his native district to the National Congress, and became minister of foreign affairs in March 1831 during the interim regency of Surlet de Chokier. By proposing the election of Leopold of Saxe-Coburg as king of the Belgians he secured a benevolent attitude on the part of Great Britain , but the restoration to Holland of part of the duchies of Limburg and Luxemburg provoked a heated opposition to the treaty of London, and Lebeau was accused of treachery to Belgian interests. He resigned the direction of foreign affairs on the accession of King Leopold, but in the next year became minister of justice. He was elected deputy for Brussels in 1833, and retained his seat until 1848. Differences with the king led to his retirement in 1834. He was subsequently governor of the province of Namur (1838), ambassador to the Frankfort diet (1839), and in 1840 he formed a short-lived Liberal ministry. From this time he held no office of state, though he continued his energetic support of liberal and anti-clerical measures. He died at Huy on the igth of March 1865. Lebeau published La Belgigue depuis 1847 (Brussels, 4 vols., 1852), Lettres aux electeurs beiges (8 vols., Brussels, 1853-1856). His Souvenirs personnels et correspondance diplomatique 1824-1841 (Brussels, 1883) were edited by A. Prison. See an article by A. Freson in the Biographie nationale de Belgigue; and T. Juste, Joseph Lebeau (Brussels, 1865). LEBEL, JEAN (d. 1370), Belgian chronicler, was born near the end of the I3th century. His father, Gilles le Beal des Changes, was an alderman of Liege. Jean entered the church and became a canon of the cathedral church, but he and his brother Henri followed Jean de Beaumont to England in 1327, and took part in the border warfare against the Scots. His will is dated 1369, and his epitaph gives the date of his death as 1370. Nothing more is known of his life, but Jacques de Hemricourt, author of the Miroir des nobles de Hesbaye, has left a eulogy of his character, and a description of the magnificence of his attire, his retinue and his hospitality. Hemricourt asserts that he was eighty years old or more when he died. For a long time Jean Lebel (or le Bel) was only known as a chronicler through a reference by Froissart, who quotes him in the prologue of his first book as one of his authorities. A fragment of his work, 35° LEBER— LE BLANC in the MS. of Jean d'Outremeuse's Mireur des istores, was dis- covered in 1847; and the whole of his chronicle, preserved in the library of Chalons-sur-Marne, was edited in 1863 by L. Polain. Jean Lebel gives as his reason for writing a desire to replace a certain misleading rhymed chronicle of the wars of Edward III. by a true relation of his enterprises down to the beginning of the Hundred Years' War. In the matter of style Lebel has been placed by some critics on the level of Froissart. His chief merit is his refusal to narrate events unless either he himself or his informant had witnessed them. This scrupulous- ness in the acceptance of evidence must be set against his limita- tions. He takes on the whole a similar point of view to Froissart 's ; he has no concern with national movements or politics; and, writing for the public of chivalry, he preserves no general notion of a campaign, which resolves itself in his narrative into a series of exploits on the part of his heroes. Froissart was considerably indebted to him, and seems to have borrowed from him some of his best-known episodes, such as the death of Robert the Bruce, Edward III. and the countess of Salisbury, and the devotion of the burghers of Calais. The songs and virelais, in the art of writing which he was, according to Hemricourt, an expert, have not come to light. See L. Polain, Les Vraies Chrpniques de messire Jehanle Bel (1863) ; Kervyn de Lettenhove, Bulletin de la societk d 'emulation de Bruges, series ii. vols. vii. and ix. ; and H. Pirenne in Biographic nationale de Belgique. LEBER, JEAN MICHEL CONSTANT (1780-1859), French historian and bibliophile, was born at Orleans on the 8th of May 1780. His first work was a poem on Joan of Arc (1804); but he wrote at the same time a Grammaire general synthetique, which attracted the attention of J. M. de Gerando, then secretary-general to the ministry of the interior. The latter found him a minor post in his department, which left him leisure for his historical work. He even took him to Italy when Napoleon was trying to organize, after French models, the Roman states which he had taken from the pope in 1809. Leber however did not stay there long, for he considered the attacks on the temporal property of the Holy See to be sacrilegious. On his return to Paris he resumed his administrative work, literary recreations and historical researches. While spending a part of his time writing vaudevilles and comic operas, he began to collect old essays and rare pamphlets by old French historians. His office was preserved to him by the Restoration, and Leber put his literary gifts at the service of the government. When the question of the coronation of Louis XVIII. arose, he wrote, as an answer to Volney, a minute treatise on the Ceremonies du sacre, which was published at the time of the coronation of Charles X. To- wards the end of Villele's ministry, when there was a movement of public opinion in favour of extending municipal liberties, he undertook the defence of the threatened system of centraliza- tion, and composed, in answer to Raynouard, an Histoire critique du pouvoir municipal depuis I'origine de la monarchic jusqu'a nos jours (1828). He also wrote a treatise entitled De I'etat reel de la presse el des pamphlets depuis Francois I" jusqu'a Louis XIV (1834), in which he refuted an empty paradox of Charles Nodier, who had tried to prove that the press had never been, and could never be, so free as under the Grand Monarch. A few years later, Leber retired (1839), and sold to the library of Rouen the rich collection of books which he had amassed during thirty years of research. The catalogue he made himself (4 vols., 1839 to 1852). In 1840 he read at the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres two dissertations, an " Essai sur 1'appreciation de la fortune privee au moyen age," followed by an " Examen critique des tables de prix du marc d'argent depuis 1'epoque de Saint Louis "; these essays were included by the Academy in its Recueil de memoires pr£senles par divers savants (vol. i., 1844), and were also revised and published by Leber (1847). They form his most considerable work, and assure him a position of eminence in the economic history of France. He also rendered good service to historians by the publication of his Collection des meilleures dissertations, notices el traitis relatifs d I'histoire de France (20 vols., 1826-1840); in the absence of an index, since Leber did not give one, an analytical table of contents is to be found in Alfred Franklin's Sources de I'histoire jde France (1876, pp. 342 sqq.). In consequence of the revolution of 1848, Leber decided to leave Paris. He retired to his native town, and spent his last years in collecting old engravings. He died at Orleans on the 22nd of December 1859. In 1832 he had been elected as a member of the Societe des Anti- quaires de France, and in the Bulletin of this society (vol. i., 1860) is to be found the most correct and detailed account of his life's works. LEBEUF, JEAN (1687-1760), French historian, was born on the 7th of March 1687 at Auxerre, where his father, a councillor in the parlement, was receveur des consignations. He began his studies in his native town, and continued them in Paris at the College Ste Barbe. He soon became known as one of the most cultivated minds of his time. He made himself master of practically every branch of medieval learning, and had a thorough knowledge of the sources and the bibliography of his subject. His learning was not drawn from books only; he was also an archaeologist, and frequently went on expeditions in France, always on foot, in the course of which he examined the monuments of architecture and sculpture, as well as the libraries, and collected a number of notes and sketches. He was in correspondence with all the most learned men of the day. His correspondence with President Bouhier was published in 1885 by Ernest Petit; his other letters have been edited by the Societe des sciences historiques et naturelles de I'Yonne (2 vols., 1866-1867). He also wrote numerous articles, and, after his election as a member of the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles- Lettres (1740), a number of Memoires which appeared in the Recueil of this society. He died at Paris on the loth of April 1760. His most important researches had Paris as their subject. He published first a collection of Dissertations sur I'histoire civile et ecclesiastique de Paris (3 vols., 1739-1743), then an Histoire de la mile et de tout le diocese de Paris (15 vols., 1745—1760), which is a mine of information, mostly taken from the original sources. In view of the advance made by scholarship in the igth century, it was found necessary to publish a second edition. The work of reprinting it was undertaken by H. Cocheris, but was interrupted (1863) before the completion of vol. iv. Adrien Augier resumed the work, giving Lebeuf's text, though correcting the numerous typographical errors of the original edition (5 vols., 1883), and added a sixth volume con- taining an analytical table of contents. Finally, Fernand Bournon completed the work by a volume of Rectifications et additions (1890), worthy to appear side by side with the original work. The bibliography of Lebeuf's writings is, partly, in various numbers of the Bibliotheque des ecrivains de Bourgogne (1716-1741). His biography is given by Lebeau in the Histoire de I'Academie royale des Inscriptions (xxix., 372, published 1764), and by H. Cocheris, in the preface to his edition. LE BLANC, NICOLAS (1742-1806), French chemist, was born at Issoudun, Indre, in 1742. He made medicine his profes- sion and in 1780 became surgeon to the duke of Orleans, but he also paid much attention to chemistry. About 1787 he was attracted to the urgent problem of manufacturing carbonate of soda from ordinary sea-salt. The suggestion made in 1789 by Jean Claude de la Metherie (1743-1817), the editor of the Journal de physique, that this might be done by calcining with charcoal the sulphate of soda formed from salt by the action of oil of vitriol, did not succeed in practice because the product was almost entirely sulphide of soda, but it gave Le Blanc, as he himself acknowledged, a basis upon which to work. He soon made the crucial discovery — which proved the foundation of the huge inrtustry of artificial alkali manufacture — that the desired end was to be attained by adding a proportion of chalk to the mixture of charcoal and sulphate of soda. Having had the soundness of this method tested by Jean Darcet (1725-1801), the professor of chemistry at the College de France, the duke of Orleans in June 1791 agreed to furnish a sum of 200,000 francs for the purpose of exploiting it. In the following September Le Blanc was granted a patent for fifteen years, and shortly afterwards a factory was started at Saint-Denis, near Paris. But it had not long been in operation when the Revolution led to the confiscation of the duke's property, including the factory, and about the same time the Committee of Public Safety called upon all citizens who possessed soda-factories to disclose their situation and capacity and the nature of the methods employed. Le Blanc LE BLANC— LE BRUN had no choice but to reveal the secrets of his process, and he had the misfortune to see his factory dismantled and his stocks of raw and finished materials sold. By way of compensation for the loss of his rights, the works were handed back to him in 1800, but all his efforts to obtain money enough to restore them and resume manufacturing on a profitable scale were vain, and, worn out with disappointment, he died by his own hand at Saint-Denis on the i6th of January 1806. Four years after his death, Michel Jean Jacques Dize (1764-1852), who had been preparateur to Darcet at the time he examined the process and who was subsequently associated with Le Blanc in its exploitation, published in the Journal de physique a paper claiming that it was he himself who had first suggested the addition of chalk; but a committee of the French Academy, which reported fully on the question in 1856, came to the conclusion that the merit was entirely Le Blanc's (Com. rend., 1856, p. 553). LE BLANC, a town of central France, capital of an arrondisse- ment, in the department of Indre, 44 m. W.S.W. of Chateauroux on the Orleans railway between Argenton and Poitiers. Pop. (1906) 4719. The Creuse divides it into a lower and an upper town. The church of St Genitour dates from the 1 2th, i3th and 1 5th centuries, and there is an old castle restored in modern times. It is the seat of a subprefect, and has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college. Wool-spinning, and the manufacture of linen goods and edge-tools are among the industries. There is trade in horses and in the agricultural and other products of the surrounding region. Le Blanc, which is identified with the Roman Oblincum, was in the middle ages a lordship belonging to the house of Naillac and a frontier fortress of the province of Berry. LEBCEUF, EDMOND (1809-1888), marshal of France, was born at Paris on the sth of November 1809, passed through the Ecole Polytechnique and the school of Metz, and distinguished himself as an artillery officer in Algerian warfare, becoming colonel in 1852. He commanded the artillery of the ist French corps at the siege of Sebastopol, and was promoted in 1854 to the rank of general of brigade, and in 1857 to that of general of division. In the Italian War of 1859 he commanded the artillery, and by his action at Solferino materially assisted in achieving the victory. In September 1866, having in the meantime become aide-de-camp to Napoleon III., he was despatched to Venetia to hand over that province to Victor Emmanuel. In 1869, on the death of Marshal Niel, General Lebceuf became minister of war, and earned public approbation by his vigorous reorganization of the War Office and the civil departments of the service. In the spring of 1870 he received the marshal's baton. On the declaration of war with Germany Marshal Lebceuf delivered himself in the Corps Legislatif of the historic saying, " So ready are we, that if the war lasts two years, 'not a gaiter button would be found wanting." It may be that he intended this to mean that, given time, the reorganization of the War Office would be perfected through experience, but the result inevitably caused it to be regarded as a mere boast, though it is now known that the administrative confusion on the frontier in July 1870 was far less serious than was supposed at the time. Lebceuf took part in the Lorraine campaign, at first as chief of staff (major-general) of the Army of the Rhine, and afterwards, when Bazaine became commander-in-chief, as chief of the III. corps, which he led in the battles around Metz. He distinguished himself, whenever engaged, by personal bravery and good leadership. Shut up with Bazaine in Metz, on its fall he was confined as a prisoner in Germany. On the conclusion of peace he returned to France and gavs evidence before the commission of inquiry into the surrender of that stronghold, when he strongly denounced Bazaine. After this he retired into private life to the Chateau du Moncel near Argentan, where he died on the 7th of June 1888. LE BON, JOSEPH (1765-1795), French politician, was born at Arras on the 2gth of September 1765. He became a priest in the order of the Oratory, and professor of rhetoric at Beaune. He adopted revolutionary ideas, and became a cure of the Constitutional Church in the department of Pas-de-Calais, where he was later elected a.s a. depute suppleanl to the Convention. He became maire of Arras and administraleur of Pas-de-Calais, and on the 2nd of July 1793 took his seat in the Convention. He was sent as a representative on missions into the departments of the Somme and Pas-de-Calais, where he showed great severity in dealing with offences against revolutionaries (Sth Brumaire, year II. to 22nd Messidor, year II.; i.e. 29th October 1793 to loth July 1794). In consequence, during the reaction which followed the 9th Thermidor (27th July 1794) he was arrested on the 22nd Messidor, year III. (loth July 1795). He was tried before the criminal tribunal of the Somme, condemned to death for abuse of his power during his mission, and executed at Amiens on the 24th Vendemiaire in the year IV. (loth October 1795). Whatever Le Bon's offences, his condemnation was to a great extent due to the violent attacks of one of his political enemies, Armand Guffroy; and it is only just to remember that it was owing to his courage that Cambrai was saved from falling into the hands of the Austrians. His son, £mile le Bon, published a Histoire de Joseph le Bon et des tribunaux revolutionna-ires A' Arras et de Cambrai (2nd ed., 2 vols., Arras, 1864). LEBRIJA, or LEBRIXA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Seville, near the left bank of the Guadalquivir, and on the eastern edge of the marshes known as Las Marismas. Pop. (1900) 10,997. Lebrija is 44 m. S. by W. of Seville, on the Seville-Cadiz railway. Its chief buildings are a ruined Moorish castle and the parish church, an imposing structure in a variety of styles — Moorish, Gothic, Romanesque — dating from the i4th century to the i6th, and containing some early specimens of the carving of Alonso Cano (1601-1667). There are manufactures of bricks, tiles and earthenware, for which clay is found in the neighbourhood; and some trade in grain, wine and oil. Lebrija is the Nabrissa or Nebrissa, surnamed Veneria, of the Romans; by Silius Italicus (iii. 393), who connects it with the worship of Dionysus, the name is derived from the Greek veftpls (a " fawn-skin," associated with Dionysiac ritual). Nebrishah was a strong and populous place during the period of Moorish domination (from 711); it was taken by St Ferdinand in 1249, but again lost, and became finally subject to the Castilian crown only under Alphonso the Wise in 1264. It was the birthplace of Elio Antonio de Lebrija or Nebrija (1444-1522), better known as Nebrissensis, one of the most important leaders in the revival of learning in Spain, the tutor of Queen Isabella, and a colla- borator with Cardinal Jimenes in the preparation of the Com- plutensian Polyglot (see ALCALA DE HENARES). LE BRUN, CHARLES (1619-1690), French painter, was born at Paris on the 24th of February 1619, and attracted the notice of Chancellor Seguier, who placed him at the age of eleven in the studio of Vouet. At fifteen he received commissions from Cardinal Richelieu, in the execution of which he displayed an ability which obtained the generous commendations of Poussin, in whose company Le Brun started for Rome in 1642. In Rome he remained four years in the receipt of a pension due to the liberality of the chancellor. On his return to Paris Le Brun found numerous patrons, of whom Superintendent Fouquet was the most important. Employed at Vaux le Vicomte, Le Brun ingratiated himself with Mazarin, then secretly pitting Colbert against Fouquet. Colbert also promptly recognized Le Brun's powers of organization, and attached him to his interests. Together they founded the Academy of Painting and Sculpture (1648), and the Academy of France at Rome (1666), and gave a new development to the industrial arts. In 1660 they established the Gobelins, which at first was a great school for the manufacture, not of tapestries only, but of every class of furniture required in the royal palaces. Commanding the industrial arts through the Gobelins — of which he was director — and the whole artist world through the Academy — in which he successively held every post — Le Brun imprinted his own character on all that was produced in France during his lifetime, and gave a direction to the national tendencies which endured after his death. The nature of his emphatic and pompous talent was in harmony with the taste of the king, who, full of admiration at the decorations designed by Le Brun for his triumphal entry into Paris (1660), commissioned him to execute 352 LEBRUN, C. F.— LE CARON a series of subjects from the history of Alexander. The first of these, " Alexander and the Family of Darius," so delighted Louis XIV. that he at once ennobled Le Brun (December, 1662), who was also created first painter to his majesty with a pension of 12,000 livres, the same amount as he had yearly received in the service of the magnificent Fouquet. From this date all that was done in the royal palaces was directed by Le Brun. The works of the gallery of Apollo in the Louvre were interrupted in 1677 when he accompanied the king to Flanders (on his return from Lille he painted several compositions in the Chateau of St Germains), and finally — for they remained unfinished at his death — by the vast labours of Versailles, where he reserved for himself the Halls of War and Peace, the Ambassadors' Staircase, and the Great Gallery, other artists being forced to accept the position of his assistants. At the death of Colbert, Louvois, who succeeded him in the department of public works, showed no favour to Le Brun, and in spite of the king's con- tinued support he felt a bitter change in his position. This contributed to the illness which on the 22nd of February 1690 ended in his death in the Gobelins. Besides his gigantic labours at Versailles and the Louvre, the number of his works for religious corporations and private patrons is enormous. He modelled and engraved with much facility, and, in spite of the heaviness and poverty of drawing and colour, his extraordinary activity and the vigour of his conceptions justify his claim to fame. Nearly all his compositions have been reproduced by celebrated engravers. LEBRUN, CHARLES FRANC.OIS, due de Plaisance (1739- 1824), French statesman, was born at St-Sauveur-Lendelin (Manche) on the igth of March 1739, and in 1762 made his first appearance as a lawyer at Paris. Refilled the posts successively of censeur royale (1766) and of inspector general of the domains oi the crown (1768); he was also one of the chief advisers of the chancellor Maupeou, took part in his struggle against the parlements, and shared in his downfall in 1774 He then devoted himself to literature, translating Tasso's Gerusalemme liberata (1774), and the Iliad (1776). At the outset of the Revolution he foresaw its importance, and in the Voix du citoyen, which he published in 1789, predicted the course which events would take. In the Constituent Assembly, where he sat as deputy for Dourdan, he professed liberal views, and was the proposer of various financial laws. He then became president of the directory of Seine-et-Oise, and in 1795 was elected as a deputy to the Council of Ancients. After the coup d'etat of the i8th Brumaire in the year VIII. (gth November 1799), Lebrun was made third consul. In this capacity he took an active part in the reorganization of finance and of the administration of the departments of France. In 1804 he was appointed arch- treasurer of the empire, and in 1805-1806 as governor-general of Liguria effected its annexation to France. He opposed Napoleon's restoration of the noblesse, and in 1808 only re- luctantly accepted the title of due de Plaisance (Piacenza). He was next employed in organizing the departments which were formed in Holland, of which he was governor-general from 1811 to 1813. Although to a certain extent opposed to the despotism of the emperor, he was not in favour of his deposition, though he accepted the fait accompli of the Restoration in April 1814. Louis XVIII. made him a peer of France; but during the Hundred Days he accepted from Napoleon the post of Grand Master of the university. On the return of the Bourbons in 1815 he was consequently suspended from the House of Peers, but was recalled in 1819. He died at St Mesmes (Seine-et-Oise) on the i6th of June 1824. He had been made a member of the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres in 1803. See M. de Caumont la Force, L'A rchitresorier Lebrun (Paris, 1907) ; M. Marie du Mesnil, Memoire sur le prince Le Brun, due de Plaisance (Paris, 1828); Opinions, rapports et choix d'ecrits politiques de C. F. Lebrun (1829), edited, with a biographical notice, by his son Anne- Charles Lebrun. LEBRUN, PIERRE ANTOINE (1785-1873), French poet, was born in Paris on the 29th of November 1785. An Ode d la grande armee, mistaken at the time for the work of Ecouchard Lebrun, attracted Napoleon's attention, and secured for the author a pension of 1200 francs. Lebrun's plays, once famous, are now forgotten. They are: Ulysse (1814), Marie Stuart (1820), which obtained a great success, and Le Cid d'Andalousie (1825). Lebrun visited Greece in 1820, and on his return to Paris he published in 1822 an ode on the death of Napoleon which cost him his pension. In 1825 he was the guest of Sir Walter Scott at Abbotsford. The coronation of Charles X. in that year inspired the verses entitled La Vallee de Champrosay, which have, perhaps, done more to secure his fame than his more ambitious attempts. In i828appearedhismostimportantpoem, La Gre.ce, and in the same year he was elected to the Academy. The revolution of 1830 opened up for him a public career; in 1831 he was made director of the Imprimerie Royale, and sub- sequently filled with distinction other public offices, becoming senator in 1853. He died on the 27th of May 1873. See Sainte-Beuve, Portraits contemporains, vol. ii. LEBRUN, PONCE DENIS ECOUCHARD (1720-1807), French lyric poet, was born in Paris on the nth of August 1729, in the house of the prince de Conti, to whom his father was valet. Young Lebrun had among his schoolfellows a son of Louis Racine whose disciple he became. In 1755 he published an Ode sur les desastres de Lisbon. In 1759 he married Marie Anne de Surcourt, addressed in his Elegies as Fanny. To the early years of his marriage belongs his poem Nature. His wife suffered much from his violent temper, and when in 1774 she brought an action against him to obtain a separation, she was supported by Lebrun's own mother and sister. He had been secretaire des commandemenls to the prince de Conti, and on his patron's death was deprived of his occupation. He suffered a further misfortune in the loss of his capital by the bankruptcy of the prince de Guemene. To this period belongs a long poem, the Veillies des Muses, which remained unfinished, and his ode to Buffon, which ranks among his best works. Dependent on government pensions he changed his politics with the times. Calonne he compared to the great Sully, and Louis XVI. to Henry IV., but the Terror nevertheless found in him its official poet. He occupied rooms in the Louvre, and fulfilled his obliga- tions by shameless attacks on the unfortunate king and queen. His excellent ode on the Vengeur and the Ode nationale centre A ngleterre on the occasion of the projected invasion of England are in honour of the power of Napoleon. This " versatility " has so much injured Lebrun's reputation that it is difficult to appreciate his real merit. He had a genius for epigram, and the quatrains and dizaines directed against his many enemies have a verve generally lacking in his odes. The one directed against La Harpe is called by Sainte-Beuve the " queen of epigrams." La Harpe has said that the poet, called by his friends, perhaps with a spice of irony, Lebrun-Pindare, had written many fine strophes but not one good ode. The critic exposed mercilessly the obscurities and unlucky images which occur even in the ode to Buffon, and advised the author to imitate the simplicity and energy that adorned Buffon's prose. Lebrun died in Paris on the 3ist of August 1807. His works were published by his friend P. L. Ginguenfi in 1811. The best of them are included in Prosper Poitevin's " Petits poetes franfais," which forms part of the " Pantheon litteraire." LE CARON, HENRI (whose real name was THOMAS MILLER BEACH) (1841-1894), British secret service agent, was born at Colchester, on the 26th of September 1841. He was of an adventurous character, and when nineteen years old went to Paris, where he found employment in business connected with America. Infected with the excitement of the American Civil War, he crossed the Atlantic in 1861 and enlisted in the Northern army, taking the name of Henri Le Caron. In 1864 he married a young lady who had helped him to escape from some Confederate marauders; and by the end of the war he rose to be major. In 1865, through a companion in arms named O'Neill, he was brought into contact with Fenianism, and having learnt of the Fenian plot against Canada, he mentioned the designs when writing home to his father. Mr Beach told his local M.P., who in turn told the Home Secretary, and the latter asked Mr Beach to arrange for further information. Le Caron, inspired (as all the evidence shows) by genuinely patriotic feeling, from that LE GATEAU— LE CHAPELIER 353 time till 1889 acted for the British government as a paid military spy. He was a proficient in medicine, among other qualifica- tions for this post, and he remained for years on intimate terms with the most extreme men in the Fenian organization under ill its forms. His services enabled the British government to take measures which led to the fiasco of the Canadian invasion of 1870 and Kiel's surrender in 1871, and he supplied full details concerning the various Irish-American associations, in which he himself was a prominent member. He was in the secrets of the " new departure " in 1879-1881, and in the latter year had an interview with Parnell at the House of Commons, when the Irish leader spoke sympathetically of an armed revolution in Ireland. For twenty-five years he lived at Detroit and other places in America, paying occasional visits to Europe, and all the time carrying his life in his hand. The Parnell Commission of 1889 put an end to this. Le 'Caron was subpoenaed by The Times, and in the witness-box the whole story came out, all the efforts of Sir Charles Russell in cross-examination failing to shake his testimony, or to impair the impression of iron tenacity and absolute truthfulness which his bearing conveyed. His career, however, for good or evil, was at an end. He published the story of his life, Twenty-five Years in the Secret Service, and it had an immense circulation. But he had to be constantly guarded, his acquaintances were hampered from seeing him, and he was the victim of a painful disease, of which he died on the ist of April 1894. The report of the Parnell Commission is his monument. LE CATEAU, or CATEAU-CAMBRESIS, a town of northern France, in the department of Nord, on the Selle, 15 m. E.S.E. of Cambrai by road. Pop. (1906) 10,400. A church of the early 1 7th century and a town-hall in the Renaissance style are its chief buildings. Its institutions include a board of trade- arbitration and a communal college, and its most important industries are wool-spinning and weaving. Formed by the union of the two villages of Peronne and Vendelgies, under the pro- tection of a castle built by the bishop of Cambrai, Le Cateau became the seat of an abbey in the nth century. In the isth it was frequently taken and retaken, and in 1556 it was burned by the French, who in 1559 signed a celebrated treaty with Spain in the town. It was finally ceded to France by the peace of Nijmwegen in 1678. LECCE (anc. Lupiae), a town and archiepiscopal see of Apulia, Italy, capital of the province of Lecce, 24 m. S.E. of Brindisi by rail. Pop. (1906) 35,179. The town is remarkable for the number of buildings of the i7th century, in the rococo style, which it contains; among these are the cathedral of S. Oronzo, and the churches of S. Chiara, S. Croce, S. Domenico, &c., the Seminario, and the Prefettura (the latter contains a museum, with a collection of Greek vases, &c.). Buildings of an earlier period are not numerous, but the fine portal of the Romanesque church of SS. Nicola e Cataldo, built by Tancred in 1180, may be noted. Another old church is S. Maria di Cerrate, near the town. Lecce contains a large government tobacco factory, and is the centre of a fertile agricultural district. To the E. 7! m. is the small harbour of S. Cataldo, reached by electric tramway. Lecce is quite close to the site of the ancient Lupiae, equidistant (25 m.) from Brundusium and Hydruntum, remains of which are mentioned as existing up to the i sthcentury. A colony was founded there in Roman times, and Hadrian made a harbour — no doubt at S. Cataldo. Hardly a mile* west was Rudiae, the birthplace of the poet Ennius, spoken of by Silius Italicus as worthy of mention for that reason alone. Its site was marked by the now deserted village of Rugge. The name Lycea, or Lycia, begins to appear in the 6th century. The city was for some time held by counts of Norman blood, among whom the most noteworthy is Bohemond, son of Robert Guiscard. It afterwards passed to the Orsini. The rank of provincial capital was bestowed by Ferdinand of Aragon in acknowledgment of the fidelity of Lecce to his cause. (T. As.) See M. S. Briggs, In the Heel of Italy (1910). LECCO, a town of Lombardy, in the province of Como, 32 m. by rail N. by E. of Milan, and reached by steamer from Como, XVI. 12 673 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 10,352. It is situated near the southern extremity of the eastern branch of the Lake of Como, which is frequently distinguished as the Lake of Lecco. At Lecco begins the line (run by electricity) to Colico, whence there are branches to Chiavenna and Sondrio; and another line runs to Bergamo. To the south the Adda is crossed by a fine bridge originally constructed in 1335, and rebuilt in 1609 by Fuentes. Lecco, in spite of its antiquity, presents a modern appearance, almost the only old building being its castle, of which a part remains. Its schools are particularly good. Besides iron-works, there are copper-works, brass-foundries, olive-oil mills and a manufacture of wax candles; and silk-spinning, cotton-spinning and wood-carving. In the neighbourhood is the villa of Caleotto, . the residence of Alessandro Manzoni, who in his Promessi Sposi has left a full description of the district. A statue has been erected to him. In the nth century Lecco, previously the seat of a marquisate, was presented to the bishops of Como by Otto II.; but in the i2th century it passed to the archbishops of Milan, and in 1127 it assisted the Milanese in the destruction of Como. During the 1 3th century it was struggling for its existence with the metro- politan city; and its fate seemed to be sealed when the Visconti drove its inhabitants across the lake to Valmadrera, and forbade them to raise their town from its ashes. But in a few years the people returned; Azzone Visconti made Lecco a strong fortress, and in 1335 united it with the Milanese territory by a bridge across the Adda. During the isth and i6th centuries the citadel of Lecco was an object of endless contention. In 1 647 the town with its territory was made a countship. Morone, Charles V.'s Italian chancellor, was born in Lecco. See A. L. Apostolo, Lecco ed il suo territorio (Lecco, 1855). LECH (Licus), a river of Germany in the kingdom of Bavaria, 177 m. long, with a drainage basin of 2550 sq. m. It rises in the Vorarlberg Alps, at an altitude of 6120 ft. It winds out of the gloomy limestone mountains, flows in a north-north-easterly direction, and enters the plains at Fussen (2580 ft.), where it forms rapids and a fall, then pursues a northerly course past Augsburg, where it receives the Wertach, and joins the Danube from the right just below Donauworth (1330 ft.). It is not navigable, owing to its torrential character and the gravel beds which choke its channel. More than once great historic events have been decided upon its banks. On the Lechfeld, a stony waste some miles long, between the Lech and the Wertach, the emperor Otto I. defeated the Hungarians in August 955. Tilly, in attempting to defend the passage of the stream at Rain against the forces of Gustavus Adolphus, was fatally wounded, on the 5th of April 1632. The river was formerly the boundary between Bavaria and Swabia. LE CHAMBON, or LE CHAMBON-FEUGEROLLES, a town of east-central France in the department of Loire, 75 m. S.W. of St Etienne by rail, on the Ondaine, a tributary of the Loire. Pop. (1906) town, 7525; commune, 12,011. Coal is mined in the neighbourhood, and there are forges, steel works, manu- factures of tools and other iron goods, and silk mills. The feudal castle of Feugerolles on a hill to the south-east dates in part from the nth century. Between Le Chambon and St Etienne is La Ricamarie (pop. of town 5289) also of importance for its coal-mines. Many of the galleries of a number of these mines are on fire, probably from spontaneous combustion. According to popular tradition these fires date from the time of the Saracens; more authenti- cally from the i sth century. LE CHAPELIER, ISAAC RENfi GUY (1754-1794), French politician, was born at Rennes on the i2th of June 1754, his father being bdtonnier of the corporation of lawyers in that town. He entered his father's profession, and had some success as an orator. In 1789 he was elected as a deputy to the States General by the Tiers-Etat of the senechaussee of Rennes. He adopted advanced opinions, and was one of the founders of the Breton Club (see JACOBIN CLUB); his influence in the Constituent Assembly was considerable, and on the 3rd of August 1789 he was elected its president. Thus he presided over the Assembly 354- LECHLER— LE CLERC during the important period following the 4th of August; he took an active part in the debates, and was a leading member of the committee which drew up the new constitution; he further presented a report on the liberty of theatres and on literary copyright. He was also conspicuous as opposing Robes- pierre when he proposed that members of the Constituent Assembly should not be eligible for election to the proposed new Assembly. After the flight of the king to Varennes (aoth of June 1792), his opinions became more moderate, and on the zpth of September he brought forward a motion to restrict the action of the clubs. This, together with a visit which he paid to England in 1792 made him suspect, and he was denounced on his return for conspiring with foreign nations. He went into hiding, but was discovered in consequence of a pamphlet which he published to defend himself, arrested and condemned to death by the Revolutionary Tribunal. He was executed at Paris on the 2 2nd of April 1794. See A. Aulard, Les Oraieurs de la constituante (2nd ed., Paris, 1905) ; R. Kerviler, Recherches el notices sur les deputes de la Bretagne aux etats generaux (2 vols., Rennes, 1888-1889); P- J- Levot, Biographic bretonne (2 vols., 1853-1857). LECHLER, GOTTHARD VICTOR (1811-1888), German Lutheran theologian, was born on the i8th of April 1811 at Kloster Reichenbach in Wurttemberg. He studied at Tubingen under F. C. Baur, and became in 1858 pastor of the church of St Thomas, professor ordinarius of historical theology and superintendent of the Lutheran church of Leipzig. He died on the 26th of December 1888. A disciple of Neander, he belonged to the extreme right of the school of mediating theo- logians. He is important as the historian of early Christianity and of the pre-Reformation period. Although F. C. Baur was his teacher, he did not attach himself to the Tubingen school; in reply to the contention that there are traces of a sharp con- flict between two parties, Paulinists and Petrinists, he says that " we find variety coupled with agreement, and unity with differ- ence, between Paul and the earlier apostles; we recognize the one spirit in the many gifts." His Das apostolische und das nachapostolische Zeilalter (1851), which developed out of a prize essay (1849), passed through three editions in Germany (3rd ed., 1885), and was translated into English (2 vols., 1886). The work which in his own opinion was his greatest, Johann von Wiclif und die Vorgeschichle der Reformation (2 vols., 1873), appeared in English with the title John Wiclif and his English Precursors (1878, new ed., 1884). An earlier work, Geschichte des engl. Deismus (1841), is still regarded as a valuable con- tribution to the study of religious thought in England. Lechler's other works include Geschichte der Presbyterial- und Synodal-verfassung (1854), Urkundenfunde zur Geschichte des christl. Allertums (1886), and biographies of Thomas Bradwardine (1862) and Robert Grosseteste (1867). He wrote part of the commentary on the Acts of the Apostles in J. P. Lange's Bibelwerk. From 1882 he edited with F. W. Dibelius the Beitrage zur sdchsischen Kirchen- geschichte. Johannes Hus (1890) was published after his death. LECKY, WILLIAM EDWARD HARTPOLE (1838-1903), Irish historian and publicist, was born at Newtown Park, near Dublin, on the 26th of March 1838, being the eldest son of John Hartpole Lecky, whose family had for many generations been landowners in Ireland. He was educated at Kingstown, Armagh, and Cheltenham College, and at Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated B.A. in 1859 and M.A. in 1863, and where, with a view to becoming a clergyman in the Irish Protestant Church, he went through a course of divinity. In 1860 he published anonymously a small book entitled The Religious Tendencies of the Age, but on leaving college he abandoned his first intention and turned to historical work. In 1861 he pub- lished Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland, a brief sketch of the lives and work of Swift, Flood, Grattan and O'Connell, which gave decided promise of his later admirable work in the same field. This book, originally published anonymously, was repub- lished in 1871; and the essay on Swift, rewritten and amplified, appeared again in 1897 as an introduction to a new edition of Swift's works. Two learned surveys of certain aspects of history followed: A History of the Rise and Influence of Rationalism in Europe (2 vols., 1865), and A History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne (2 vols., 1869). Some criticism was aroused by these books, especially by the last named, with its opening dissertation on " the natural history of morals," but both have been generally accepted as acute and suggestive commentaries upon a wide range of facts. Lecky then devoted himself to the chief work of his life, A History of England during the Eighteenth Century, vols. i. and ii. of which appeared in 1878, and vols. vii. and viii. (completing the work) in 1890. His object was " to disengage from the great mass of facts those which relate to the permanent forces of the nation, or which indicate some of the more enduring features of national life," and in the carrying out of this task Lecky displays many of the qualities of a great historian. The work is distinguished by the lucidity of its style, but the fulness and extent of the authorities referred to, and, above all, by the judicial impartiality maintained by the author throughout. These qualities are perhaps most conspicuous and most valuable in the chapters which deal with the history of Ireland, and in the cabinet edition of 1892, in 12 vols. (frequently reprinted) this part of the work is separated from the rest, and occupies five volumes under the title of A History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century. A volume of Poems, published in 1891, was characterized by a certain frigidity and by occasional lapses into commonplace, objections which may also be fairly urged against much of Lecky's prose-writing. In 1896 he published two volumes entitled Democracy and Liberty, in which he considered, with special reference to Great Britain, France and America, some of the tendencies of modern democracies. The somewhat gloomy conclusions at which he arrived provoked much criticism both in Great Britain and America, which was renewed when he published in a new edition (1899) an elaborate and very depreciatory estimate of Gladstone, then recently dead. This work, though essentially different from the author's purely historical writings, has many of their merits, though it was inevitable that other minds should take a different view of the evidence. In The Map of Life (1900) he discussed in a popular style some of the ethical problems which arise in everyday life. In 1903 he published a revised and greatly enlarged edition of Leaders of Public Opinion in Ireland, in two volumes, from which the essay on Swift was omitted and that on O'Connell was expanded into a complete biography of the great advocate of repeal of the Union. Though always a keen sympathizer with the Irish people in their mis- fortunes and aspirations, and though he had criticized severely the methods by which the Act of Union was passed, Lecky, who grew up as a moderate Liberal, was from the first strenuously opposed to Gladstone's policy of Home Rule, and in 1895 he was returned to parliament as Unionist member for Dublin University. In 1897 he was made a privy councillor, and among the coronation honours in 1902 he was nominated an original member of the new Order of Merit. His university honours included the degree of LL.D. from Dublin, St Andrews and Glasgow, the degree of D.C.L. from Oxford and the degree of Litt.D. from Cambridge. In 1894 he was elected corresponding member of the Institute of France. He contributed occasionally to periodical literature, and two of his addresses, The Political Value of History (1892) and The Empire, its Value and its Growth (1893), were published. He died in London on the 22nd of October 1903. He married in 1871 Elizabeth, baroness de Dedem, daughter of baron de Dedem, a general in the Dutch service, but had no children. Mrs Lecky contributed to various reviews a number of articles, chiefly on historical and political subjects. A volume of Lecky's Historical and Political Essays was published posthumously (London, 1908). LE CLERC [CLERICUS], JEAN (1657-1736), French Protestant theologian, was born on the igth of March 1657 at Geneva, where his father, Stephen Le Clerc, was professor of Greek. The family originally belonged to the neighbourhood of Beauvais in France, and several of its members acquired some name in literature. Jean Le Clerc applied himself to the study of phil- osophy under J. R. Chouet (1642-1731) the Cartesian, and attended the theological lectures of P. Mestrezat, Franz Turretin and Louis Tronchin (1629-1705). In 1678-1679 he spent some LECOCQ— LE CONTE 355 time at Grenoble as tutor in a private family; on his return to Geneva he passed his examinations and received ordination. Soon afterwards he went to Saumur, where in 1679 were pub- lished Liberii de Sanclo Amore Epistolae Theologicae (Irenopoli: Typis Philalethianis), usually attributed to him; they deal with the doctrine of the Trinity, the hypostatic union of the two natures in Jesus Christ, original sin, and the like, in a manner sufficiently far removed from that of the conventional orthodoxy of the period. In 1682 he went to London, where he remained six months, preaching on alternate Sundays in the Walloon church and in the Savoy chapel. Passing to Amsterdam he was introduced to John Locke and to Philip v. Limborch, professor at the Remonstrant college; the acquaintance with Limborch soon ripened into a close friendship, which strengthened his preference for the Remonstrant- theology, already favourably known to him by the writings of his grand-uncle, Stephan Curcel- laeus (d. 1645) and by those of Simon Episcopius. A last attempt to live at Geneva, made at the request of relatives there, satisfied him that the theological atmosphere was uncongenial, and in 1684 he finally settled at Amsterdam, first as a moderately successful preacher, until ecclesiastical jealousy shut him out from that career, and afterwards as professor of philosophy, belles-lettres and Hebrew in the Remonstrant seminary. This appointment, which he owed to Limborch, he held from 1684, and in 1712 on the death of his friend he was called to occupy the chair of church history also. His suspected Socinianism was the cause, it is said, of his exclusion from the chair of dog- matic theology. Apart from his literary labours, Le Clerc's life at Amsterdam was uneventful. In 1691 he married a daughter of Gregorio Leti. From 1728 onward he was subject to repeated strokes of paralysis, and he died on the 8th of January 1736- A full catalogue of the publications of Le Clerc will be found, with biographical material, in E. and E. Haag's France Protestante (where seventy-three works are enumerated), or in J. G. de Chauffe- pie's Dictionnaire. Only the most important of these can be men- tioned here. In 1685 he published Sentimens de quelques theologiens de Hollands sur Vhistoire critique du Vieux Testament composee par le P. Richard Simon, in which, while pointing out what he believed to be the faults of that author, he undertook to make some positive contributions towards a right understanding of the Bible. Among these last may be noted his argument against the Mosaic author- ship of the Pentateuch, his views as to the manner in which the five books were composed, his opinions (singularly free for the time in which he lived) on the subject of inspiration in general, and particularly as to the inspiration of Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Canticles. Richard Simon's Reponse (1686) elicited from Le Clerc a Defense des sentimens in the same year, which was followed by a new Reponse (1687). In 1692 appeared his Logica sive Ars Ratiocinandi, and also Ontologia et Pneumatologia; these, with the Physica (1695), are incorporated with the Opera Philosophica, which have passed through several editions. In 1693 his series of Biblical commentaries began with that on Genesis; the series was not com- pleted until 1731. The portion relating to the New Testament books included the paraphrase and notes of Henry Hammond (1605-1660). Le Clerc's commentary had a great influence in breaking up traditional prejudices and showing the necessity for a more scientific inquiry into the origin and meaning of the biblical books. It was on all sides hotly attacked. His Ars Critica appeared in 1696, and, in continuation, Epistolae Criticae et Ecclesiasticae in 1700. Le Clerc's new edition of the Apostolic Fathers of Johann Cotelerius (1627-1686), published in 1698, marked an advance in the critical study of these documents. But the greatest literary influence of Le Clerc was probably that which he exercised over his contemporaries by means of the serials, or, if one may so call them, reviews, of which he was editor. These were the Bibliotheque •universelle et historique (Amsterdam, 25 vols. 12 mo., 1686-1693), begun with J. C. de la Croze; the Bibliotheque choisie (Amsterdam, 28 vols., 1703-1713); and the Bibliotheque ancienne et moderne, (29 vols., 1714-1726). See Le Clerc's Parrhasiana ou pensees sur des matieres de critique, d'histoire, de morale, et de politique: avec la defense de divers outrages de M. L. C. par Theodore Parrhase (Amsterdam, 1699) ; and Vita et opera ad annum MDCCXL, amid ejus opusculum, philosophicis Clerici operibus subjiciendum, also attributed to himself. The supplement to Hammond's notes was translated into English in 1699, Parrhasiana, or Thoughts on Several Subjects, in 1700, the Harmony of the Gospels in 1701, and Twelve Dissertations out of M, Le Clerc's Genesis in 1696. t LECOCQ, ALEXANDRE CHARLES (1832- ), French nusical composer, was born in Paris, on the 3rd of June 1832. * He was admitted into the Conservatoire in 1849, being already an accomplished pianist. He studied under Bazin, Halevy and Benoist, winning the first prize for harmony in 1850, and the second prize for fugue in 1852. He first gained notice by dividing with Bizet the first prize for an operetta in a competition in- stituted by Offenbach. His operetta, Le Docteur miracle, was performed at the Bouffes Parisiens in 1857. After that he wrote constantly for theatres, but produced nothing worthy of mention until Fleur de the (1868), which ran for more than a hundred nights. Les Cent merges (1872) was favourably received also, but all his previous successes were cast into the shade by La Fille de Madame Angot (Paris, 1873; London, 1873), which was performed for 400 nights consecutively, and has since gained and retained enormous popularity. After 1873 Lecocq produced a large number of comic operas, though he never equalled his early triumph in La Fille de Madame Angot. Among the best of his pieces are Girofle-Girofla (Paris and London, 1874); Les Pres Sainl-Gervais (Paris and London, 1874); La Petite Mariee (Paris, 1875; London, 1876, revived as The Scarlet Feather, 1897); Le Petit Due (Paris, 1878; London, as The Little Duke, 1878); La Petite Mademoiselle (Paris, 1879; London, 1880); Le Jour et la Nuit (Paris, 1881; London, as Manola, 1882); LeCceuret la main (Paris, 1882; London, as Incognita, 1893); La Princesse des Canaries (Paris, 1883; London, as Pepita, 1888). In 1899 a ballet by Lecocq, entitled Le Cygne, was staged at the Opera Comique, Paris; and in 1903 Yetta was produced at Brussels. LECOINTE-PUYRAVEAU, MICHEL MATHIEU (1764-1827), French politician, was born at Saint-Maixent (Deux-Sevres) on the I3th of December 1764. Deputy for his department to the Legislative Assembly in 1792, and to the Convention in the same year, he voted for " the death of the tyrant." His associa- tion with the Girondins nearly involved him in their fall, in spite of his vigorous republicanism. He took part in the revolu- tion of Thermidor, but protested against the establishment of the Directory, and continually pressed for severer measures against the emigres, and even their relations who had remained in France. He was secretary and then president of the Council of Five Hundred, and under the Consulate a member of the Tribunate. He took no part in public affairs under the Empire, but was lieutenant-general of police for south-east France during the Hundred Days. After Waterloo he took ship from Toulon, but the ship was driven back by a storm and he narrowly escaped massacre at Marseilles. After six weeks' imprisonment in the Chateau d'lf he returned to Paris, escaping, after the proscription of the regicides, to Brussels, where he died on the 1 5th of January 1827. LE CONTE, JOSEPH (1823-1901), American geologist, of Huguenot descent, was born in Liberty county, Georgia, on the 26th of February 1823. He was educated at FrankJin College, Georgia, where he graduated (1841); he afterwards studied medicine and received his degree at the New York College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1845. After practising for three or four years at Macon, Georgia, he entered Harvard, and studied natural history under L. Agassiz. An excursion made with Professors J. Hall and Agassiz to the Helderberg mountains of New York developed a keen interest in geology. After graduating at Harvard, Le Conte in 1851 accompanied Agassiz on an expedition to study the Florida reefs. On his return he became professor of natural science in Oglethorpe University, Georgia; and from 1852 to 1856 professor of natural history and geology in Franklin College. From 1857 to 1869 he was professor of chemistry and geology in South Carolina College, and he was then appointed professor of geology and natural history in the university of California, a post which he held until his death. He published a series of papers on monocular and binocular vision, and also on psychology. His chief contributions, how- ever, related to geology, and in all he wrote he was lucid and philosophical. He described the fissure-eruptions in western America, discoursed on earth-crust movements and their causes and on the great features of the earth's surface. As separate works he published Elements of Geology (1878, sth ed. 1889); Religion and Science (1874); and Evolution: its History, its 356 LECONTE DE LISLE— LECOUVREUR Evidences, and its Relation to Religious Thought (1888). He was president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1892, and of the Geological Society of America in 1896. He died in the Yosemite Valley, California, on the 6th of June 1901. See Obituary by J. J. Stevenson, Annals of New York Acad. of Sciences, vol. xiv. (1902), p. 150. LECONTE DE LISLE, CHARLES MARIE REN6 (1818-1894), French poet, was born in the island of Reunion on the 22nd of October 1818. His father, an army surgeon, who brought him up with great severity, sent him to travel in the East Indies with a view to preparing him for a commercial life. After this voyage he went to Rennes to complete his education, studying especially Greek, Italian and history. He returned once or twice to Reunion, but in 1846 settled definitely in Paris. His first volume, La Venus de Milo, attracted to him a number of friends many of whom were passionately devoted to classical literature. In 1873 ne was made assistant librarian at the Luxembourg; in 1886 he was elected to the Academy in succes- sion to Victor Hugo. His Poemes antiques appeared in 1852; Poemes et poesies in 1854; Le Chemin de la croix in 1859; the Poemes barbares, in their first form, in 1862; Les Erinnyes, a tragedy after the Greek model, in 1872; for which occasional music was provided by Jules Massenet; the Poemes tragiques in 1884; L'Apollonide, another classical tragedy, in 1888; and two posthumous volumes, Derniers poemes in 1899, and Premieres poesies et letlres intimes in 1902. In addition to his original work in verse, he published a series of admirable prose translations of Theocritus, Homer, Hesiod, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Horace. He died at Voisins, near Louveciennes (Seine-et-Oise), on the i8th of July 1894. In Leconte de Lisle the Parnassian movement seems to crystallize. His verse is clear, sonorous, dignified, deliberate in movement, classically correct in rhythm, full of exotic local colour, of savage names, of realistic rhetoric. It has its own kind of romance, in its " legend of the ages," so different from Hugo's, so much fuller of scholarship and the historic sense, yet with far less of human pity. Coldness cultivated as a kind of artistic distinction seems to turn all his poetry to marble, in spite of the fire at its heart. Most of Leconte de Lisle's poems are little chill epics, in which legend is fossilized. They have the lofty monotony of a single conception of life and of the universe. He sees the world as what Byron called it, " a glorious blunder," and desires only to stand a little apart from the throng, meditating scornfully. Hope, with him, becomes no more than this desperate certainty: — " Tu te tairas, 6 voix sinistre des vivants! " His only prayer is to Death, " divine Death," that it may gather its children to its breast: — " Affranchis-nou? du temps, du nombre et de 1'espace, Et rends-nous le repos que la vie a trouble!" The interval which is his he accepts with something of the defiance of his own Cain, refusing to fill it with the triviality of happiness, waiting even upon beauty with a certain inflexible austerity. He listens and watches, throughout the world, for echoes and glimpses of great tragic passions, languid with fire in the East, a tumultuous conflagration in the middle ages, a sombre darkness in the heroic ages of the North. The burning emptiness of the desert attracts him, the inexplicable melancholy of the dogs thai: bark at the moon; he would interpret the jaguar's dreams, the sleep of the condor. He sees nature with the same wrathful impatience as man, praising it for its destruc- tive energies, its haste to crush out human life before the stars fall into chaos, and the world with them, as one of the least of stars. He sings the " Dies Irae " exultingly; only seeming to desire an end of God as well as of man, universal nothingness. He conceives that he does well to be angry, and this anger is indeed the personal note of his pessimism; but it leaves him somewhat apart from the philosophical poets, too fierce for wisdom and not rapturous enough for poetry. (A. SY.) See J. Dornis, Leconte de Lisle intime (1895); F. Calmette, Un Demi siecle litteraire, Leconte de Lisle et ses amis (1902) ; Paul Bourget, I Nouveaux essais de psychologie contemporaine (1885); F. Brunetiere, L'Uvolution de la poesie lyrique en France au XIX' siecle (1894); Maurice Spronck, Les Artistes litteraires (1880); J. Lemaitre, Les Contemporains (and series, 1886) ; F. Brunetiere, Nouveaux essais sur la lilt, contemp. (1895). LE COQ, ROBERT (d. 1373), French bishop, was born at Montdidier, although he belonged to a bourgeois family of Orleans, where he first attended school before coming to Paris. In Paris he became advocate to the parlement (1347); then King John appointed him master of requests, and in 1351, a year during which he received many other honours, he became bishop of Laon. At the opening of 1354 he was sent with the cardinal of Boulogne, Pierre I., duke of Bourbon, and Jean VI., count of Vendome, to Mantes to treat with Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, who had caused the constable, Charles of Spain, to be assassinated, and from this time dates his connexion with this king. At the meeting of the estates which opened in Paris in October 1356 Le Coq played a leading role and was one of the most outspoken of the orators, especially when petitions were presented to the dauphin Charles, denouncing the bad government of the realm and demanding the banishment of the royal councillors. Soon, however, the credit of the estates having gone down, he withdrew to his diocese, but at the request of the bourgeois of Paris he speedily returned. The king of Navarre had succeeded in escaping from prison and had entered Paris, where his party was in the ascendant; and Robert le Coq became the most powerful person in his council. No one dared to contradict him, and he brought into it whom he pleased. He did not scruple to reveal to the king of Navarre secret delibera- tions, but his fortune soon turned. He ran great danger at the estates of Compiegne in May 1358, where his dismissal was demanded, and he had to flee to St Denis, where Charles the Bad and Etienne Marcel came to find him. After the death of Marcel, he tried, unsuccessfully, to deliver Laon, his episcopal town, to the king of Navarre, and he was excluded from the amnesty promised in the treaty of Calais (1360) by King John to the partisans of Charles the Bad. His temporalities had been seized, and he was obliged to flee from France. In 1363, thanks to the support of the king of Navarre, he was given the bishopric of Calahorra in the kingdom of Aragon, which he administered until his death in 1373. See L. C. Douet d'Arcq, " Acte d'accusation centre Robert le Coq, eveque de Laon " in Bibliotheque de I'Ecole des Charles, 1st series, t. it., pp. 350-387; and R. Delachenal, " La Bibliotheque d'un avocat du XIV" siecle, inventaire estimatif des livres de Robert le Coq," in Nouvelle revue historique de droitfran^ais et etr anger ( 1 887) , pp. 524-537. LECOUVREUR, ADRIENNE (1692-1730), French actress, was born on the sth of April 1692, at Damery, Marne, the daughter of a hatter, Robert Couvreur. She had an unhappy childhood in Paris. She showed a natural talent for declamation and was instructed by La Grand, societaire of the Comedie Francaise, and with his help she obtained a provincial engage- ment. It was not until 1717, after a long apprenticeship, that she made her Paris debut as Electre, in Cr^billon's tragedy of that name, and Angelique in Moliere's George Dandin. Her success was so great that she was immediately received into the Com6die Francaise, and for thirteen years she was the queen of tragedy there, attaining a popularity never before accorded an actress. She is said to have played no fewer than 1184 times in a hundred roles, of which she created twenty-two. She owed her success largely to her courage in abandoning the stilted style of elocution of her predecessors for a naturalness of delivery and a touching simplicity of pathos that delighted and moved her public. In Baron, who returned to the stage at the age of sixty-seven, she had an able and powerful coadjutor in changing the stage traditions of generations. The jealousy she aroused was partly due to her social successes, which were many, in spite of the notorious freedom of her manner of life. She was on visiting and dining terms with half the court, and her salon was frequented by Voltaire and all the other notables and men of letters. She was the mistress of Maurice de Saxe from 1721, and sold her plate and jewels to supply him with funds for his ill-starred adventures as duke of Courland. By him she had a daughter, her third, who was grandmother of LE CREUSOT— LECTISTERNIUM 357 the father of George Sand. Adrienne Lecouvreur died on the 2oth of March 1730. She was denied the last rites of the Church, and her remains were refused burial in consecrated ground. Voltaire, in a fine poem on her death, expressed his indignation at the barbarous treatment accorded to the woman whose " friend, admirer, lover " he was. Her life formed the subject of the well-known tragedy (1849), by Eugene Scribe and Ernest Legouve. LE CREUSOT, a town of east-central France in the department of Sa6ne-et-Loire, 55 m. S.W. of Dijon on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1006), town, 22,535; commune, 33,437. Situated at the foot of lofty hills in a district rich in coal and iron, it has the most extensive iron works in France. The coal bed of Le Creusot was discovered in the i3th century; but it was not till 1774 that the first workshops were founded there. The royal crystal works were transferred from Sevres to Le Creusot in 1787, but this industry came to an end in 1831. Meanwhile two or three enterprises for the manufacture of metal had ended in failure, and it was only in 1836 that the foundation of iron works by Adolphe and Eugene Schneider definitely inaugurated the industrial prosperity of the place. The works supplied large quantities of war material to the French armies during the Crimean and Franco-German wars. Since that time they have continuously enlarged the scope of their operations, which now embrace the manufacture of steel, armour-plate, guns, ordnance- stores, locomotives, electrical machinery and engineering material of every description. A net- work of railways about 37 m. in length connects the various branches of the works with each other and with the neighbouring Canal du Centre. Special attention is paid to the welfare of the workers who, not including the miners, number about 12,000, and good schools have been established. In 1897 the ordnance-manufacture of the Societe des Forges et Chantiers de la Mediterranee at Havre was acquired by the Company, which also has important branches at Chalon- sur-Sa6ne, where ship-building and bridge-construction is carried on, and at Cette (Herault). LECTERN (through O. Fr. leilrun, from Late Lat. leclrum, or leclrinum, legere, to read; the French equivalent is lairing Ital. leggio; Ger. Lesepult), in the furniture of certain Christian churches, a reading-desk, used more especially for the reading of the lessons and in the Anglican Church practically confined to that purpose. In the early Christian Church this was done from the ambo (q.v.), but in the isth century, when the books were often of great size, it became necessary to provide a lectern to hold them. These were either in wood or metal, and many fine examples still exist; one at Detling in wood, in which there are shelves on all four sides to hold books, is perhaps the most elaborate. Brass lecterns, as in the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge, are common; in the usual type the book is supported on the outspread wings of an eagle or pelican, which is raised on a moulded stem, carried on three projecting ledges or feet with lions on them. In the example in Norwich cathedral, the pelican supporting the book stands on a rock enclosed with a rich cresting of Gothic tabernacle work; the central stem or pillar, on which this rests, is supported by miniature projecting buttresses, standing on a moulded base with lions on it. LECTION, LECTIONARY. The custom of reading the books of Moses in the synagogues on the Sabbath day was a very ancient one in the Jewish Church. The addition of lections (i.e. readings) from the prophetic books had been made afterwards and was in existence in our Lord's time, as may be gathered from such passages as St Luke iv. 16-20, xvi. 29. This element in synagogue worship was taken over with others into the Christian divine service, additions being made to it from the writings of the apostles and evangelists. We find traces of such additions within the New Testament itself in such directions as are con- tained in Col. iv. 16; i Thess. v. 27. From the 2nd century onwards references multiply, though the earlier references do not prove the existence of a fixed lectionary or order of lessons, but rather point the other way. Justin Martyr, describing divine worship in the middle of the 2nd century says: " On the day called Sunday all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the Apostles, or the writings of the Prophets are read as long as time permits " (Apol. i. cap. 67). Tertullian about half a century later makes frequent reference to the reading of Holy Scripture in public worship (Apol. 39; De praescript. 36; De amina, 9). In the canons of Hippolytus in the first half of the 3rd century we find this direction: " Let presbyters, subdeacons and readers, and all the people assemble daily in the church at time of cock- crow, and betake themselves to prayers, to psalms and to the reading of the Scriptures, according to the command of the Apostles, until I come attend to reading " (canon xxi.). But there are traces of fixed lessons coming into existence in the course of this century; Origen refers to the book of Job being read in Holy Week (Commentaries on Job, lib. i.). Allusions of a similar kind in the 4th century are frequent. John Cassian (c. 380) tells us that throughout Egypt the Psalms were divided into groups of twelve, and that after each group there followed two lessons, one from the Old, orte from the New Testament (De caenob. inst. ii. 4), implying but not absolutely stating that there was a fixed order of such lessons just as there was of the Psalms. St Basil the Great mentions fixed lessons on certain occasions taken from Isaiah, Proverbs, St Matthew and Acts (Horn. xiii. De bapt.). From Chrysostom (Horn. Ixiii. in Act. &c.), and Augustine (Tract, vi. in Joann. &c.) we learn that Genesis was read in Lent, Job and Jonah in Passion Week, the Acts of the Apostles in Eastertide, lessons on the Passion on Good Friday and on the Resurrection on Easter Day. In the Apostolical Constitutions (ii. 57) the following service is described and enjoined. First come two lessons from the Old Testament by a reader, the whole of the Old Testament being made use of except the books of the Apocrypha. The Psalms, of David are then to be sung. Next the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles of Paul are to be read, and finally the four Gospels by a deacon or a priest. Whether the selections were ad libitum or according to a fixed table of lessons we are not informed. Nothing in the shape of a lectionary is extant older than the 8th century, though there is evidence that Claudianus Mamercus made one for the church at Vienne in 450, and that Musaeus made one for the church at Marseilles c. 458. The Liber comitis formerly attributed to St Jerome must be three, or nearly three, centuries later than that saint, and the Luxeuil lectionary, or Leclionarium Gallicanum, which Mabillon attributed to the 7th, cannot be earlier than the 8th century; yet the oldest MSS. of the Gospels have marginal marks, and sometimes actual interpolations, which can only be accounted for as indicating the beginnings and endings of liturgical lessons. The third council of Carthage in 397 forbade anything but Holy Scripture to be read in church; this rule has been adhered to so far as the liturgical epistle and gospel, and occasional additional lessons in the Roman missal are concerned, but in the divine office, on feasts when nine lessons are read at matins, only the first three lessons are taken from Holy Scripture, the next three being taken from the sermons of ecclesiastical writers, and the last three from expositions of the day's gospel; but sometimes the lives or Passions of the saints, or of some particular saints, were substituted for any or all of these breviary lessons. (F. E. W.) LECTISTERNIUM (from Lat. lectum sternere, "to spread a couch "; orpajjuceu in Dion. Halic. xii. 9), in ancient Rome, a propitiatory ceremony, consisting of a meal offered to gods and goddesses, represented by their busts or statues, or by portable figures of wood, with heads of bronze, wax or marble, and covered with drapery. Another suggestion is that the symbols of the gods consisted of bundles of sacred herbs, tied together in the form of a head, covered by a waxen mask so as to resemble a kind of bust (cf. the straw puppets called Argei). These symbols were laid upon a couch (lectus), the left arm resting on a cushion (pulvinus, whence the couch itself was often called puhinar) in the attitude of reclining. In front of the couch, which was placed in the open street, a meal was set out on a table. It is definitely stated by Livy (v. 13) that the ceremony took place " for the first time " in Rome in the year LECTOR— LE DAIM 399 B.C., after the Sibylline books had been consulted by their keepers and interpreters (duumviri sacris faciendis), on the occasion of a pestilence. Three couches were prepared for three pairs of gods — Apollo and Latona, Hercules and Diana, Mercury and Neptune. The feast, which on that occasion lasted for eight (or seven) days, was also celebrated by private in- dividuals; the citizens kept open house, quarrels were forgotten, debtors and prisoners were released, and everything done to banish sorrow. Similar honours were paid to other divinities in subsequent times — Fortuna, Saturnus, Juno Regina of the Aventine, the three Capitoline deities (Jupiter, Juno, Minerva), and in 217, after the defeat of lake Trasimenus, a lectisternium was held for three days to six pairs of gods, corresponding to the twelve great gods of Olympus — Jupiter, Juno, Neptune, Minerva, Mars, Venus, Apollo, Diana, Vulcan, Vesta; Mercury, Ceres. In 205, alarmed by unfavourable prodigies, the Romans were ordered to fetch the Great Mother of the gods from Pessinus in Phrygia; in the following year the image was brought to Rome, and a lectisternium held. In later times, the lectisternium became of constant (even daily) occurrence, and was celebrated in the different temples. Such celebrations must be distinguished from those which were ordered, like the earlier lectisternia, by the Sibylline books in special emergencies. Although un- doubtedly offerings of food were made to the gods in very early Roman times on such occasions as the ceremony of confarreatio, and the epulum Jovis (often confounded with the lectisternium), it is generally agreed that the lectisternia were of Greek origin. In favour of this may be mentioned : the similarity of the Greek Qfo^tvia, in which, however, the gods played the part of hosts; the gods associated with it were either previously unknown to Roman religion, though often concealed under Roman names, or were provided with a new cult (thus Hercules was not wor- shipped as at the Ara Maxima, where, according to Servius on Aeneid, viii. 176 and Cornelius Balbus, ap. Macrobius, Sat. iii. 6, a lectisternium was forbidden); the Sibylline books, which decided whether a lectisternium was to be held or not, were of Greek origin; the custom of reclining at meals was Greek. Some, however, assign an Etruscan origin to the ceremony, the Sibylline books themselves being looked upon as old Italian " black books." A probable explanation of the confusion between the lectisternia and genuine old Italian ceremonies is that, as the lectisternia became an almost everyday occurrence in Rome, people forgot their foreign origin and the circumstances in which they were first introduced, and then the word pulvinar with its associations was transferred to times in which it had no existence. In imperial times, according to Tacitus (Annals, xv. 44), chairs were substituted for couches in the case of goddesses, and the lectisternium in their case became a sellisternium (the reading, however, is not certain). This was in accordance with Roman custom, since in the earliest times all the members of a family sat at meals, and in later times at least the women and children. This is a point of distinction between the original practice at the lectisternium and the epulum Jovis, the goddesses at the latter being provided with chairs, whereas in the lecti- sternium they reclined. In Christian times the word was used for a feast in memory of the dead (Sidonius Apollinaris, Epistulae, iv. 15). See article by A. Bouche-Leclercq in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquites; Marquardt, Romische Staatsverwaltung, iii. 45, 187 (1885); G. Wissowa, Religion und Kuitus der Romer, P- 355 »eq-; monograph by Wackermann (Hanau, 1888); C. Pascal, Studii di anlichita e mitologia (1896). LECTOR, or READER, a minor office-bearer in the Christian Church. From an early period men have been set apart, under the title of anagnostae, leclores, or readers, for the purpose of reading Holy Scripture in church. We do not know what the custom of the Church was in the first two centuries, the earliest reference to readers, as an order, occurring in the writings of Tertullian (De praescript. haeret. cap. 41); there are frequent allusions to them in the writings of St Cyprian and afterwards. Cornelius, bishop of Rome in A.D. 251-252, in a well-known letter mentions readers among the various church orders then existing at Rome. In the Apostolic Church Order (canon 19), mention is made of the qualifications and duties of a reader, but no reference is made to their method of ordination. In the Apostolic Didascalia there is recognition of three minor orders of men, subdeacons, readers and singers, in addition to two orders of women, deaconesses and widows. A century later, in the Apos- tolic Constitutions, we find not only a recognition of readers, but also a form of admission provided for them, consisting of the imposition of hands and prayer (lib. viii. cap. 22). In Africa the imposition of hands was not in use, but a Bible was handed to the newly appointed reader with words of commission to read it, followed by a prayer and a benediction (Fourth Council of Carthage, can. 8). This is the ritual of the Roman Church of to-day. With regard to age, the novels of Justinian (No. 123) forbade any one to be admitted to the office of reader under the age of eighteen. (F. E. W.) LECTOURE, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Gers, 21 m. N. of Auch on the Southern railway between that city and Agen. Pop. (1906), town, 2426; commune, 4310. It stands on the right bank of the Gers, overlooking the river from the summit of a steep plateau. The church of St Gervais and St Protais was once a cathedral. The massive tower which flanks it on the north belongs to the i5th century; the rest of the church dates from the I3th, I5th, 1 6th and iyth centuries. The hotel de ville, the sous-prefecture and the museum occupy the palace of the former bishops, which was once the property of Marshal Jean Lannes, a native of the town. A recess in the wall of an old house contains the Fontaine de Houndelie, a spring sheltered by a double archway of the i3th century. At the bottom of the hill a church of the 1 6th century marks the site of the monastery of St Geny. Lectoure has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college. Its industries include distilling, the manufacture of wooden shoes and biscuits, and market gardening; it has trade in grain, cattle, wine and brandy. , Lectoure, capital of the Iberian tribe of the Lactorates and for a short time of Novempopulania, became the seat of a bishopric in the 4th century. In the nth century the counts of Lomagne made it their capital, and on the union of Lomagne with Armagnac, in 1325, it became the capital of the counts of Armagnac. In 1473 Cardinal Jean de Jouffroy besieged the town on behalf of Louis XI. and after its fall put the whole pupulation to the sword. In 1562 it again suffered severely at the hands of the Catholics under Blaise de Montluc. LEDA, in Greek mythology, daughter of Thestius, king of Aetolia, and Eurythemis (her parentage is variously given). She was the wife of Tyndareus and mother of Castor and Pollux, Clytaemnestra and Helen (see CASTOR AND POLLUX). In another account Nemesis was the mother of Helen (q.v.) whom Leda adopted as her daughter. This led to the identification of Leda and Nemesis. In the usual later form of the story, Leda herself, having been visited by Zeus in the form of a swan, produced two eggs, from one of which came Helen, from the other Castor and Pollux. See Apollodorus iii. 10; Hyginus, Fab. 77; Homer, Iliad, iii. 426, Od. xi. 298; Euripides, Helena, 17; Isocrates, Helena, 59; Ovid, Heroides, xvii. 55; Horace, Ars poetica, 147; Stasinus in Athenaeus viii. 334 c. ; for the representations of Leda and the swan in art, J. A. Overbeck, Kunstmythologie, i., and Atlas to the same; also article in Roscher's Lexikon der Mythologie. LE DAIM (or LE DAIN), OLIVIER (d. 1484), favourite of Louis XI. of France, was born of humble parentage at Thielt near Courtrai in Flanders. Seeking his fortune at Paris, he became court barber and valet to Louis XL, and so ingratiated himself with the king that in 1474 he was ennobled under the title Le Daim and in 1477 made comte de Meulant. In the latter year he was sent to Burgundy to influence the young heiress of Charles the Bold, but he was ridiculed and compelled to leave Ghent. He thereupon seized and held Tournai for the French. Le Daim had considerable talent for intrigue, and, according to his enemies, could always be depended upon to execute the baser designs of the king. He amassed a large fortune, largely by oppression and violence, and was named gentleman-in-waiting, captain of Loches, and governor of Saint-Quentin. He remained in favour until the death of Louis XL, when the rebellious lords were able to avenge the slights and insults they had suffered at LEDBURY— LEDRU-ROLLIN 359 the hands of the royal barber. He was arrested on charges, the nature of which is uncertain, tried before the parlement of Paris, and on the 2ist of May 1484 hanged at Montfaucon without the knowledge of Charles VIII., who might have heeded his father's request and spared the favourite. Le Daim's property was given to the duke of Orleans. See the memoirs of the time, especially those of Ph. de Commines (ed. Mandrot, 1901-1903, Eng. trans, in Bohn Library) ; Robt. Gaguin, Compendium de origine et gestis Francprum (Paris, 1586) — it was Gaguin who made the celebrated epigram concerning Le Daim: " Eras judex, lector, et exitium "; De Reiffenberg, Olivier le Dain (Brussels, 1829); Delanone, Le Barbier de Louis XI. (Paris, 1832); G. Picot, " Proces d'Olivier le Dain," in the Comptes rendus de I Academic des sciences morales et politiques, viii. (1877), 485-537. The memoirs of the time are uniformly hostile to Le Daim. LEDBURY, a market town in the Ross parliamentary division of Herefordshire, England, 14! hi. E. of Hereford by the Great Western railway, pleasantly situated on the south-western slope of the Malvern Hills. Pop. of urban district (1901) 3259. Cider and agricultural produce are the chief articles of trade, and there are limestone quarries in the neighbouring hills. The town contains many picturesque examples of timbered houses, characteristic of the district, the principal being the Market House (1633) elevated on massive pillars of oak. The fine church of St Michael exhibits all the Gothic styles, the most noteworthy features being the Norman chancel and west door, and the remarkable series of ornate Decorated windows on the north side. Among several charities is the hospital of St Catherine, founded by Foliot, bishop of Hereford, in 1232. Hope End, 2 m. N.E. of Ledbury, was the residence of Elizabeth Barrett Browning during her early life. A clock-tower in the town commemorates her. Wall Hills Camp, supposed to be of British origin, is the earliest evidence of a settlement near Ledbury (Liedeburge, Lidebury). The manor was given to the see of Hereford in the nth century; but in 1561-1562 became crown property. As early as 1170-1171 an episcopal castle existed in Ledbury. The town was not incor- porated, but was early called a borough; and in 1295 and 1304- 1305 returned two members to parliament. A fair on the day of the decollation of John the Baptist was granted to the bishop in 1249. Of fairs which survived in 1792 those of the days of St Philip and St James and St Barnabas were granted in 1584-1585; those held on the Monday before Easter and St Thomas's day were reputed ancient, but not those of the 1 2th of May, the 22nd of June, the 2nd of October and the 2 1st of December. Existing fairs are on the second Tuesday in every month and in October. A weekly market, granted to the bishop by Stephen, John and Henry III., was obsolete in 1584-1585, when the present market of Tuesday was authorized. The wool trade was considerable in the I4th century; later Ledbury was inhabited by glovers and clothiers. The town was deeply involved in the operations of the Civil Wars, being occupied both by the royalist leader Prince Rupert and by the Parliamentarian Colonel Birch. LEDGER (from the English dialect forms liggen or leggen, to lie or lay; in sense adapted from the Dutch substantive legger), properly a book remaining regularly in one place, and so used of the copies of the Scriptures and service books kept in a church. The New English Dictionary quotes from Charles Wriothesley's Chronicle, 1538 (ed. Camden Soc., 1875, by W. D. Hamilton), "the curates should provide a booke of the bible in Englishe, of the largest volume, to be a lidger in the same church for the parishioners to read on." It is an application of this original meaning that is found in the commercial usage of the term for the principal book of account in a business house (see BOOK-KEEPING). Apart from these applications to various forms of books, the word is used of the horizontal timbers in a scaffold (q.v.) lying parallel to the face of a building, which support the "put logs"; of a flat stone to cover a grave; and of a stationary form of tackle and bait in angling. In the form " lieger " the term was formerly frequently applied to a " resi- dent," as distinguished from an "extraordinary" ambassador. LEDOCHOWSKI, MIECISLAUS JOHANN, COUNT (1822-1902), Polish cardinal, was born on the 2gth of October 1822 in Gorki (Russian Poland), and received his early education at the gymnasium and seminary of Warsaw. After finishing his studies at the Jesuit Accademia dei Nobili Ecclesiastici in Rome, which strongly influenced his religious development and his attitude towards church affairs, he was ordained in 1845. From 1856 to 1858 he represented the Roman See in Columbia, but on the outbreak of the Columbian revolution had to return to Rome. In 1861 Pope Pius IX. made him his nuncio at Brussels, and in 1865 he was made archbishop of Gnesen-Posen. His preconiza- tion followed on the 8th of January 1866. This date marks the beginning of the second period in Ledochowski's life; for during the Prussian and German Kulturkampf he was one of the most declared enemies of the state. It was only during the earliest years of his appointment as archbishop that he entertained a different view, invoking, for instance, an intervention of Prussia in favour of the Roman Church, when it was oppressed by the house of Savoy. On the i2th of December 1870 he presented an effective memorandum on the subject at the headquarters at Versailles. In 1872 the archbishop protested against the demand of the government that religious teaching should be given only in the German language, and in 1873 he addressed a circular letter on this subject to the clergy of his diocese. The govern- ment thereupon demanded a statement from the teachers of religion as to whether they intended to obey it or the archbishop, and on their declaring for the archbishop, dismissed them. The count himself was called upon at the end of 1873 to lay aside his office. On his refusing to do so, he was arrested between 3 and 4 o'clock in the morning on the 3rd of February 1874 by Standi, the director of police, and taken to the military prison of Ostrowo. The pope made him a cardinal on the i3th of March, but it was not till the 3rd of February 1876 that he was released from prison. Having been expelled from the eastern provinces of Prussia, he betook himself to Cracow, where his presence was made the pretext for anti-Prussian demonstrations. Upon this he was also expelled from Austria, and went to Rome, whence, in spite of his removal from office, which was decreed on the i5th of April 1874, he continued to direct the affairs of his diocese, for which he was on several occasions from 1877 to 1879 con- demned in absentia by the Prussian government for " usurpation of episcopal rights." It was not till 1885 that Ledochowski re- solved to resign his archbishopric, in which he was succeeded by Dinder at the end of the year. Ledochowski's return in 1884 was forbidden by the Prussian government (although the Kulturkampf had now abated) , on account of his having stirred up anew the Polish nationalist agitation. He passed the closing years of his life in Rome. In 1892 he became prefect of the Congregation of the Propaganda, and he died in Rome on the 22nd of July 1902. See Ograbiszewski, Deulschlands Episkopat in Lebensbildern (1876 and following years); Holtzmann-Zoppfel, Lexikpn fur Theohgie und Kirchenwesen (2nd ed., 1888); Vapereau, Dictionnaire universe! des contemporains (6th ed., 1893); Briick, Geschichte der katholischen Kirche in Deutschland im neunzehnten Jahrhundert vol. 4 (1901 and 1908) ; Lauchert, Biographisches Jahrbuch, vol. 7 (1905). a- HN.) LEDRU-ROLLIN, ALEXANDRE AUGUSTE (1807-1874), French politician, was the grandson of Nicolas Philippe Ledru, the celebrated quack doctor known as " Comus " under Louis XIV., and was born in a house that was once Scarron's, at Fontenay-aux-Roses (Seine), on the 2nd of February 1807. He had just begun to practise at the Parisian bar before the revolu- tion of July, and was retained for the Republican defence in most of the great political trials of the next ten years. In 1838 he bought for 330,000 francs Desire Dalloz's place in the Court of Cassation. He was elected deputy for Le Mans in 1841 with hardly a dissentient voice; but for the violence of his electoral speeches he was tried at Angers and sentenced to four months' imprisonment and a fine, against which he appealed successfully on a technical point. He made a rich and romantic marriage in 1843, and in 1846 disposed of his charge at the Court of Cassation to give his time entirely to politics. He was now the recognized leader of the working-men of France. He had more authority in the country than in the Chamber, where the violence of his oratory diminished its effect. He asserted that the fortifications of Paris were directed against liberty, not against foreign invasion, and he stigmatized the law of regency (1842) as an audacious usurpation. Neither from official Liberalism nor from the press did he receive support; even the Republican National was 36° LEDYARD— LEE, F. opposed to him because of his championship of labour. He therefore founded La Reforme in which to advance his propa- ganda. Between Ledru-Rollin and Odilon Barrot with the other chiefs of the " dynastic Left " there were acute differences, hardly dissimulated even during the temporary alliance which produced the campaigh of the banquets. It was the speeches of Ledru-Rollin and Louis Blanc at working-men's banquets in Lille, Dijon and Chalons that really heralded the revolution. Ledru-Rollin prevented the appointment of the duchess of Orleans as regent in 1848. He and Lamartine held the tribune in the Chamber of Deputies until the Parisian populace stopped serious discussion by invading the Chamber. He was minister of the interior in the provisional government, and was also a member of the executive committee1 appointed by the Con- stituent Assembly, from which Louis Blanc and the extremists were excluded. At the crisis of the isth of May he definitely sided with Lamartine and the party of order against the pro- letariat. Henceforward his position was a difficult one. He1 never regained his influence with the working classes, who considered they had been betrayed; but to his short ministry belongs the credit of the establishment of a working system of universal suffrage. At the presidential election in December he was put forward as the Socialist candidate, but secured only 370,000 votes. His opposition to the policy of President Louis Napoleon, especially his Roman policy, led to his moving the impeachment of the president and his ministers. The motion was defeated, and next day (June 13, 1849) he headed what he called a peaceful demonstration, and his enemies armed insurrec- tion. He himself escaped to London where he joined the execu- tive of the revolutionary committee of Europe, with Kossuth and Mazzini among his colleagues. He was accused of complicity in an obscure attempt (1857) against the life of Napoleon III., and condemned in his absence to deportation. Emile Ollivier removed the exceptions from the general amnesty in 1870, and Ledru-Rollin returned to France after twenty years of exile. Though elected in 1871 in three departments he refused to sit in the National Assembly, and took no serious part in politics until 1874 when he was returned to the Assembly as member for Vaucluse. He died on the 3ist of December of that year. Under Louis Philippe he made large contributions to French jurisprudence, editing the Journal du palais, 1791-1837 (27 vols., 1837), and 1837-1847 (17 yols.), with a commentary Repertoire general de la jurisprudence fran^aise (8 vols., 1843-184^8), the introduction to which was written by himself. His later writings were political in character. See Ledru-Rollin, ses discours el ses ecrits politiques (2 vols., Paris, 1879), edited by his widow. LEDYARD, JOHN (1751-1789), American traveller, was born in Groton, Connecticut, U.S.A. After vainly trying law and theology, Ledyard adopted a seaman's life, and, coming to London, was engaged as corporal of marines by Captain Cook for his third voyage (1776). On his return (1778) Ledyard had to give up to the Admiralty his copious journals, but afterwards published, from memory, a meagre narrative of his experiences — herein giving the only account of Cook's death by an eye-witness (Hartford, U.S.A., 1783). He continued in the British service till 1782, when he escaped, off Long Island. In 1784 he revisited Europe, to organize an expedition to the American North-West. Having failed in his attempts, he decided to reach his goal by travelling across Europe and Asia. Baffled in his hopes of crossing the Baltic on the ice (Stockholm to Abo), he walked right round from Stockholm to St Petersburg, where he arrived barefoot and penniless (March 1 787). Here he made friends with Pallas and others, and accompanied Dr Brown, a Scotch physician in the Russian service, to Siberia. Ledyard left Dr Brown at Barnaul, went on to Tomsk and Irkutsk, visited Lake Baikal, and descended the Lena to Yakutsk (i8th of September 1787). With Captain Joseph Billings, whom he had known on Cook's " Resolution," he returned to Irkutsk, where he was arrested, deported to the Polish frontier, and banished from Russia for ever. Reaching London, he was engaged by Sir Joseph Banks and the African Association to explore overland routes from Alexandria to the Niger, but in Cairo he succumbed to a dose 1 Arago, Garnier-Pages, Marie, Lamartine, and Ledru-Rollin. of vitriol (i7th of January 1789). Though a born explorer, little resulted from his immense but ill-directed activities. See Memoirs of the Life and Travels of John Ledyard, by Tared Sparks (1828). LEE, ANN (1736-1784), English religious visionary, was born in Manchester, where she was first a factory hand and afterwards a cook. She is remembered by her connexion with the sect known as Shakers (q.v.). She died at Watervliet, near Albany, New York. LEE, ARTHUR (1740-1792), American diplomatist, brother of Richard Henry Lee, was born at Stratford, Westmoreland county, Virginia, on the 2oth of December 1740. He was educated at Eton, studied medicine at Edinburgh, practised as a physician in Williamsburg, Virginia, read law at the Temple, London, in 1766-1770, and practised law in London in 1770-1776. He was an intimate of John Wilkes, whom he aided in one of his London campaigns. In 1770-1775 he served as London agent for Massachusetts, second to Benjamin Franklin, whom he succeeded in 1775. At that time he had shown great ability as a pamphleteer, having published in London The Monitor (1768), seven essays previously printed in Virginia; The Political Detection: or the Treachery and Tyranny of Administration, both at Home and Abroad (1770), signed " Junius Americanus "; and An Appeal to the Justice and Interests of the People of Great Britain in the Present Disputes -with America (1774), signed "An Old Member of Parliament." In December 1775 the Committee of Secret Correspondence of Congress chose him its European agent principally for the purpose of ascertaining the views of France, Spain, and other European countries regarding the war between the colonies and Great Britain. In October 1776 he was appointed, upon the refusal of Jefferson, on the commission with Franklin and Silas Deane to negotiate a treaty of alliance, amity and commerce with France, and also to negotiate with other European governments. His letters to Congress, in which he expressed his suspicion of Deane's business integrity and criticized his accounts, resulted in Deane's recall; and other letters impaired the confidence of Congress in Franklin, of whom he was especially jealous. Early in 1777 he went to Spain as American commissioner, but received no official recognition, was not permitted to proceed farthe/ than Burgos, and accomplished nothing; until the appointment of Jay, however, he continued to act as commissioner to Spain, held various conferences with the Spanish minister in Paris, and in January 1778 secured a promise of a loan of 3,000,000 livres, only a small part of which (some 170,000 livres) was paid. In June 1777 he went to Berlin, where, as in Spain, he was not officially recognized. Although he had little to do with the negotiations, he signed with Franklin and Deane in February 1778 the treaties between the United States and France. Having become unpopular at the courts of France and Spain, Lee was recalled in 1779, and returned to the United States in September 1780. He was a member of the Virginia House of Delegates in 1781 and a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1782-1785. With Oliver Wolcott and Richard Butler he negotiated a treaty with the Six Nations, signed at Fort Stanwix on the 22nd of October 1784, and with George Clark and Richard Butler a treaty with the Wyandot, Delaware, Chippewa and Ottawa Indians, signed at Ft. Mclntosh on the 2ist of January 1785. He was a member of the treasury board in 1784-1789. He strongly opposed the constitution, and after its adoption retired to his estate at Urbana, Virginia, where he died on the I2th of December 1792. See R. H. Lee, Life of Arthur Lee (2 vols., Boston, 1829), and C. H. Lee, A Vindication of Arthur Lee (Richmond, Virginia, 1894), both partisan. Much of Lee's correspondence is to be found in Wharton's Revolutionary Diplomatic Correspondence (Washington, 1889). Eight volumes of Lee's MSS. in the Harvard University Library are described and listed in Library of Harvard University, Bibliographical Contributions, No. 8 (Cambridge, 1882). LEE, FITZHUGH (1835-1905), American cavalry general, was born at Clermont, in Fairfax county, Virginia, on the igth of November 1835. He was the grandson of "Light Horse Harry" Lee, and the nephew of Robert E. Lee. His father, Sydney Smith Lee, was a fleet captain under Commodore Perry n Japanese waters and rose to the rank of commodore; his LEE, G. A.— LEE, N. 361 mother was a daughter of George Mason. Graduating from West Point in 1856, he was appointed to the 2nd Cavalry, which was commanded by Colonel Albert Sidney Johnston, and in which his uncle, Robert E. Lee, was lieutenant-colonel. As a cavalry subaltern he distinguished himself by his gallant conduct in actions with the Comanches in Texas, and was severely wounded in 1859. In May 1860 he was appointed instructor of cavalry at West Point, but resigned on the secession of Virginia. Lee was at once employed in the organization of the forces of the South, and served at first as a staff officer to General R. S. Ewell, and afterwards, from September 1861, as lieutenant- colonel, and from April 1862 as colonel of the First Virginia Cavalry in the Army of Northern Virginia. He became brigadier- general on General J. E. B. Stuart's recommendation on the 25th of July 1862, and served- under that general throughout the Virginian campaigns of 1862 and 1863, becoming major- general on the 3rd of September 1863. He conducted the cavalry action of Beverly Ford (tyth March 1863) with skill and success. In the Wilderness and Petersburg campaigns he was constantly employed as a divisional commander under Stuart, and, after Stuart's death, under General Wade Hampton. He took part in Early's campaign against Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley, and at Winchester (igth Sept. 1864) three horses were shot under him and he was severely wounded. On ' General Hampton's being sent to assist General Joseph E. Johnston in North Carolina, the command of the whole of General Lee's cavalry devolved upon Fitzhugh Lee early in 1865, but the surrender of Appomattox followed quickly upon the opening of the campaign. Fitzhugh Lee himself led the last charge of the Confederates on the gth of April that year at Farmville. After the war he devoted himself to farming in Stafford county, Virginia, and was conspicuous in his efforts to reconcile the Southern people to the issue of the war, which he regarded as a final settlement of the questions at issue. In 1875 he attended the Bunker Hill centenary at Boston, Mass., and delivered a remarkable address. In 1885 he was a member of the board of visitors of West Point, and from 1886 to 1890 was governor of Virginia. In April 1896 he was appointed by President Cleveland consul-general at Havana, with duties of a diplomatic and military character added to the usual consular business. In this post (in which he was retained by President McKinley) he was from the first called upon to deal with a situation of great diffi- culty, which culminated with the destruction of the " Maine " (see SPANISH- AMERICAN WAR) . Upon the declaration of war between Spain and the United States he re-entered the army. He was one of the three ex-Confederate general officers who were made major-generals of United States Volunteers. Fitzhugh Lee commanded the VII. army corps, but took no part in the actual operations in Cuba. He was military governor of Havana and Pinar del Rio in 1899, subsequently commanded the department of the Missouri, and retired as a brigadier-general U.S. Army in 1901. He died in Washington on the 28th of April 1905. He wrote Robert E. Lee (1894) in the " Great Commanders " series, and Cuba's Struggle Against Spain (1899). LEE, GEORGE ALEXANDER (1802-1851), English musician, was born in London, the son of Henry Lee, a pugilist and inn- keeper. He became " tiger " to Lord Barrymore, and his singing led to his being educated for the musical profession. After appearing as a tenor at the theatres in Dublin and London, he joined in producing opera at the Tottenham Street theatre in 1829, and afterwards was connected with musical productions at Drury Lane and Covent Garden. He married Mrs Waylett, a popular s.inger. Lee composed music for a number of plays, and also many songs, including the popular " Come where the Aspens quiver," and for a short time had a music-selling business in the Quadrant. He died on the 8th of October 1851. LEE, HENRY (1756-1818), American general, called " Light Horse Harry," was born near Dumfries, Virginia, on the 29th of January 1756. His father was first cousin to Richard Henry Lee. With a view to a legal career he graduated (1773) at Princeton, but soon afterwards, on the outbreak of the War of Independence, he became an officer in the patriot forces. He served with great distinction under Washington, and in 1778 was promoted major and given the command of a small irregular corps, with which he won a great reputation as a leader of light troops. His services on the outpost line of the army earned for him the soubriquet of " Light Horse Harry." His greatest exploit was the brilliant surprise of Paulus Hook, N.J., on the igth of August 1779; for this feat he received a gold medal, a reward given to no other officer below general's rank in the whole war. He was promoted lieutenant-colonel 1780, and sent with a picked corps of dragoons to the southern theatre of war. Here he rendered invaluable services in victory and defeat, notably at Guilford Court House, Camden and Eutaw Springs. He was present at Cornwallis's surrender at Yorktown, and after- wards left the army owing to ill-health. From 1786 to 1788 he was a delegate to the Confederation Congress, and in the last- named year in the Virginia convention he favoured the adoption of the Federal constitution. From 1789 to 1791 he served in the General Assembly, and from 1791 to 1794 was governor of Virginia. In 1794 Washington sent him to help in the suppres- sion of the " Whisky Insurrection " in western Pennsylvania. A new county of Virginia was named after him during his governorship. He was a major-general in 1798-1800. From 1799 to 1801 he served in Congress. He delivered the address on the death of Washington which contained the famous phrase, " first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." Soon after the War of 1812 broke out, Lee, while helping to resist the attack of a mob on his friend, A. C. Hanson, editor of the Baltimore Federal Republican, which had opposed the war, received grave injuries, from which he never recovered. He died at the house of General Nathanael Greene on Cumberland Island, Georgia, on the 25th of March 1818. Lee wrote valuable Memoirs of the War in the Southern Department (1812; 3rd ed., with memoir by Robert E. Lee, 1869). LEE, JAMES PRINCE (1804-1869), English divine, was born in London on the 28th of July 1804, and was educated at St Paul's school and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he dis- played exceptional ability as a classical scholar. After taking orders in 1830 he served under Thomas Arnold at Rugby school, and in 1838 was appointed head-master of King Edward's school, Birmingham, where he had among his pupils E. W. Benson, J. B. Lightfoot and B. F. Westcott. In 1848 Lord John Russell nominated him as first bishop of the newly-con- stituted see of Manchester. His pedagogic manner bore some- what irksomely on his clergy. He is best remembered for his splendid work in church extension; during his twenty-one years' tenure of the see he consecrated 130 churches. He took a foremost part in founding the Manchester free library, and bequeathed his own valuable collection of books to Owens College. He died on the 24th of December 1869. A memorial sermon was preached by Archbishop E. W. Benson, and was published with biographical details by J. F. Wickenden and others. LEE, NATHANIEL (c. 1653-1692), English dramatist, son of Dr Richard Lee, a Presbyterian divine, was born probably in 1653. His father was rector of Hatfield, and held many prefer- ments under the Commonwealth. He was chaplain to General Monk, afterwards duke of Albemarle, and after the Restoration he conformed to the Church of England, abjuring his former opinions, especially his approval of Charles I.'s execution. Nathaniel Lee was educated at Westminster school, and at Trinity College, Cambridge, taking his B.A. degree in 1668. Coming to London under the patronage, it is said, of the duke of Buckingham, he tried to earn his living as an actor, but though he was an admirable reader, his acute stage fright made acting impossible. His earliest play, Nero, Emperor of Rome, was acted in 1675 at Drury Lane. Two tragedies written in rhymed heroic couplets, in imitation of Dryden, followed in 1676 — Sophonisba, or Hannibal's Overthrow and Gloriana, or the Court of Augustus Caesar. Both are extravagant in design and treat- ment. Lee made his reputation in 1677 with a blank verse tragedy, The Rival Queens, or the Death of Alexander the Great. The play, which treats of the jealousy of Alexander's first wife, Roxana, for his second wife, Statira, was, in spite of much 362 LEE, R. H. — LEE, R. E. bombast, a favourite on the English stage down to the days of Edmund Kean. Mithridates, King of Pontus (acted 1678), Theodosius, or the Force of Love (acted 1680), Caesar Borgia (acted 1680) — an imitation of the worst blood and thunder Elizabethan tragedies — Lucius Junius Brutus, Father of His Country (acted 1681), and Constantine the Great (acted 1684) followed. The Princess of Cleve (1681) is a gross adaptation of Madame de La Fayette's exquisite novel of that name. The Massacre of Paris (published 1690) was written about this time. Lee had given offence at court by his Lucius Junius Brutus, which had been suppressed after its third representation for some lines on Tarquin's character that were taken to be a reflection on Charles II. He therefore joined with Dryden, who had already admitted him as a collaborator in an adaptation of Oedipus, in The Duke of Guise (1683), a play which directly advocated the Tory point of view. In it part of the Massacre of Paris was incorporated. Lee was now thirty years of age, and had already achieved a considerable reputation. But he had lived in the dissipated society of the earl of Rochester and his associates, and imitated their excesses. As he grew more disreputable, his patrons neglected him, and in 1684 his mind was completely unhinged. He spent five years in Bethlehem Hospital, and recovered his health. He died in a drunken fit in 1692, and was buried in St Clement Danes, Strand, on the 6th of May. Lee's Dramatic Works were published in 1784. In spite of their extravagance, they contain many passages of great beauty. LEE, RICHARD HENRY (1732-1794), American statesman and orator, was born at Stratford, in Westmoreland county, Virginia, on the 2oth of January 1732, and was one of six dis- tinguished sons of Thomas Lee (d. 1750), a descendant of an old Cavalier family, the first representative of which in America was Richard Lee, who was a member of the privy council, and early in the reign of Charles I. emigrated to Virginia. Richard Henry Lee received an academic education in England, then spent a little time in travel, returned to Virginia in 1752, having come into possession of a fine property left him by his father, and for several years applied himself to varied studies. When twenty-five he was appointed justice of the peace of Westmore- land county, and in the same year was chosen a member of the Virginia House of Burgesses, in which he served from 1758 to 1775. He kept a diffident silence during two sessions, his first speech being in strong opposition to slavery, which he proposed to discourage and eventually to abolish, by imposing a heavy tax on all further importations. He early allied himself with the Patriot or Whig element in Virginia, and in the years immedi- ately preceding the War of Independence was conspicuous as an opponent of the arbitrary measures of the British ministry. In 1768, in a letter to John Dickinson of Pennsylvania, he sug- gested a private correspondence among the friends of liberty in the different colonies, and in 1773 he became a member of the Virginia Committee of Correspondence. Lee was one of the delegates from Virginia to the first Con- tinental Congress at Philadelphia in 1774, and prepared the address to the people of British America, and the second address to the people of Great Britain, which are among the most effective papers of the time. In accordance with instructions given by the Virginia House of Burgesses, Lee introduced in Congress, on the 7th of June 1776, the following famous resolu- tions: (i) " that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political con- nexion between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved "; (2) " that it is expedient to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign alliances "; and (3) " that a plan of confederation be prepared and transmitted to the respective colonies for their consideration and approba- tion." After debating the first of these resolutions for three days, Congress resolved that the further consideration of it should be postponed until the ist of July, but that a committee should be appointed to prepare a declaration of independence. The illness of Lee's wife prevented him from being a member of that committee, but his first resolution was adopted on the 2nd of July, and the Declaration of Independence, prepared princi- pally by Thomas Jefferson, was adopted two days later. Lee was in Congress from 1 7 74 to 1780, and was especially prominent in connexion with foreign affairs. He was a member of the Virginia House of Delegates in 1777, 1780-1784 and 1786-1787; was in Congress again from 178410 1787, being president in 1784- 1786; and was one of the first United States senators chosen from Virginia after the adoption of the Federal constitution. Though strongly opposed to the adoption of that constitution, owing to what he regarded as its dangerous infringements upon the independent power of the states, he accepted the place of senator in hope of bringing about amendments, and proposed the Tenth Amendment in substantially the form in which it was adopted. He became a warm supporter of Washington's administration, and his prejudices against the constitution were largely removed by its working in practice. He retired from public life in 1792, and died at Chantilly, in Westmoreland county, on the igth of June 1794. See the Life (Philadelphia, 1825), by his grandson, R. H. Lee; and Letters (New York, 1910), edited by J. C. Ballagh. His brother, WILLIAM LEE (1739-1795), was a diplomatist during the War of Independence. He accompanied his brother, Arthur Lee (lace of sacrifice. LEEUWARDEN, the capital of the province of Friesland, lolland, on the canal between Harlingen and Groningen, 33 m. by rail W. of Groningen. Pop (1901) 32,203. It is one of the most prosperous towns in the country. To the name of the Trisian Hague, it is entitled as well by similarity of history as >y similarity of appearance. As the Hague grew up round he court of the counts of Holland, so Leeuwarden round the 1 Tusser, in his verse for the month of March, writes: — " Now leckes are in season, for pottage ful good, And spareth the milck cow, and purgeth the blood, These hauving with peason, for pottage in Lent, Thou spareth both otemel and bread to be spent." LEEUWENHOEK— LE FANU court of the Frisian stadtholders; and, like the Hague, it is an exceptionally clean and attractive town, with parks, pleasure grounds, and drives. The old gates have been somewhat ruth- lessly cleared away, and the site of the town walls on the north and west competes with the park called the Prince's Garden as a public pleasure ground. The Prince's Garden was originally laid out by William Frederick of Nassau in 1648, and was presented to the town by King William I. in 1819. The royal palace, which was the seat of the Frisian court from 1603 to 1 747, is now the residence of the royal commissioner for Friesland. It was restored in 1816 and contains a portrait gallery of the Frisian stadtholders. The fine mansion called the Kanselary was begun in 1502 as a residence for the chancellor of George of Saxony (1539), governor of Friesland, but was only completed in 1571 andservedasa court house until 1811. It was restored at the end of the igth century to contain the important pro- vincial library and national archives. Other noteworthy build- ings are the picturesque weigh-house (1595), the town hall (1715), the provincial courts (1850), and the great church of St Jacob, once the church of the Jacobins, and the largest monastic church in the Netherlands. The splendid tombs of the Frisian stadt- holders buried here (Louis of Nassau, Anne of Orange, and others) were destroyed in the revolution 1795. The unfinished tower of Oldehove dates from 1529-1532. The museum of the Frisian Society is of modern foundation and contains a collection of provincial antiquities, including two rooms from Hindeloopen, an ancient village of Friesland, some i6th-and 17th-century portraits, some Frisian works in silver of the I7th and i8th centuries, and a collection of porcelain and faience. Leeuwarden is the centre of a flourishing trade, being easily accessible from all parts of the province by road, rail and canal. The chief business is in stock of every kind, dairy and agri- cultural produce and fresh-water fish, a large quantity of which is exported to France. The industries include boat-building and timber yards, iron-foundries, copper and lead works, furniture, organ, tobacco and other factories, and the manufacture of gold and silver wares. The town is first mentioned in documents of the i3th century. LEEUWENHOEK, or LEUWENHOEK, ANTHONY VAN (1632- 1723), Dutch microscopist, was born at Delft on the 24th of October 1632. For a short time he was in a merchant's office in Amsterdam, but early devoted himself to the manufacture of microscopes and to the study of the minute structure of organized bodies by their aid. He appears soon to have found that single lenses of very short focus were preferable to the compound microscopes then in use; and it is clear from the discoveries he made with these that they must have been of very excellent quality. His discoveries were for the most part made public in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, to the notice of which body he was introduced by R. de Graaf in 1673, and of which he was elected a fellow in 1680. He was chosen a corresponding member of the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1697. He died at his native place on the 26th of August 1723. Though his researches were not conducted on any definite scientific plan, his powers of careful observation enabled him to make many interesting discoveries in the minute anatomy of man, the higher animals and insects. He confirmed and extended M. Malpighi's demonstration of the blood capillaries in 1668, and six years later he gave the first accurate description of the red blood corpuscles, which he found to be circular in man but oval in frogs and fishes. In 1677 he described and illustrated the spermatozoa in dogs and other animals, though in this discovery Stephen Hamm had anticipated him by a few months; and he investigated the structure of the teeth, crystalline lens, muscle, &c. In 1680 he noticed that yeast consists of minute globular particles, and he described the different structure of the stem in monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants. His researches in the life-history of various of the lower forms of animal life were in opposition to the doctrine that they could be " produced spontaneously, or bred from corruption." Thus he showed that the weevils of granaries, in his time commonly sup- posed to be bred from wheat, as well as in it, are grubs hatched from eggs deposited by winged insects. His chapter on the flea, in which he not only describes its structure, but traces out the whole history of its metamorphoses from its first emergence from the egg, is full of interest — not so much for the exactness of his observations, as for its incidental revelation of the extraordinary ignorance then prevalent in regard to the origin and propagation of " this minute and despised creature," which some asserted to be produced from sand, others from dust, others from the dung of pigeons, and others from urine, but which he showed to be "en- dowed with as great perfection in its kind as any large animal," and proved to breed in the regular way of winged insects. He even noted the fact that the pupa of the flea is sometimes attacked and fed upon by a mite — an observation which suggested the well known lines of Swift. His attention having been drawn to the blighting of the young shoots of fruit-trees, which was commonly attributed to the ants found upon them, he was the first to find the Aphides that really do the mischief; and, upon searching into the history of their generation, he observed the young within the bodies of their parents. He carefully studied also the history of the ant and was the first to show that what had been commonly reputed to be " ants' eggs " are really their pupae, containing the perfect insect nearly ready for emersion, whilst the true eggs are far smaller, and give origin to " maggots " or larvae. Of the sea-mussel, again, and other shell-fish, he argued (in reply to a then recent defence of Aristotle's doctrine by F. Buonanni, a learned Jesuit of Rome) that they are not generated out of the mud or sand found on the seashore or the beds of rivers at low water, but from spawn, by the regular course of generation; and he maintained the same to be true of the fresh-water mussel (Unio), whose ova he examined so carefully that he saw in them the rotation of the embryo, a pheno- menon supposed to have been first discovered long afterwards. In the same spirit he investigated the generation of eels, which were at that time supposed, not only by the ignorant vulgar, but by " re- spectable and learned men," to be produced from dew without the ordinary process of generation. Not only was he the first discoverer of the rotifers, but he showed " how wonderfully nature has provided for the preservation of their species," by their tolerance of the drying-up of the water they inhabit, and the resistance afforded to the evaporation of the fluids of their bodies by the impermeability of the casing in which they then become enclosed. " We can now easily conceive," he says, " that in all rain-water which is collected from gutters in cisterns, and in all waters exposed to the air, animal- cules may be found ; for they may be carried thither by the particles of dust blown about by the winds." Leeuwenhoek's contributions to the Philosophical Transactions amounted to one hundred and twelve; he also published twenty-six papers in the Memoirs of the Paris Academy of Sciences. Two collections of his works appeared during his life, one in Dutch (Leiden and Delft, 1685-1718), and the Bother in Latin (Opera omnia s. Arcana naturae ope exactissimorum microscopiorum selecta, Leiden, I7I5~i722); and a selection from them was translated by S. Hoole and published in English (London, 1798-1781). LEEWARD ISLANDS, a group in the West Indies. They derive their name from being less exposed to the prevailing N.E. trade wind than the adjacent Windward Islands. They are the most northerly of the Lesser Antilles, and form a curved chain stretching S.W. from Puerto Rico to meet St Lucia, the most northerly of the Windward Islands. They consist of the Virgin Islands, with St Kitts, Antigua, Montserrat, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique and their various dependencies. The Virgin Islands are owned by Great Britain and Denmark, Holland having St Eustatius, with Saba, and part of St Martin. France possesses Guadeloupe, Martinique, St Bartholomew and the remainder of St Martin. The rest of the islands are British, and (with the exception of Sombrero, a small island used only as a lighthouse-station) form, under one governor, a colony divided into five presidencies, namely: Antigua (with Barbuda and Redonda), St Kitts (with Nevis and Anguilla), Dominica, Montserrat and the Virgin Islands. Total pop. (1901) 127,536. There is one federal executive council nominated by the crown, and one federal legislative council — ten nominated and ten elected members. Of the latter, four are chosen by the unofficial members of the local legislative council of Antigua, two by those of Dominica, and four by the non-official members of the local legislative council of St Kitts-Nevis. The federal legis- lative council meets once annually, usually at St John, Antigua. LE FANU, JOSEPH SHERIDAN (1814-1873), Irish journalist and author, was born of an old Huguenot family at Dublin on the 28th of August 1814. He entered Trinity College, Dublin, in 1833. At an early age he had given proof of literary talent, and in 1 83 7 he joined the staff of the Dublin University Magazine, of which he became later editor and proprietor. In 1837 he produced the Irish ballad Phaudhrig Croohore. which was 372 LEFEBVRE, P. F. J.— LEGACY shortly afterwards followed by a second, Shamus O'Brien, successfully recited in the United States by Samuel Lover. In 1839 he became proprietor of the Warder, a Dublin newspaper, and, after purchasing the Evening Packet and a large interest in the Dublin Evening Mail, he combined the three papers under the title the Evening Mail, a weekly reprint from which was issued as the Warder. After the death of his wife in 1858 he lived in retirement, and his best work was produced at this period of his life. He wrote some clever novels, of a sensational order, in which his vigorous imagination and his Irish love of the supernatural have full play. He died in Dublin on the 7th of February 1873. His best-known novels are The House by the Churchyard (1863) and Uncle Silas, a Tale of Bartram Haugh (1864). The Pur cell Papers, Irish stories dating from his college days, were edited with a memoir of the author by A. P. Graves in 1880. LEFEBVRE, PIERRE FRANCOIS JOSEPH, duke of Danzig (1755-1820), marshal of France, was born at Rouffach in Alsace on the 20th of October 1755. At the outbreak of the Revolution he was a sergeant in the Gardes franchises, and with many of his comrades of this regiment took the popular side. He dis- tinguished himself by bravery and humanity in many of the street fights in Paris, and becoming an officer and again distinguishing himself — this time against foreign invaders — he was made a general of division in 1794. He took part in the Revolutionary Wars from Fleurus to Stokach, always resolute, strictly obedient and calm. At Stokach (1799) he received a severe wound and had to return to France, where he assisted Napoleon during the coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire. He was one of the first generals of division to be made marshal at the beginning of the First Empire. He commanded the guard infantry at Jena, conducted the siege of Danzig 1806-1807 (from which town he received his title in 1808), commanded a corps in the emperor's campaign of 1808-1809 in Spain, and in 1809 was given the difficult task of commanding the Bavarian contingent, which he led in the containing engagements of Abensberg and Rohr and at the battle of Eckmiihl. He commanded the Imperial Guard in Russia, 1812, fought through the last campaign of the Empire, and won fresh glory at Montmirail, Areis-sur-Aube and Champau- bert. He was made a peer of France by Louis XVIII. but joined Napoleon during the Hundred Days, and was only amnestied and permitted to resume his seat in the upper chamber in 1819. He died at Paris on the I4th of September 1820. Marshal Lefebvre was a simple soldier, whose qualifications for high rank, great as they were, came from experience and not from native genius. He was incapable of exercising a supreme com- mand, even of leading an important detachment, but he was absolutely trustworthy as a subordinate, as brave as he was experienced, and intensely loyal to his chief. He maintained to the end of his life a rustic simplicity of speech and demeanour. Of his wife (formerly a blanchisseuse to the Gardes Francaises) many stories have been told, but in so far as they are to her discredit they seem to be false, she being, like the marshal, a plain " child of the people." LEFEBVRE, TANNEGUY (TANAQUILLUS FABER) (1615- 1672), French classical scholar, was born at Caen. After complet- ing his studies in Paris, he was appointed by Cardinal Richelieu inspector of the printing-press at the Louvre. After Richelieu's death he left Paris, joined the Reformed Church, and in 1651 obtained a professorship at the academy of Saumur, which he filled with great success for nearly twenty years. His increasing ill-health and a certain moral laxity (as shown in his judgment on Sappho) led to a quarrel with the consistory, as a result of which he resigned his professorship. Several universities were eager to obtain his services, and he had accepted a post offered him by the elector palatine at Heidelberg, when he died suddenly on the 1 2th of September, 1672. One of his children was the famous Madame Dacier. Lefebvre, who was by no means a typical student in dress or manners, was a highly cultivated man and a thorough classical scholar. He brought out editions of various Greek and Latin authors — Longinus, Anacreon and Sappho, Virgil, Horace, Lucretius and many others. His most important original works are: Les Vies des po'etes Grecs (1665); Mtthode pour commencer les humanites Grecques et Latines (2nd ed., 1731), of which several English adaptations have appeared; Epistolae Criticae (1659). In addition to the Memoires pour ... /a vie de Tanneguy Lefebvre, by F. Graverol (1686), see the article in the Nouvelle biographie generate, based partly on the MS. registers of the Saumur Academic. LEFEBVRE-DESNOETTES, CHARLES, COMTE (1773-1822), French cavalry general, joined the army in 1792 and served with the armies of the North, of the Sambre-and-Meuse and Rhine- and-Moselle in the various campaigns of the Revolution. Six years later he had become captain and aide-de-camp to General Bonaparte. At Marengo he won further promotion, and at Austerlitz became colonel, serving also in the Prussian campaigns of 1806-1807. In 1808 he was made general of brigade and created a count of the Empire. Sent with the army into Spain, he conducted the first and unsuccessful siege of Saragossa. The battlefield of Tudela showed his talents to better advantage, but towards the end of 1808 he was taken prisoner in the action of Benavente by the British cavalry under Paget (later Lord Uxbridge, and subsequently Marquis of Anglesey). For over two years he remained a prisoner in England, living on parole at Cheltenham. In 1811 he escaped, and in the invasion of Russia in 1812 was again at the head of his cavalry. In 1813 and 1814 his men distinguished themselves in most of the great battles, especially La Rothiere and Montmirail. He joined Napoleon in the Hundred Days and was wounded at Waterloo. For his part in these events he was condemned to death, but he escaped to the United States, and spent the next few years farming in Louisiana. His frequent appeals to Louis XVIII. eventually obtained his permission to return, but the " Albion," the vessel on which he was returning to France, went down off the coast of Ireland with all on board on the 22nd of May 1822. LE FEVRE, JEAN (c. 1395-1468), Burgundian chronicler and seigneur of Saint Remy, is also known as Toison d'or from his long connexion with the order of the Golden Fleece. Of noble birth, he adopted the profession of arms and with other Bur- gundians fought in the English ranks at Agincourt. In 1430, on the foundation of the order of the Golden Fleece by Philip III. the Good, duke of Burgundy, Le Fevre was appointed its king of arms and he soon became a very influential person at the Burgundian court. He frequently assisted Philip in conducting negotiations with foreign powers, and he was an arbiter in tournaments and on all questions of chivalry, where his wide knowledge of heraldry was highly useful. He died at Bruges on the 1 6th of June 1468. Le Fevre wrote a Chronique, or Histoire de Charles VI., roy de France. The greater part of this chronicle is merely a copy of the work of Enguerrand de Monstrelet, but Le Fevre is an original authority for the years between 1428 and 1436 and makes some valuable additions to our knowledge, especially about the chivalry of the Burgundian court. He is more concise than Monstrelet, but is equally partial to the dukes of Burgundy. The Chronique has been edited by F. Morand for the Soci6t6 de 1'histoire de France (Paris, 1876). Le Fevre is usually regarded as the author of the Livre des faites de Jacques de Lalaing. LEG (a word of Scandinavian origin, from the Old Norwegian leggr, cf. Swed. Idgg, Dan. laeg; the O. Eng. word was sceanca, shank), the general name for those limbs in animals which support and move the body, and in man for the lower limbs of the body (see ANATOMY, Superficial and Artistic; SKELETON, Appendicular; MUSCULAR SYSTEM). The word is in common use for many objects which resemble the leg in shape or function. As a slang term, " leg," a shortened form of " blackleg," has been in use since the end of the i8th century for a swindler, especially in connexion with racing or gambling. The term " blackleg " is now also applied by trade-unionists to a workman who, during a strike or lockout, continues working or is brought to take the place of the withdrawn workers. LEGACY (Lat. legatum), in English law, some particular thing or things given or left by a testator in his will, to be paid or performed by his executor or administrator. The word is primarily applicable to gifts of personalty or gifts charged LE GALLIENNE— LEGARE 373 upon real estate; but if there is nothing else to which it can refer it may refer to realty; the proper word, however, for gifts of realty is devise. Legacies may be either specific, general or demonstrative. A specific legacy is " something which a testator, identifying it by a sufficient description and manifesting an intention that it should be enjoyed in the state and condition indicated by that description, separates in favour of a particular legatee from the general mass of his personal estate," e.g. a gift of " my portrait by X," naming the artist. A general legacy is a gift not so distinguished from the general mass of the personal estate, e.g. a gift of £100 or of a gold ring. A demonstrative legacy partakes of the nature of both the preceding kinds of legacies, e.g. a gift of £100 payable out of a named fund is a specific legacy so far as the fund named is available to' pay the legacy; after the fund is exhausted the balance of the legacy is a general legacy and recourse must be had to the general estate to satisfy such balance. Sometimes a testator bequeaths two or more legacies to the same person; in such a case it is a question whether the later legacies are in substitution for, or in addition to, the earlier ones. In the latter case they are known as cumulative. In each case the intention of the testator is the rule of construction; this can often be gathered from the terms of the will or codicil, but in the absence of such evidence the following rules are followed by the courts. Where the same specific thing is be- queathed twice to the same legatee or where two legacies of equal amount are bequeathed by the same instrument the second bequest is mere repetition; but where legacies of equal amounts are bequeathed by different instruments or of unequal amounts by the same instruments they are considered to be cumulative. If the estate of the testator is insufficient to satisfy all the legacies these must abate, i.e. be reduced rateably; as to this it should be noticed that specific and demonstrative legacies have a prior claim to be paid in full out of the specific fund before general legacies, and that general legacies abate rateably inter se in the absence of any provision to the contrary by the testator. Specific legacies are liable to ademption where the specific thing perishes or ceases to belong to the testator, e.g. in the instance given above if the testator sells the portrait the legatee will get nothing by virtue of the legacy. As a general rule, legacies given to persons who predecease the testator do not take effect ; they are said to lapse. This is so even if the gift be to A and his executors, administrators and assigns, but this is not so if the testator has shown a contrary intention, thus, a gift to A or his personal representative will be effective even though A predecease the testator; further, by the Wills Act 1837, devises of estates tail and gifts to a child or other issue of the testator will not lapse if any issue of the legatee survive the testator. Lapsed legacies fall into and form part of the residuary estate. In the absence of any indication to the contrary a legacy becomes due on the day of the death of the testator, though for the convenience of the executor it is not payable till a year after that date; this delay does not prevent the legacy vesting on the testator's death. It frequently happens, however, that a legacy is given payable at a future date; in such a case, if the legatee dies after the testator but prior to the date when the legacy is payable it is necessary to discover whether the legacy was vested or contingent, as in the former case it becomes payable to the legatee's representative; in the latter, it lapses. In this, as in other cases, the test is the intention of the testator as expressed in the will; generally it may be said that a gift "payable" or " to be paid " at a certain fixed time confers a vested interest on the legatee, while a gift to A " at " a fixed time, e.g. twenty-one years of age, only confers on A an interest contingent on his attaining the age of twenty-one. Legacy Duty is a duty charged by the state upon personal pro- perty devolving upon the legatees or next of kin of a dead person, either by virtue of his will or upon his intestacy. The duty was first imposed in England in 1 780, but the principal act dealing with the subject is the Legacy Duty Act 1 706. The principal points as to the duty are these. The duty is charged on personalty only. It is payable only where the person on whose death the property passes was domiciled in the United Kingdom. The rate of duty varies from i to 10% according to the relationship between the testator and legatee. As between husband and wife no duty is payable. The duty is payable by the executors and deducted from the legacy unless the testator directs otherwise. Special provisions as to valuation are in force where the gift is of an annuity or is settled on various persons in succession, or the legacy is given in joint tenancy and other cases. In some cases the duty is payable by instalments which carry interest at 3%. In various cases legacies are exempt from duty — the more im- portant are gifts to a member of the royal family, specific legacies under £20 (pecuniary legacies under £20 pay duty), legacies of books, prints, &c., given to a body corporate for preservation, not for sale, and legacies given out of an estate the principal value of which is less than £100. Further, by the Finance Act 1894, payment of the estate duty thereby created absorbs the i % duty paid by lineal ancestors or descendants of the deceased1 and the duty on a settled legacy, and, lastly, in the event of estate duty being paid on an estate the total value of which is under £1000, no legacy duty is payable. The legacy duty payable in Ireland is now for all practical purposes assimi- lated to that in Great Britain. The principal statute in thai country is an act of 1814. LE GALLIENNE, RICHARD (1866- ), English poet and critic, was born in Liverpool on the 2oth of January 1866. He started life in a business office in Liverpool, but abandoned this to turn author. My Lady's Sonnets appeared at Liverpool in 1887, and in 1889 he became for a short time literary secretary to Wilson Barrett. In the same year he published Volumes in Folio, The Book Bills of Narcissus and George Meredith: some Characteristics (new ed., 1900). He joined the staff of the Star in 1891, and wrote for various papers over the signature of " Logroller." English Poems (1892), R. L. Stevenson and other Poems (1895), a paraphrase (1897) of the Rubdiyal of Omar Khayyam, and Odes from the Divan of Hafiz (1903), contained some light, graceful verse, but he is best known by the fantastic prose essays and sketches of Prose Fancies (2 series, 1894-1896), Sleeping Beauty and other Prose Fancies (1900), The Religion of a Literary Man (1893), The Quest of the Golden Girl (1897), The Life Romantic (1901), &c. His first wife, Mildred Lee, died in 1894, and in 1897 he married Julie Norregard, subsequently taking up his residence in the United States. In 1906 he trans- lated, from the Danish, Peter Nansen's Love's Trilogy. LEGARE, HUGH SWINTON (1797-1843), American lawyer and statesman, was born in Charleston, South Carolina, on the 2nd of January 1797, of Huguenot and Scotch stock. Partly on account of his inability to share in the amusements of his fellows by reason of a deformity due to vaccine poisoning before he was five (the poison permanently arresting the growth and development of his legs), he was an eager student, and in 1814 he graduated at the College of South Carolina with the highest rank in his class and with a reputation throughout the state for scholarship and eloquence. He studied law for three years in South Carolina, and then spent two years abroad, studying French and Italian in Paris and jurisprudence at Edinburgh. In 1820-1822 and in 1824-1830 he was a member of the South Carolina legislature. In 1827, with Stephen Elliott (1771-1830), the naturalist, he founded the Southern Review, of which he was the sole editor after Elliott's death until 1834, when it was discontinued, and to which he contributed articles on law, travel, and modern and classical literature. In 1830-1832 he was attorney-general of South Carolina, and, although a State's Rights man, he strongly opposed nullification. During his term of office he appeared in a case before the United States Supreme Court, where his -knowledge of civil law so strongly impressed Edward Livingston, the secretary of state, who was himself an admirer of Roman Law, that he urged Legar6 to devote himself to the study of this subject with the hope that he might influence American law toward the spirit and philosophy and even the forms and processes of Roman jurisprudence. 1 The Finance Bill 1909-1910 re-imposed this duty, and extended it to husbands and wives as well as descendants and ancestors. 374 LEGAS— LEGATE Through Livingston, Legare was appointed American chargi d'affaires at Brussels, where from 1833 to 1836 he perfected himself in civil law and in the German commentaries on civil law. In 1837-1839, as a Union Democrat, he was a member of the national House of Representatives, and there ably opposed Van Buren's financial policy in spite of the enthusiasm in South Carolina for the sub-treasury project. He supported Harrison in the presidential campaign of 1840, and when the cabinet was reconstructed by Tyler in 1841, Legare was appointed attorney- general of the United States. On the gth of May 1843 he was appointed secretary of state ad interim, after the resignation of Daniel Webster. On the 2oth of June 1843 he died suddenly at Boston. His great work, the forcing into common law of the principles of civil law, was unaccomplished; but Story says " he seemed about to accomplish [it]; for his arguments before the Supreme Court were crowded with the principles of the Roman Law, wrought into the texture of the Common Law with great success." As attorney-general he argued the famous cases, the United States v. Miranda, Wood v. the United States, and Jewell v. Jewell. See The Writings of Hugh Swinton Legare (2 vols., Charleston, S.C., 1846), edited by his sister, Mrs Mary Bullen, who contributed a biographical sketch; and two articles by B. J. Ramage in The Sewanee Review, vol. x. (New York, 1902). LEGAS, one of the Shangalla group of tribes, regarded as among the purest types of the Galla race. They occupy the upper Yabus valley, S.W. Abyssinia, near the Sudan frontier. The Legas are physically distinct from the Negro Shangalla. They are of very light complexion, tall and thin, with narrow hollow- cheeked faces, small heads and high foreheads. The chiefs' families are of more mixed blood, with perceptible Negro strain. The Legas are estimated to number upwards of a hundred thousand, of whom some 20,000 are warriors. They are, however, a peaceful race, kind to their women and slaves, and energetic agriculturists. Formerly independent, they came about IQOO under the sway of Abyssinia. The Legas are pagans, but Mahom- medanism has gained many converts among them. LEGATE, BARTHOLOMEW (c. 1575-1612), English fanatic, was born in Essex and became a dealer in cloth. About the beginning of the I7th century he became a preacher among a sect called the " Seekers," and appears to have held unorthodox opinions about the divinity of Jesus Christ. Together with his brother Thomas he was put in prison for heresy in 1611. Thomas died in Newgate gaol, London, but Bartholomew's imprisonment was not a rigorous one. James I. argued with him, and on several occasions he was brought before the Consistory Court of London, but without any definite result. Eventually, after having threatened to bring an action for wrongful imprisonment, Legate was tried before a full Consistory Court in February 1612, was found guilty of heresy, and was delivered to the secular authorities for punishment. Refusing to retract his opinions he was burned to death at Smithfield on the i8th of March 1612. Legate was the last person burned in London for his religious opinions, and Edward Wightman, who was burned at Lichfield in April 1612, was the last to suffer in this way in England. See T. Fuller, Church History of Britain (1655) ; and S. R. Gardiner, History of England, vol. ii. (London, 1904). LEGATE (Lat. legalus, past part, of legare, to send as deputy), a title now generally confined to the highest class of diplomatic representatives of the pope, though still occasionally used, in its original Latin sense, of any ambassador or diplomatic agent. According to the Nova Compilatio Decretalium of Gregory IX., under the title " De offkio legati " the canon law recognizes two sorts of legate, the legatus nalus and the legalus datus or missus. The legatus datus (missus) may be either (i) delegalus, or (2) nuncius apostolicus, or (3) legatus a later e (laterally, collateralis). The rights of the legatus natus, which included concurrent juris- diction with that of all the bishops within his province, have been much curtailed since the i6th century, they were alto- gether suspended in presence of the higher claims of a legatus a latere, and the title is now almost quite honorary. It was attached to the see of Canterbury till the Reformation and it still attaches to the sees of Seville, Toledo, Aries, Reims, Lyons, Gran, Prague, Gnesen-Posen, Cologne, Salzburg, among others. The commission of the legalus delegates (generally a member of the local clergy) is of a limited nature, and relates only to some definite piece of work. The nuncius apostolicus (who has the privilege of red apparel, a white horse and golden spurs) possesses ordinary jurisdiction within the province to which he has been sent, but his powers otherwise are restricted by the terms of his mandate. The legalus a latere (almost invariably a cardinal, though the power can be conferred on other prelates) is in the fullest sense the plenipotentiary representative of the pope, and possesses the high prerogative implied in the words of Gregory VII., " nostra vice quae corrigenda sunt corrigat, quae statuend constituat." He has the power of suspending all the bishops in his province, and no judicial cases are reserved from his judg- ment. Without special mandate, however, he cannot depose bishops or unite or separate bishoprics. At present legati a latere are not sent by the holy see, but diplomatic relations, where they exist, are maintained by means of nuncios, inter- nuncios and other agents. The history of the office of papal legate is closely involved with that of the papacy itself. If it were proved that papal legates exercised the prerogatives of the primacy in the early councils, it would be one of the strongest points for the Roman Catholic view of the papal history. Thus it is claimed that Hosius of Cordova presided over the council of Nicaea (325) in the name of the pope. But the claim rests on slender evidence, since the first source in which Hosius is referred to as representative of the pope is Gelasius of Cyzicus in the Propontis, who wrote toward the end of the 5th century. It is even open to dispute whether Hosius was president at Nicaea, and though he certainly pre- sided over the council of Sardica in 343, it was probably as representative of the emperors Constans and Constantius, who had summoned the council. Pope Julius I. was represented at Sardica by two presbyters. Yet the fifth canon, which provides for appeal by a bishop to Rome, sanctions the use of embassies a latere. If the appellant wishes the pope to send priests from his own household, the pope shall be free to do so, and to furnish them with full authority from himself (" ut de latere suo presby- tcros mittat . . . habentes ejus auctoritatem a quo destinati sunt "). The decrees of Sardica, an obscure council, were later confused with those of Nicaea and thus gained weight. In the synod of Ephesus in 431, Pope Celestine I. instructed his repre- sentatives to conduct themselves not as disputants but as judges, and Cyril of Alexandria presided not only in his own name but in that of the pope (and of the bishop of Jerusalem). Instances of delegation of the papal authority in various degrees become numerous in the sth century, especially during the pontificate of Leo I. Thus Leo writes in 444 (Ep. 6) to Anastasius of Thessalonica, appointing him his vicar for the province of Illyria; the same arrangement, he informs us, had been made by Pope Siricius in favour of Anysius, the predecessor of Anas- tasius. Similar vicarial or legatine powers had been conferred in 418 by Zosimus upon Patroclus, bishop of Aries. In 449 Leo was represented at the " Robber Synod," from which his legates hardly escaped with We; at Chalcedon, in 451, they were treated with singular honour, though the imperial commissioners presided. Again, in 453 the same pope writes to the empress Pulcheria, naming Julianus of Cos as his representative in the defence of the interests of orthodoxy and ecclesiastical discipline at Constantinople (Ep. 112); the instructions to Julianus are given in Ep. 113 (" hanc specialem curam vice mea functus assumas "). The designation of Anastasius as vicar apostolic over Illyria may be said to mark the beginning of the custom of conferring, ex officio, the title of legatus upon the holders of important sees, who ultimately came to be known as legati nati, with the rank of primate; the appointment of Julianus at Constantinople gradually developed into the long permanent office of apocrisiarius or responsalis. Another sort of delegation is exemplified in Leo's letter to the African bishops (Ep. 12), in which he sends Potentius, with instructions to inquire in his name, and to report (" vicem curae nostrae fratri et consacerdoti nostro Potentio delegantes qui de episcopis, quorum culpabilis LEGATION— LEGENDRE, A. M. 375 ferebatur electio, quid veritas haberet inquireret, nobisque omnia fideliter indicaret "). Passing on to the time of Gregory the Great, we find him sending two representatives to Gaul in 599, to suppress simony, and one to Spain in 603. Augustine of Canterbury is sometimes spoken of as legate, but it does not appear that in his case this title was used in any strictly technical sense, although the archbisHop of Canterbury afterwards attained the permanent dignity of a legatus natus. Boniface, the apostle of Germany, was in like manner constituted, according to Hinc- mar (Ep. 30), a legate of the apostolic see by Popes Gregory II. and Gregory III. According to Hefele (Cone. iv. 239), Rodoald of Porto and Zecharias of Anagni, who were sent by Pope Nicolas to Constantinople in 860, were the first actually called legali a latere. The policy of Gregory VII. naturally led to a great development of the legatine as distinguished from the ordinary episcopal function. From the creation of the medieval papal monarchy until the close of the middle ages, the papal legate played a most important role in national as well as church history. The further definition of his powers proceeded through- out the 1 2th and i3th centuries. From the i6th century legates a latere give way almost entirely to nuncios (?.».). See P. Hinschius, Kirchenrecht, i. 498 ff.; G. Phillips, Kirchen- recht, vol. vi. 680 ff. LEGATION (Lat. legatio, a sending or mission), a diplomatic mission of the second rank. The term is also applied to the build- ing in which the minister resides and to the area round it covered by his diplomatic immunities. See DIPLOMACY. LEGEND (through the French from the med. Lat. legenda, things to be read, from legere, to read), in its primary meaning the history or life-story of a saint, and so applied to portions of Scripture and selections from the lives of the saints as read at divine service. The statute of 3 and 4 Edward VI. dealing with the abolition of certain books and images (1549), cap. 10, sect, i, says that " all bookes . . . called processionalles, manuelles, legends . . . shall be ... abolished." The " Golden Legend," or Aurea Legenda, was the name given to a book containing lives of the saints and descriptions of festivals, written by Jacobus de Voragine, archbishop of Genoa, in the i3th century. From the original application of the word to stories of the saints con- taining wonders and miracles, the word came«to be applied to a story handed down without any foundation in history, but popularly believed to be true. " Legend " is also used of a writing, inscription, or motto on coins or medals, and in connexion with coats of arms, shields, monuments, &c. LEGENDRE, ADRIEN MARIE (1752-1833), French mathe- matician, was born at Paris (or, according to some accounts, at Toulouse) in 1752. He was brought up at Paris, where he completed his studies at the College Mazarin. His first published writings consist of articles forming part of the Traite de mecanique (1774) of the Abbe Marie, who was his professor; Legendre's name, however, is not mentioned. Soon afterwards he was appointed professor of mathematics in the Ecole Militaire at Paris, and he was afterwards professor in the Ecole Normale. In 1782 he received the prize from the Berlin Academy fof his " Dissertation sur la question de balistique," a memoir relating to the paths of projectiles in resisting media. He also, about this time, wrote his " Recherches sur la figure des planetes," published in the Memoires of the French Academy, of which he was elected a member in succession to J. le Rond d'Alembert in 1783. He was also appointed a commissioner for connecting geodetically Paris and Greenwich, his colleagues being P. F. A. Mechain and C. F. Cassini de Thury; General William Roy conducted the operations on behalf of England. The French observations were published in 1792 (Expose des operations failes en France in 1787 pour la jonction des obseroatoires de Paris et de Greenwich}. During the Revolution, he was one of the three members of the council established to introduce the decimal system, and he was also a member of the commission appointed to determine the length of the metre, for which purpose the calculations, &c., connected with the arc of the meridian from Barcelona to Dunkirk were revised.. He was also associated with G. C. F. M. Prony (1755-1839) in the formation of the great French tables of logarithms of numbers, sines, and tangents, and natural sines, called the Tables du Cadastre, in which the quadrant was divided centesimally; these tables have never been published (see LOGARITHMS). He was examiner in the Ecole Polytechnique, but held few important state offices. He died at Paris on the loth of January 1833, and the discourse at his grave was pronounced by S. D. Poisson. The last of the three supplements to his Traite des fonctions elliptiques was published in 1832, and Poisson in his funeral oration remarked: " M. Legendre a eu cela de commun avec la plupart des geometres qui 1'ont precede, que ses travaux n'ont fini qu'avec sa vie. Le dernier volume de nos memoires renferme encore un memoire de lui, sur une question difficile de la theorie des nombres; et peu de temps avant la maladie qui 1'a conduit au tombeau, il se procura les observations les plus recentes des cometes a courtes periodes, dont il allait se servir pour appliquer et perfectionner ses methodes." It will be convenient, in giving an account of his writings, to consider them under the different subjects which are especially associated with his name. Elliptic Functions. — This is the subject with which Legendre's name will always be most closely connected, and his researches upon it extend over a period of more than forty years. His first published writings upon the subject consist of two papers in the Memoires de I'Academie Franqaise for 1786 upon elliptic arcs. In 1792 he pre- sented to the Academy a memoir on elliptic transcendents. The contents of these memoirs are included in the first volume of his Exercices de calcul integral (1811). The third volume (1816) con- tains the very elaborate and now well-known tables of the elliptic integrals which were calculated by Legendre himself, with an ac- count of the mode of their construction. In 1827 appeared the Traite des fonctions elliptiques (2 vols., the first dated 1825, the second 1826); a great part of the first volume agrees very closely with the contents of the Exercices; the tables, &c., are given in the second volume. Three supplements, relating to the researches of N. H. Abel and C. G. J. Jacobi, were published in 1828-1832, and form a third volume. Legendre had pursued the subject which would now be called elliptic integrals alone from 1786 to 1827, the results of his labours having been almost entirely neglected by his contemporaries, but his work had scarcely appeared in 1827 when the discoveries which were independently made by the two young and as yet unknown mathematicians Abel and Jacobi placed the subject on a new basis, and revolutionized it completely. The readiness with which Legendre, who was then seventy-six years of age, welcomed these important researches, that quite overshadowed his own, and included them in successive supplements to his work, does the highest honour to him (see FUNCTION). Eulerian Integrals and Integral Calculus. — The Exercices de calcul integral consist of three volumes, a great portion of the first and the whole of the third being devoted to elliptic functions. The remainder of the first volume relates to the Eulerian integrals and to quadratures. The second volume (1817) relates to the Eulerian integrals, and to various integrals and series, developments, mechani- cal problems, &c., connected with the integral calculus; this volume contains also a numerical table of the values of the gamma function. The latter portion of the second volume of the Traite des fonctions elliptiques (1826) is also devoted to the Eulerian integrals, the table being reproduced. Legendre's researches connected with the " gamma function " are of importance, and are well known; the subject was also treated by K. F. Gauss in his memoir Disquisitiones generates circa series infinitas (1816), but in a very different manner. The results given in the second volume of the Exercices are of too miscellaneous a character to admit of being briefly described. In 1788 Legendre published a memoir on double integrals, and in 1809 one on definite integrals. Theory of Numbers. — Legendre's Theorie des nombres and Gauss's Disquisitiones arithmetical. (1801) are still standard works upon this subject. The first edition of the former appeared in 1798 under the title Essai sur la theorie des nombres; there was a second edition in 1808; a first supplement was published in 1816, and a second in 1825. The third edition, under the title Theorie des nombres, appeared in 1830 in two volumes. The fourth edition appeared in 1900. To Legendre is due the theorem known as the law of quadratic reciprocity, the most important general result in the science of numbers which has been discovered since the time of P. de Fermat, and which was called by Gauss the " gem of arith- metic." It was first given by Legendre in the Memoires of the Academy for 1785, but the demonstration that accompanied it was incomplete. The symbol (alp) which is known as Legendre's sym- bol, and denotes the positive or negative unit which is the remainder when ai"*"1' is divided by a prime number p, does not appear in this memoir, but was first used in the Essai sur la theorie des nombres. Legendre's formula x: (log x-i -08366) for the approximate number of Forms inferior to a given number x was first given by him also in this work (2nd ed., p. 394) (see NUMBER). LEGENDRE, L.— LEGGE, H. Attractions of Ellipsoids. — Legendre was the author of four im- portant memoirs on this subject. In the first of these, entitled " Recherches sur 1'attraction des spheroides homogenes," published in the Memoires of the Academy for 1785, but communicated to it at an earlier period, Legendre introduces the celebrated expressions which, though frequently called Laplace's coefficients, are more correctly named after Legendre. The definition of the coefficients is that if (l-2h cos +h?)~* be expanded in ascending powers of h, and if the general term be denoted by Pnhn, then Pn is of the Legen- drian coefficient of the rath order. In this memoir also the function which is now called the potential was, at the suggestion of Laplace, first introduced. Legendre shows that Maclaurin's theorem with respect to confocal ellipsoids is true for any position of the external point when the ellipsoids are solids of revolution. Of this memoir Isaac Todhunter writes: " We may affirm that no single memoir in the history of our subject can rival this in interest and importance. During forty years the resources of analysis, even in the hands of d'Alembert, Lagrange and Laplace, had not carried the theory of the attraction of ellipsoids beyond the point which the geometry of Maclaurin had reached. The introduction of the coefficients now called Laplace's, and their application^ commence a new era in mathematical physics." Legendre's second memoir was com- municated to the Academic in 1784, and relates to the conditions of equilibrium of a mass of rotating fluid in the form of a figure of revolution which does not deviate much from a sphere. The third memoir relates to Laplace's theorem respecting confocal ellipsoids. Of the fourth memoir Todhunter writes: " It occupies an important position in the history of our subject. The most striking addition which is here made to previous researches consists in the treatment of a planet supposed entirely fluid; the general equation for the form of a stratum is given for the first time and discussed. For the first time we have a correct and convenient expression for Laplace's nth coefficient." (See Todhunter's History of the Mathe- matical Theories of Attraction and the Figure of the Earth (1873), the twentieth, twenty-second, twenty-fourth, and twenty-fifth chapters of which1 contain a full and complete account of Legendre's four memoirs. See also SPHERICAL HARMONICS.) Geodesy. — Besides the work upon the geodetical operations con- necting Paris and Greenwich, of which Legendre was one of the authors, he published in the Memoires de I'Academie for 1787 two papers on trigonometrical operations depending upon the figure of the earth, containing many theorems relating to this subject. The best known of these, which is called Legendre's theorem, is usually given in treatises on spherical trigonometry ; by means of it a small spherical triangle may be treated as a plane triangle, certain correc- tions being applied to the angles. Legendre was also the author of a memoir upon triangles drawn upon a spheroid. Legendre's theorem is a fundamental one in geodesy, and his contributions to the subject are of the greatest importance. Method of Least Squares. — In 1806 appeared Legendre's Nouvelles Methodes pour la determination des orbites des cometes, which is memorable as containing the first published suggestion of the method of least squares (see PROBABILITY). In the preface Legendre re- marks: " La methode qui me paroit la plus simple et la plus generale consiste a rendre minimum la somme des quarres des erreurs, . . . et que j'appelle methode des moindres quarres " ; and in an appendix in which the application of the method is explained his words are: " De tous les prmcipes qu'on peut proposer pour cet objet, je pense qu'il n'en est pas de plus general, de plus exact, ni d'une application plus facile que celui dont nous avons fait usage dans les recherches precedentes, et qui consiste a rendre minimum la somme des quarres des erreurs." The method was proposed by Legendre only as a convenient process for treating observations, without reference to the theory of probability. It had, however, been applied by Gauss as early as 1795, and the method was fully explained, and the law of facility for the first time given by him in 1809. Laplace also justified the method by means of the principles of the theory of probability; and this led Legendre to republish the part of his Nouvelles Methodes which related to it in the Memoires de I'Academie for 1810. Thus, although the method of least squares was first formally proposed by Legendre, the theory and algorithm and mathematical foundation of the process are due to Gauss and Laplace. Legendre published two supplements to his Nouvelles Methodes in 1806 and 1820. The Elements of Geometry. — Legendre's name is most widely known on account of his Elements de geometrie, the most successful of the numerous attempts that have been made to supersede Euclid as a text-book on geometry. It first appeared in 1794, and went through very many editions, and has been translated into almost all languages. An English translation, by Sir David Brewster, from the eleventh French edition, was published in 1823, and is well known in England. The earlier editions did not contain the trigonometry. In one of the notes Legendre gives a proof of the irrationality of ir. This had been first proved by J. H. Lambert in the Berlin Memoirs for 1768. Legendre's proof is similar in prin- ciple to Lambert's, but much simpler. On account of the objections urged against the treatment of parallels in this work, Legendre was induced to publish in 1803 his Nouvelle Theorie des paralKles. His Geometrie gave rise in England also to a lengthened discussion on the difficult question of the treatment of the theory of parallels. It will thus be seen that Legendre's works have placed him in the very foremost rank in the widely distinct subjects of elliptic func- tions, theory of numbers, attractions, and geodesy, and have given him a conspicuous position in connexion with the integral calculus and other branches of mathematics. He published a memoir on the integration of partial differential equations and a few others which have not been noticed above, but they relate to subjects with which his name is not especially associated. A good account of the principal works of Legendre is given in the Bibliothegue universelle de Geneve for 1833, pp. 45-82. See Elie de Beaumont, " Memoir de Legendre," translated by C. A. Alexander, Smithsonian Report (1874). (J. W. L. G.) LEGENDRE, LOUIS (1752-1797), French revolutionist, was born at Versailles on the 22nd of May 1752. When the Revolu- tion broke out, he kept a butcher's shop in Paris, in the rue des Boucheries St Germain. He was an ardent supporter of the ideas of the Revolution, a member of the Jacobin Club, and one of the founders of the club of the Cordeliers. In spite of the incorrectness of his diction, he was gifted with a genuine eloquence, and well knew how to carry the populace with him. He was a prominent actor in the taking of the Bastille (i4th of July 1789), in the massacre of the Champ de Mars (July 1791), and in the attack on the Tuileries (loth of August 1792). Deputy from Paris to the Convention, he voted for the death of Louis XVI., and was sent on mission to Lyons (27th of February 1793) before the revolt of that town, and was on mission from August to October 1793 in Seine-Inferieure. He was a member of the Comile de S&rete Generale, and contributed to the downfall of the Girondists. When Danton was arrested, Legendre at first defended him, but was soon cowed and withdrew his defence. After the fall of Robespierre, Legendre took part in the reactionary movement, undertook the closing of the Jacobin Club, was elected president of the Convention, and helped to bring about the impeachment of J. B. Carrier, the perpetrator of the noyades of Nantes. He was subsequently elected a member of the Council of Ancients, and died on the i3th of December 1797. See F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention (2nd ed., Paris, 1906, 2 vols.) ; " Correspondance de Legendre " in the Revolution fran^aise (vol. xl., 1901). LEGERDEMAIN (Fr. leger -de-main, i.e. light or sleight of hand), the name given specifically to that form of conjuring in which the performer relies on dexterity of manipulation rather than on mechanical apparatus. See CONJURING. LEGGE, afterwards BILSON-LEGGE, HENRY (1708-1764), English statesman, fourth son of William Legge, ist earl of Dartmouth (1672-1750), was born on the 2gth of May 1708. Educated at Christ Church, Oxford, he became private secretary to Sir Robert Walpole, and in 1739 was appointed secretary of Ireland by the lord-lieutenant, the 3rd duke of Devonshire; being chosen member of parliament for the borough of East Looe in 1740, and for Orford, Suffolk, at the general election in the succeeding year. Legge only shared temporarily in the downfall of Walpole, and became in quick succession surveyor- general of woods and forests, a lord of the admiralty, and a lord of the treasury. In 1748 he was sent as envoy extraordinary to Frederick the Great, and although his conduct in Berlin was sharply censured by George II., he became treasurer of the navy soon after his return to England. In April 1754 he joined the ministry of the duke of Newcastle as chancellor of the exchequer, the king consenting to this appointment although refusing to hold any intercourse with the minister; but Legge shared the elder Pitt's dislike of the policy of paying subsidies to the land- grave of Hesse, and was dismissed from office in November 1755. Twleve months later he returned to his post at the exchequer in the administration of Pitt and the 4th duke of Devonshire, retaining office until April 1757 when he shared both the dismissal and the ensuing popularity of Pitt. When in conjunction with the duke of Newcastle Pitt returned to power in the following July, Legge became chancellor of the exchequer for the 'third time. He imposed new taxes upon houses and windows, and he appears to have lost to some extent the friendship of Pitt, while the king refused to make him a peer. In 1759 he obtained the sinecure position of surveyor of the petty customs and subsidies in the port of London, and having in consequence to resign his seat in parliament he was chosen one of the members for LEGGE, J.— LEGHORN Hampshire, a proceeding which greatly incensed the earl of Bute, who desired this seat for one of his friends. Having thus incurred Bute's displeasure Legge was again dismissed from the exchequer in March 1761, but he continued to take part in parliamentary debates until his death at Tunbridge Wells on the 23rd of August 1764. Legge appears to have been a capable financier, but the position of chancellor of the exchequer was not at that time a cabinet office. He took the additional name of Bilson on succeed- ing to the estates of a relative, Thomas Bettersworth Bilson, in 1754. Pitt called Legge, " the child, and deservedly the favourite child, of the Whigs." Horace Walpole said he was " of a creeping, underhand nature, and aspired to the lion's place by the manoeuvre of the mole," but afterwards he spoke in high terms of his talents. Legge married Mary, daughter and heiress of Edward, 4th and. last Baron Stawel (d. 1755). This lady, who in 1 760 was created Baroness Stawel of Somerton, bore him an only child, Henry Stawel Bilson-Legge (1757-1820), who became Baron Stawel on his mother's death in 1780. When Stawel died without sons his title became extinct. His only daughter, Mary (d. 1864), married John Button, 2nd Baron Sherborne. See John Butler, bishop of Hereford, Some Account of the Character of the late Rt. Hon. H. Bilson-Legge (1765) ; Horace Walpole, Memoirs of the Reign of George II. (London, 1847); and Memoirs of the Reign of George III., edited by G. F. R. Barker (London, 1894); W. E. H. Lecky, History of England, vol. ii. (London, 1892); and the memoirs and collections of correspondence of the time. LEGGE, JAMES (1815-1897), British Chinese scholar, was born at Huntly, Aberdeenshire, in 1815, and educated at King's College, Aberdeen. After studying at the Highbury Theological College, London, he went in 1839 as a missionary to the Chinese, but, as China was not yet open to Europeans, he remained at Malacca three years, in charge of the Anglo-Chinese College there. The College was subsequently moved to Hong-Kong, where Legge lived for thirty years. Impressed with the necessity of missionaries being able to comprehend the ideas and culture of the Chinese, he began in 1841 a translation in many volumes of the Chinese classics, a monumental task admirably executed and completed a few years before his death. In 1870 he was made an LL.D. of Aberdeen and in 1884 of Edinburgh University. In 1875 several gentlemen connected with the China trade suggested to the university of Oxford a Chair of Chinese Language and Literature to be occupied by Dr Legge. The university responded liberally, Corpus Christi College contributed the emoluments of a fellowship, and the chair was constituted in 1876. In addition to his other work Legge wrote The Life and Teaching of Confucius (1867); The Life and Teaching of Mencius (1875); The Religions of China (1880); and other books on Chinese literature and religion. He died at Oxford on the 29th of November 1897. LEGHORN (Ital. Livorno, Fr. Livourne), a city of Tuscany, Italy, chief town of the province of the same name, which con- sists of the commune of Leghorn and the islands of Elba and Gorgona. The town is the seat of a bishopric and of a large naval academy — the only one in Italy — and the third largest commercial port in the kingdom, situated on the west coast, 12 m. S.W. of Pisa by rail, 10 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 78,308 (town), 96,528 (commune). It is built along the sea- shore upon a healthy and fertile tract of land, which forms, as it were, an oasis in a zone of Maremma. Behind is a range of hills, the most conspicuous of which, the Monte Nero, is crowned by a frequented pilgrimage church and also by villas and hotels, to which a funicular railway runs. The town itself is almost entirely modern. The 16th-century Fortezza Vecchia, guarding the harbour, is picturesque, and there is a good bronze statue of the grand duke Ferdinand I. by Pietro Tacca (1577- 1640), a pupil of Giovanni da Bologna. The lofty Torre del Marzocco, erected in 1423 by the Florentines, is fine. The facade of the cathedral was designed by Inigp Jones. The old Protestant cemetery contains the tombs of Tobias Smollett (d. 1771) and Francis Horner (d. 1817). There is also a large synagogue founded in 1581. The exchange, the chamber of commerce and the clearing-house (one of the oldest in the 377 world, dating from 1764) are united under one roof in the Palazzo del Commercio, opened in 1907.. Several improvements have been carried out in the city and port, and the place is developing rapidly as an industrial centre. The naval academy, formerly established partly at Naples and partly at Genoa, has been transferred to Leghorn. Some of the navigable canals which connected the harbour with the interior of the city have been either modified or filled up. Several streets have been widened, and a road along the shore has been transformed into a fine and shady promenade. Leghorn is the principal sea-bathing resort in this part of Italy, the season lasting from the end of June to the end of August. A spa for the use of the Acque della Salute has been constructed. Leghorn is on the main line from Pisa to Rome; another line runs to Colle Salvetti. A con- siderable number of important steamship lines call here. The new rectilinear mole, sanctioned in 1881, has been built out into the sea for a distance of 600 yds. from the old Vegliaia lighthouse, and the docking basin has been lengthened to 490 ft. Inside the breakwater the depth varies from 10 to 26 ft. The total trade of the port increased from £3,853,593 in 1897 to £5,675,285 in 1005 and £7,009,758 in 1906 (the large increase being mainly due to a rise of over £1,000,000 in imports — mainly of coal, building materials and machinery), the average ratio of imports to exports being as three to two. The imports consist principally of machinery, coal, grain, dried fish, tobacco and hides, and the exports of hemp, hides, olive oil, soap, coral, candied fruit, wine, straw hats, boracic acid, mercury, and marble and alabaster. In 1885 the total number of vessels that entered the port was 4281 of 1,434,000 tons; of these, 1251 of 750,000 tons were foreign; 688,000 tons of merchandise were loaded and unloaded. In 1906, after considerable fluctua- tions during the interval, the total number that entered was 4623 vessels of 2,372,551 tons; of these, 935 of 1,002,119 tons were foreign; British ships representing about half this tonnage. In 1906 the total imports and exports amounted to 1,470,000 tons including coasting trade. A great obstacle to the develop- ment of the port is the absence of modern mechanical appliances for loading and unloading vessels, and of quay space and dock accommodation. The older shipyards have been considerably extended, and shipbuilding is actively carried on, especially by the Orlando yard which builds large ships for the Italian navy, while new industries — namely, glass-making and copper and brass-founding, electric power works, a cement factory, porcelain factories, flour-mills, oil-mills, a cotton yarn spinning factory, electric plant works, a ship-breaking yard, a motor- boat yard, &c. — have been established. Other important firms, Tuscan wine-growers, oil-growers, timber traders, colour manu- facturers, &c., have their head offices and stores at Leghorn, with a view to export. The former British " factory " here was of great importance for the trade with the Levant, but was closed in 1825. The two villages of Ardenza and Antignano, which form part of the commune, have acquired considerable im- portance, the former in part for sea-bathing. The earliest mention of Leghorn occurs in a document of 891, relating to the first church here; in 1017 it is called a castle. In the i3th century the Pisans tried to attract a population to the spot, but it was not till the i4th that Leghorn became a rival of Porto Pisano at the mouth of the Arno, which it was destined ultimately to supplant. It was at Leghorn that Urban V. and Gregory XI. landed on their return from Avignon. When in 1405 the king of France sold Pisa to the Florentines he kept possession of Leghorn; but he afterwards (1407) sold it for 26,000 ducats to the Genoese, and from the Genoese the Floren- tines purchased it in 1421. In 1496 the city showed its devotion to its new masters by a successful defence against Maximilian and his allies, but it was still a small place; in 1551 there were only 749 inhabitants. With the rise of the Medici came a rapid increase of prosperity; Cosmo, Francis and Ferdinand erected fortifications and harbour works, warehouses and churches, with equal liberality, and the last especially gave a stimulus to trade by inviting " men of the East and the West, Spanish and Portuguese, Greeks, Germans, Italians, Hebrews, Turks, 378 LEGION— LEGITIMACY AND LEGITIMATION Moors, Armenians, Persians and others," to settle and traffic in the city, as it became in .1606. Declared free and neutral in 1691, Leghorn was permanently invested with these privileges by the Quadruple Alliance in 1718; but in 1796 Napoleon seized all the hostile vessels in its port. It ceased to be a free city by the law of 1867. (T. As.) LEGION (Lat. legio), in early Rome, the levy of citizens marching out en masse to war, like the citizen-army of any other primitive state. As Rome came to need more than one army at once and warfare grew more complex, legio came to denote a unit of 4000-6000 heavy infantry (including, however, at first some light infantry and at various times a handful of cavalry) who were by political status Roman citizens and were distinct from the " allies," auxilia, and other troops of the second class. The legionaries were regarded as the best and most characteristic Roman soldiers, the most trustworthy and truly Roman; they enjoyed better pay and conditions of service than the " auxiliaries." In A.D. 14 (death of Augustus) there were 25 such legions: later, the number was slightly increased; finally about A.D. 290 Diocletian reduced the size and greatly increased the number of the legions. Throughout, the dominant features of the legions were heavy infantry and Roman citizenship. They lost their importance when the Barbarian invasions altered the character of ancient warfare and made cavalry a more important arm than infantry, in the late 3rd and 4th centuries A.D. In the middle ages the word " legion " seems not to have been used as a technical term. In modern times it has been employed for organizations of an unusual or exceptional character, such as a corps of foreign volunteers or mercenaries. See further ROMAN ARMY. (F. J. H.) The term legion has been used to designate regiments or corps of all arms in modern times, perhaps the earliest example of this being the Provincial Legions formed in France by Francis I. (see INFANTRY). Napoleon, in accordance with this precedent, employed the word to designate the second-line formations which he main- tained in France and which supplied the Grande Armee with drafts. The term " Foreign Legion " is often used for irregular volunteer corps of foreign sympathizers raised by states at war, often by smaller states fighting for independence. Unlike most foreign legions the " British Legion " which, raised in Great Britain and commanded by Sir de Lacy Evans (q.v.), fought in the Carlist wars, was a regularly enlisted and paid force. The term " foreign legion " is colloquially but incorrectly applied to-day to the Regiments etrangers in the French service, which are composed of adventurous spirits of all nationalities and have been employed in many arduous colonial campaigns. The most famous of the corps that have borne the name of legion in modern times was the King's German Legion (see Beamish's history of the corps). The electorate of Hanover being in 1805 threatened by the French, and no effective resistance being con- sidered possible, the British government wished to take the greater part of the Hanoverian army into its service. But the acceptance by the Hanoverian government of this offer was delayed until too late, and it was only after the French had entered the country and the army as a unit had been disbanded that the formation of the " King's German Regiment," as it was at first called, was begun in England. This enlisted not only ex-Hanoverian soldiers, but other Germans as well, as individuals. Lieut.-Colonel von der Decken and Major Colin Halkett were the officers entrusted with the formation of the new corps, which in January 1805 had become a corps of all arms with the title of King s German Legion. It then consisted of a dragoon and a hussar regiment, five batteries, two light and four line battalions and an engineer section, all these being afterwards increased. Its services included the abortive German expedition of November 1805, the expedition to Copenhagen in 1807, the minor sieges and combats in Sicily 1808-14, the Walcheren expedition of 1809, the expedition to Sweden under Sir John Moore in 1808, and the campaign of 1813 in north Germany. But its title to fame is its part in the Peninsular War, in which from first to last it was an acknowledged corps d'elite — its cavalry especially, whose services both on reconnaissance and in battle were of the highest value. The exploit of the two dragoon regiments of the Legion at Garcia Hernandez after the battle of Salamanca, where they charged and broke up two French infantry squares and captured some 1400 prisoners, is one of the most notable incidents in the history of the cavalry arm (see Sir E. Wood's Achievements of Cavalry). A general officer of the Legion, Charles Alten (q.v.), commanded the British Light Division in the latter part of the war. It should be said that the Legion was rarely engaged as a unit. It was considered rather as a small army of the British type, most of which served abroad by regiments and battalions while a small portion and depot units were at home, the total numbers under arms being about 25,000. In 1815 the period of service of the corps had almost expired when Napoleon returned from Elba, but its members voluntarily offered to prolong their service. It lost heavily at Waterloo, in which Baring's battalion of the light infantry distinguished itself by its gallant defence of La Haye Sainte. The strength of the Legion at the time of its disbandment was noo officers and 23,500 men. A short-lived " King's German Legion " was raised by the British government for service in the Crimean War. Certain Hanoverian regiments of the German army to-day represent the units of the Legion and carry Peninsular battle- honours on their standards and colours. LEGITIM, or BAIRN'S PART, in Scots law, the legal share of the movable property of a father due on his death to his children. If a father dies leaving a widow and children, the movable property is divided into three equal parts; one-third part is divided equally among all the children who survive, although they may be of different marriages (the issue of predeceased children do not share); another third goes to the widow as her jus relictae, and the remaining third, called " dead's part," may be disposed of by the father by will as he pleases. If the father die intestate the dead's part goes to the children as next of kin. Should the father leave no widow, one-half of the movable estate is legitim and one-half dead's part. In claiming legitim, however, credit must be given for any advance made by the father out of his movable estate during his lifetime. LEGITIMACY, and LEGITIMATION, the status derived by individuals in consequence of being born in legal wedlock, and the means by which the same status is given to persons not so born. Under the Roman or civil law a child born before the marriage of the parents was made legitimate by their subsequent marriage. This method of legitimation was accepted by the canon law, by the legal systems of the continent of Europe, of Scotland and of some of the states of the United States. The early Germanic codes, however, did not recognize such legiti- mation, nor among the Anglo-Saxons had the natural-born child any rights of inheritance, or possibly any right other than that of protection, even when acknowledged by its father. The principle of the civil and canon law was at one time advocated by the clergy of England, but was summarily rejected by the barons at the parliament of Merton in 1 236, when they replied Nolumus leges Angliae mutare. English law takes account solely of the fact that marriage precedes the birth of the child; at whatever period the birth happens after the marriage, the offspring is prima facie legitimate. The presumption of law is always in favour of the legitimacy of the child of a married woman, and at one time it was so strong that Sir Edward Coke held that " if the husband be within the four seas, i.e. within the jurisdiction of the king of England, and the wife hath issue, no proof shall be admitted to prove the child a bastard unless the husband hath an apparent im- possibility of procreation." It is now settled, however, that the presumption of legitimacy may be rebutted by evidence showing non-access on the part of the husband, or any other circumstance showing that the husband could not in the course of nature have been the father of his wife's child. If the husband had access, or the access be not clearly negatived, even though others at the same time were carrying on an illicit intercourse with the wife, a child born under such circumstances is legitimate. If the husband had access intercourse must be presumed, unless there is irresistible evidence to the contrary. Neither husband or wife will be permitted to prove the non-access directly or indirectly. Children born after a divorce a mensa et thoro will, however, be presumed to be bastards unless access be proved. A child born so long after the death of a husband that he could not in the ordinary course of nature have been the father is illegitimate. The period of gestation is presumed to be about nine calendar months; and if there were any circumstances from which an unusually long or short period of gestation could be inferred, special medical testimony would be required. A marriage between persons within the prohibited degrees of affinity was before 1835 not void, but only voidable, and the ecclesiastical courts were restrained from bastardizing the issue after the death of either of the parents. Lord LEGITIMISTS— LEGNANO 379 Lyndhurst's act (1835) declared all such existing marriages valid, but all subsequent marriages between persons within the prohibited degrees of consanguinity or affinity were made null and void and the issue illegitimate (see MARRIAGE). By the Legitimacy Declaration Act 1858, application may be made to the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Court (in Scotland, to the Court of Session by action of declarator) for a declaration of legitimacy and of the validity of a marriage. The status of legitimacy in any country depending upon the fact of the child having been born in wedlock, it may be concluded that any question as to the legitimacy of a child turns either on the validity of the marriage or on whether the child has been born in wedlock. Legitimation effected by the subsequent marriage of the parents of the illegitimate child is technically known as legitimation per subsequens malrimonium. This adoption of the Roman law principle is followed by most of the states of the continent of Europe (with distinctions, of course, as to certain illegitimate children, or as to the forms of acknowledgment by the parent or parents), in the Isle of Man, Guernsey, Jersey, Lower Canada, St Lucia, Trinidad, Demerara, Berbice, Cape Colony, Ceylon, Mauritius; it has been adopted in New Zealand (Legitimation Act 1894), South Australia (Legitimation Act 1898, amended 1902), Queensland (Legitimation Act 1899), New South Wales {Legitimation Act 1902), and Victoria (Registration of Births, Deaths and Marriages Act 1903). It is to be noted, however, that in these states the mere fact of the parents marrying does not legitimate the child; indeed, the parents may marry, yet the child remain illegitimate. In order to legitimate the child it is necessary for the father to make application for its registra- tion; in South Australia, the application must be made by both parents; so also in Victoria, if the mother is living, if not, application by the father will suffice. In New Zealand, Queens- land and New South Wales, registration may be made at any time after the marriage; in Victoria, within six months from the date of the marriage; in South Australia, by the act of 1898, registra- tion was permissible only within thirty days before or after the marriage, but by the amending act of 1902 it is allowed at any time more than thirty days after the marriage, provided the applicants prove before a magistrate that they are the parents of the child. In all cases the legitimation is retrospective, taking effect from the birth of the child. Legitimation by subsequent marriage exists also in the following states of the American Union: Maine, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Michigan, Iowa, Minnesota, California, Oregon, Nevada, Washington, N. and S. Dakota, Idaho, Montana and New Mexico. In Massachusetts, Vermont, Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, Nebraska, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, Missouri, Arkansas, Texas, Colorado, Idaho, Wyoming, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Arizona, in addition to the marriage the father must recognize or acknow- ledge the illegitimate child as his. In New Hampshire, Con- necticut and Louisiana both parents must acknowledge the child, either by an authentic act before marriage or by the contract of marriage. In some states (California, Nevada, N. and S. Dakota and Idaho) if the father of an illegitimate child receives it into his house (with the consent of his wife, if married), and treats it as if it were legitimate, it becomes legitimate for all purposes. In other states (N. Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia and New Mexico) the putative father can legitimize the child by process in court. Those states of the United States which have not been mentioned follow the English common law, which also prevails in Ireland, some of the West Indies and part of Canada. In Scotland, on the other hand, the principle of the civil law is followed. In Scotland, bastards could be legitimized in two ways: either by the subsequent intermarriage of the mother of the child with the father, or by letters of legitimation from the sovereign. With respect to the last, however, it is to be observed that letters of legitimation, be their clauses ever so strong, could not enable the bastard to succeed to his natural father; for the sovereign could not, by any prerogative, cut off the private right of third parties. But by a special clause in the letters of legitimation, the sovereign could renounce his right to the bastard's succession, failing legitimate descendants, in favour of him who would have been the bastard's heir had he been born in lawful wedlock, such renunciation encroaching upon no right competent to any third person. The question remains, how far, if at all, English law recognizes the legitimacy of a person born out of wedlock. Strictly speak- ing, English law does not recognize any such person as legiti- mate (though the supreme power of an act of parliament can, of course, confer the rights of legitimacy), but under certain circumstances it will recognize, for purposes of succession to property, a legitimated person as legitimate. The general maxim of law is that the status of legitimacy must be tried by the law of the country where it originates, and where the law of the father's domicile at the time of the child's birth, and of the father's domicile at the time of the subsequent marriage, taken together, legitimize the child, English law will recognize the legitimacy. For purposes of succession to real property, however, legitimacy must be determined by the lex loci rei sitae; so that, for example, a legitimized Scotsman would be recognized as legitimate in England, but not legitimate so far as to take lands as heir (Birtwhistle v. Vardill, 1840). The con- flict of laws on the subject yields some curious results. Thus, a domiciled Scotsman had a son born in Scotland and then married the mother in Scotland. The son died possessed of land in England, and it was held that the father could not inherit from the son. On the other hand, where an unmarried woman, domi- ciled in England died intestate there, it was held that her brother's daughter, born before marriage, but whilst the father was domiciled in Holland, and legitimized by the parents' marriage while they were still domiciled in Holland, was entitled to succeed to the personal property of her aunt (In re Goodman's Trusts, 1880). In re Grey's Trusts (1892) decided that, where real estate was bequeathed to the children of a person domi- ciled in a foreign country and these children were legitimized by the subsequent marriage in that country of their father with their mother, that they were entitled to share as legiti- mate children in a devise of English realty. It is to be noted that this decision does not clash with that of Birtwhistle v. Vardill. See J. A. Foote, Private International Law, A. V. Dicey, Conflict of Laws; L. von Bar, Private International Law, Story, Conflict of Laws; J. Westlake, International Law. LEGITIMISTS (Fr. legitimises, from legilime, lawful, legiti- mate), the name of the party in France which after the revolution of 1830 continued to support the claims of the elder line of the house of Bourbon as the legitimate sovereigns " by divine right." The death of the comte de Chambord in 1883 dissolved the parti Ugitimiste, only an insignificant remnant, known as the Blames d'Espagne, repudiating the act of renunciation of Philip V. of Spain and upholding the rights of the Bourbons of the line of Anjou. The word Ugitimiste was not admitted by the French Academy until 1878; but meanwhile it had spread beyond France, and the English word legitimist is now applied to any supporter of monarchy by hereditary right as against a parliamentary or other title. LEGNAGO, a fortified town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Verona, on the Adige, 29 m. by rail E. of Mantua, 52 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1906) 2731 (town), 17,000 (commune). Legnago is one of the famous Quadrilateral fortresses. The present fortifications were planned and made in 1815, the older defences having been destroyed by Napoleon I. in 1801. The situation is low and unhealthy, but the territory is fertile, rice, cereals and sugar being grown. Legnago is the birthplace of G. B. Cavalcaselle, the art historian (1827-1897). A branch line runs hence to Rovigo. LEGNANO, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Milan, 17 m. N.W. of that city by rail, 682 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1881) 7153, (1901) 18,285. The church of S. Magno, built in the style of Bramante by G. Lampugnano (1504-1529), contains an altar-piece considered one of Luini's best works. There are also remains of a castle of the Visconti. Legnano is the seat of important cotton and silk industries, with 38o LEGOUVE— LEGROS machine-shops, boiler-works, and dyeing and printing of woven goods, and thread. Close by, the Lombard League defeated Frederick Barbarossa in 1176; a monument in com- memoration of the battle was erected on the field in 1876, while there is another by Butti erected in 1900 in the Piazza Federico Barbarossa. LEGOUVE, GABRIEL JEAN BAPTISTS ERNEST WILFRID (1807-1903), French dramatist, son of the poet Gabriel Legouve (1764-1812), who wrote a pastoral La Mart d' Abel (1793) and a tragedy of Epicharis et Neron, was born in Paris on the sth of February 1807. His mother died in 1810, and almost im- mediately afterwards his father was removed to a lunatic asylum. The child, however, inherited a considerable fortune, and was carefully educated. Jean Nicolas Bouilly (1763-1842) was his tutor, and early instilled into the young Legouve a passion for literature, to which the example of his father and of his grandfather, J. B. Legouve (1729-1783), predisposed him. As early as 1829 he carried away a prize of the French Academy for a poem on the discovery of printing; and in 1832 he published a curious little volume of verses, entitled Les Marts Bizarres. In those early days Legouve brought out a succession of novels, of which Edith de Falsen enjoyed a considerable success. In 1847 he began the work by which he is best remembered, his contributions to the development and education of the female mind, by lecturing at the College of France on the moral history of women: these discourses were collected into a volume in 1848, and enjoyed a great success. Legouve wrote considerably for the stage, and in 1849 he collaborated with A. E. Scribe in Adrienne Lecouvreur. In 1855 he brought out his tragedy of Mtdee, the success of which had much to do with his election to the French Academy. He succeeded to the fauteuil of J. A. Ancelot, and was received by Flourens, who dwelt on the plays of Legouve as his principal claim to consideration. As time passed on, however, he became less prominent as a playwright, and more so as a lecturer and propagandist on woman's rights and the advanced education of children, in both of which direc- tions he was a pioneer in French society. His La Femme en France au XIX"" siecle (1864), reissued, much enlarged, in 1878; his Messieurs les enfants (1868), his Conferences Parisiennes (1872), his Nos filles et nos fils (1877), and his Une Education de jeune fille (1884) were works of wide-reaching influence in the moral order. In 1886-1887 he published, in two volumes, his Soixante ans de souvenirs, an excellent specimen of autobiography. He was raised in 1887 to the highest grade of the Legion of Honour, and held for many years the post of inspector-general of female education in the national schools. Legouve was always an advocate of physical training. He was long accounted one of the best shots in France, and although, from a conscientious objection, he never fought a duel, he made the art of fencing his lifelong hobby. After the death of Desire Nisard in 1888, Legouve became the " father " of the French Academy. He died on the i4th of March 1903. LEGROS, ALPHONSE (1837- ), painter and etcher, was born at Dijon on the Sth of May 1837. His father was an accountant, and came from the neighbouring village of Veronnes. Young Legros frequently visited the farms of his relatives, and the peasants and landscapes of that part of France are the subjects of many of his pictures and etchings. He was sent to the art school at Dijon with a view to qualifying for a trade, and was apprenticed to Maitre Nicolardo, house decorator and painter of images. In 1851 Legros left for Paris to take another situation; but passing through Lyons he worked for six months as journeyman wall-painter under the decorator Beuchot, who was painting the chapel of Cardinal Bonald in the cathedral. In Paris he studied with Cambon, scene-painter and decorator of theatres, an experience which developed a breadth of touch such as Stanfield and Cox picked up in similar circumstances. At this time he attended the drawing-school of Lecoq de Bois- baudran. In 1855 Legros attended the evening classes of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, and perhaps gained there his love of drawing from the antique, some of the results of which may be seen in the Print Room of the British Museum. He sent two portraits to the Salon of 1857: one was rejected, and formed part of the exhibition of protest organized by Bonvin in his studio; the other, which was accepted, was a profile portrait of his father. This work was presented to the museum at Tours by the artist when his friend Cazin was curator. Champfleury saw the work in the Salon, and sought out the artist to enlist him in the small army of so-called " Realists," comprising (round the noisy glory of Courbet) all those who raised protest against the academical trifles of the degenerate Romantics. In 1859 Legros's " Angelus " was exhibited, the first of those quiet church interiors, with kneeling figures of patient women, by which he is best known as a painter. " Ex Vote," a work of great power and insight, painted in 1861, now in the museum at Dijon, was received by his friends with enthusiasm, but it only obtained a mention at the Salon. Legros came to England in 1863, and in 1864 married Miss Frances Rosetta Hodgson. At first he lived by his etching and teaching. He then became teacher of etching at the South Kensington School of Art, and in 1876 Slade Professor at University College, London. He was naturalized as an Englishman in 1881, and remained at University College seventeen years. His influence there was exerted to encourage a certain distinction, severity and truth of character in the work of his pupils, with a simple technique and a respect for the traditions of the old masters, until then some- what foreign to English art. He would draw or paint a torso or a head before the students in an hour or even less, so that the attention of the pupils might not be dulled. As students had been known to take weeks and even months over a single drawing, Legros ordered the positions of the casts in the Antique School to be changed once every week. In the painting school he insisted upon a good outline, preserved by a thin rub in of umber, and then the work was to be finished in a single painting, " premier coup." Experiments in all varieties of art work were practised; whenever the professor saw a fine example in the museum, or when a process interested him in a workshop, he never rested until he had mastered the technique and his students were trying their 'prentice hands at it. As he had casually picked up the art of etching by watching a comrade in Paris working at a commercial engraving, so he began the making of medals after a walk in the British Museum, studying the masterpieces of Pisanello, and a visit to the Cabinet des Medailles in Paris. Legros considered the traditional journey to Italy a very important part of artistic training, and in order that his students should have the benefit of such study he devoted a part of his salary to augment the income available for a travel- ling studentship. His later works, after he resigned his pro- fessorship in 1892, were more in the free and ardent manner of his early days — imaginative landscapes, castles in Spain, and farms in Burgundy, etchings like the series of " The Triumph of Death," and the sculptured fountains for the gardens of the duke of Portland at Welbeck. Pictures and drawings by Legros, besides those already mentioned, may be seen in the following galleries and museums: " Amende Honorable," " Dead Christ," bronzes, medals and twenty-two drawings, in the Luxembourg, Paris; "Landscape," " Study of a Head," and portraits of Browning, Burne-Jones, Cassel, Huxley and Marshall, at the Victoria and Albert Museum, Kensington; " Femmes en priere," National Gallery of British Art; " The Tinker," and six other works from the lonides Collection, bequeathed to South Kensington; " Christening," " Barricade," " The Poor at Meat," two portraits and several drawings and etchings, collection of Lord Carlisle; " Two Priests at the Organ," "Landscape" and etchings, collection of Rev. Stopfprd Brooke; " Head of a Priest," collection of Mr Vereker Hamilton; "'The Weed-burner," some sculpture and a large collection of etchings and drawings, Mr Guy Knowles; " Psyche," collection of Mr L. W. Hodson; "Snow Scene," collection of Mr G. F. Watts, R.A. ; thirty-five drawings and etchings, the Print Room, British Museum ; " Jacob's Dream " and twelve drawings of the antique, Cambridge; " Saint Jerome," two studies of heads and some drawings, Man- chester; " The Pilgrimage " and " Study made before the Class," Liverpool Walker Art Gallery; " Study of Heads," Peel Park Museum, Salford. See Dr Hans W. Singer, " Alphonse Legros," Die graphischen Ktinste (1898); L6once B6n6dite, "Alphonse Legros, Revue de I'art (Paris, 1900) ; Cosmo Monkhouse, " Professor Legros," Magazine of Art (1882). (C. H.*) LEGUMINOSAE LEGUMINOSAE, the second largest family of seed-plants, containing about 430 genera with 7000 species. It belongs to the series Resales of the Dicotyledons, and contains three well- marked suborders, Papilionatae, Mimosoideae and Caesalpini- oideae. The plants are trees, shrubs or herbs of very various habit. The British representatives, all of which belong to the suborder Papilionatae, include a few shrubs, such as Ulex (gorse, furze), Cytisus (broom) and Genista, but the majority, and this applies to the suborder as a whole, are herbs, such as the clovers, Medicago, Meli- lotus, &c., sometimes climbing by aid of tendrils which are modified leaf-structures, as in Lathyrus and the vetches ( Vicia). Scarlet runner (Phaseolus multiflorus) has a herbaceous twining stem. Woody climbers (lianes) are represented by species of Bauhinia (Caesal- pinioideae), which with their curiously flattened twisted stems are characteristic features of tropical forests, and Entada scandens (Mimosoideae) also common in the tropics; these two suborders, which are confined to the warmer parts of the earth, consist chiefly of trees and shrubs such as Acacia and Mimosa belonging to the Mimosoideae, and the Judas tree of southern Europe (Cercis) and tamarind belonging to the Caesalpinioideae. The so-called acacia of European gardens (Robinia are tendrils; in Robinia the stipules are spiny and persist after leaf-fall. In some acacias (q.v.) the thorns are hollow, and inhabited by ants as in A. sphaerocephala, a central American plant (fig. 2) and others. In some species of Astragalus, Ono- brychis and others, the leaf-stalk persists after the fall of the leaf and becomes hard and spiny. From Strasburger's Lthrbuck der Botanik, by permission of Gustav Fischer. FIG. 2. — Acacia sphaerocephala. I, Leaf and part of stem ; D, hollow II, Single pinnule with food-body, Pseudacacia) and laburnum are examples of the tree thorns in which the ants live; F, food F. (Somewhat enlarged.) habit in the Papilionatae. Water plants are rare, bodiesattheapicesofthelowerpinnules; but are represented by Aeschynomene and Neptunia, N> nectary °n the petiole. (Reduced.) tropical genera. The roots of many species bear nodular swellings (tubercles), the cells of which contain bacterium-like bodies which have the power of fixing the nitrogen of the atmosphere in such a form as to make it available for plant food. Hence the value of these plants as a crop on poor soil or as a member of a series of rotation of crops, since they enrich the soil by the nitrogen liberated by the decay of their roots or of the whole plant if ploughed in as green manure. The leaves are alternate in arrangement and generally com- pound and stipulate. A common form is illustrated by the trefoil or clovers, which have three leaflets springing from a common point (digi- tately trifoliate) ; pinnate leaves are also frequent as in laburnum and Robinia. In Mimosoideae the leaves are generally bipinnate (figs, i, 2, 3). Rarely are the leaves simple as in Bauhinia. Various depart- ures from the usual leaf- type occur in association with adaptations to different functions or environments. In leaf-climbers, such as pea or vetch, the end of the rachis and one or more pairs of leaflets are changed into tendrils. In gorse the leaf is reduced to a slender spine- like structure, though the leaves of the seedling have one to three leaflets. In many Australian acacias the leaf surface in the adult plant is much reduced, the petiole being at the same time flat- FIG. I. -Leaf of an Acacia (A. 'ened and eunlfged (fif heterophylla) showing flattened leaf- frequently the leaf is reduced like petiole (phyllode), p, and bipin- to a petiole flattened in the vertical plane; by this nate blade. means a minimum surface s exposed to the intense sunlight. In the garden pea the stipules are large and foliaceous, replacing the leaflets, which Leaf-movements occur in many of the genera. Such are the sleep- movement in the clovers, runner bean (Phaseolus), Robinia and acacia, where the leaflets assume a vertical position at nightfall. Spontaneous movements are exemplified in the telegraph-plant (Desmodium gyrans), native of tropical Asia, where the small lateral leaflets move up and down every few minutes. The sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica) is an example of movement in response to contact, the leaves assuming a sleep-position if touched. The seat of the movement is the swollen base of the leaf -stalk, the so-called pulvinus (fig. 3)- The stem of the lianes shows some remarkable deviations from the normal in form and structure. In Papilionatae anomalous secondary thickening arises from the production of new cambium zones outside the original ring (Mucuna, Wistaria) forming concentric rings or transverse or broader strands; where, as in Rhyncosia the successive cam- biums are active only at two op- posite points, a flat ribbon - like stem is produced.' The climbing Bauhinias (Caes- alpi nioideae) have a flattened stem with basin- like undulations; in some growth in thickness is normal, in others new cambium- zones are found while in others FIG-3- — Branch with two leaves of the Sensitive new and distinct ?lant (Mimosa pudica), showing the petiole in growth-centres 'ts erect state> a< an<* m 'ts depressed state, b; each with its a'so tne 'eaflets closed, c, and the leaflets ex- cambium-zone, Pfnded, d; p, pulvinus, the seat of the movement arise outside the of the Petwle. primary zone. The climbing Mimosoideae show no anomalous growth in thickness, but in some cases the stem becomes strongly winged. Gum passages in the pith and medullary rays occur, especi- ally in species of acacia and Astragalus; gum-arabic is an exuda- tion from the branches of Acacia Senegal, gum-tragacanth from Astragalus gummifer and other species. Logwood is the coloured hfartwood of Haematoxylon campechianum; red sandalwood of Pterocarpus santalinus. The flowers are arranged in racemose inflorescences, such as the simple raceme (Laburnum, Robinia), which is condensed to a head in Trifolium; in Acacia and Mimosa the flowers are densely crowded (fig. 4). The flower is characterized by a hypogynous or slightly perigynous arrangement of parts, the anterior position of the odd sepal, the free petals, and the single median carpel with a terminal style, simple stigma and two 382 LEGUMINOSAE alternating rows of ovules on the ventral suture of the ovary which faces the back of the flower. The arrangement of the petals and the number and cohesion ol the stamens vary in the three suborders. In Mimosoideae, the smallest of the three, the flower is regular (fig. 4 [3]), and the sepals and petals have a valvate aestivation, and are generally pentamerous but 3-6-merous flowers also occur. The sepals are more or less united into a cup (fig. 4 [2]), and the petals sometimes cohere at the base. The stamens vary widely in number and cohesion; in Acacia (fig. 4) they are indefinite and free, in the tribe Ingeae, inde- finite and monadelphous, in other tribes as many or twice as many as the petals. Frequently, as in Mimosa, the long yellow stamens are the most conspicuous feature of the flower. In Caesalpinioideae (fig. 5) the flowers are zygomorphic in a median plane and generally pentamerous. The sepals are free, or the two upper ones united as in tamarind, and imbricate in aestivation, rarely as in the Judas- tree (fig. 5 [2]), valvate. The corolla shows great variety in form; it is imbricate in aestivation, the posterior petal being innermost. In Cercis (fig. 5) it clearly resembles the papilionaceous type; the odd petal stands erect, the median pair are reflexed and wing-like, and the lower pair enclose the essential organs. In Cassia all five petals are subequal and spreading; in Amherstia the anterior pair are small or absent while the three upper ones are large ; in Krameria, FIG. 4. — Acacia obscura, flowering branch about i natural size. I, Part of stem with leaf and its 2, Flower, much enlarged. subtended inflorescence, about natural size. Floral diagram of Acacia lati- jolia. (After Eichler.) the anterior pair are represented by glandular scales, and in Tamarin- dus are suppressed. Apetalous flowers occur in Copaifera and Ceratonia. The stamens, generally ten in number, are free, as in Cercis (fig. 5) or more or less united as in Amherstia, where the posterior one is free and the rest are united. In tamarind only three stamens are fertile. The largest suborder, Papilionatae, has a flower zygomorphic in the median plane (figs. 6, 7). The five sepals are generally united (figs. 7, 9), and have an ascending imbricate arrangement (fig. 6); the calyx is often two-lipped (fig. 9 [i]). The corolla has five unequal petals with a descending imbricate arrange- ment; the upper and largest, the standard (vexillum), stands erect, the lateral pair, the wings or alae, are long-clawed, while the anterior pair cohere to form the keel or carina, in which are enclosed the stamens and pistil. The ten stamens are monadelphous as in gorse or broom (fig. o), or diadelphous as in sweet pea (fig. 8) (the posterior one being free), or almost or quite free; these differences are associ- ated with differences in the methods of pollination. The ten stamens here, as in the last suborder, though arranged in a single whorl, arise in two series, the five opposite the sepals arising first. The carpel is sometimes stalked and often surrounded at the base by a honey-secreting disk; the style is terminal and in the zygomor- phic flowers is often curved and somewhat flattened with a definite back and front. Sometimes as in species of Trifolium and Medicago the ovules are reduced to one. The pod or legume splits along both sutures (fig. 10) into a pair of membranous, leathery or sometimes fleshy valves, bearing the seeds on the ventral suture. Dehiscence is often explosive, the valves separating elastically and twisting spirally, thus shooting out the seeds, as in gorse, broom and others. In Desmodium, Entada and others the pod is constricted between each seed, and breaks up into indehiscent one-seeded parts; it is then called a lomentum (fig. 11); in Astragalus it is divided by a longitudinal septum. The pods show a very great variety in form and size. Thus in the st FIG. 5.— Flowering branch of Judas-tree (Cercis siliquastrum) reduced, i, Flower, natural size. 2, Floral diagram. clovers they are a small fraction of an inch, while in the common tropical climber Entada scandens they are woody structures more than a yard long and several inches wide. They are generally more or less flattened, but sometimes round and rod-like, as in species of Cassia, or are spirally coiled as in Medicago. Indehiscent one- seeded pods occur in species of clover and in Medicago, also in Dalbergta and allied genera, where they are winged. In Colutea, the bladder-senna of gardens, the pod forms an inflated bladder which bursts under pressure; it often becomes detached and is blown some distance before bursting. An arillar outgrowth is often developed on the funicle, and is sometimes brightly coloured, rendering the seed conspicuous and favouring dissemination by birds; in such cases the seed- coat is hard. In other cases the hard seed-coat it- self is bright- coloured as in the scarlet seeds of Abrus precatorius, the so-called FIG. 6. — Diagram of weather-plant. Flower of Sweet Pea ,. . „. Animals also act (Lathyrus), showing Pea (Pisum sativum), as the agents of five sepals, i, two are showing a papiliona- distribution in the superior, one inferior, ceous corolla, with one case of fleshy and two lateral; five petal superior, st, the edible pods con- petals, p, one superior, standard (vexillum), taining seeds with two inferior, and two two inferior, car, the a hard smooth lateral; ten stamens in keel (carina), and two testa, which will two rows, a, and one lateral, a, wings (alae). pass uninjured carpel, c. The calyx is marked c, through the body, as in tamarind and the fruit of the carob-tree (Ceratonia). In the ground-nut (Arachis hypogaea), Trifolium subterraneum and others, the flower-stalks grow downwards after fertilization of the ovules and bury the fruit in the earth. In the suborders Mimosoideae and Papilionatae the embryo fills the seed or a small quantity of endosperm occurs, chiefly round the radicle. In Caesalpinioideae endosperm is absent, or present forming a thin layer round the ;mbryo as in the tribe Bauhinieae, or copious and cartilaginous as n the Cassieae. The embryo has generally flat leaf-like or fleshy •otyledons with a short radicle. Insects play an important part in the pollination of the flowers. In the two smaller suborders the stamens and stigma FIG. 7. — Flower LEGYA 383 are freely exposed and the conspicuous coloured stamens serve as well as the petals to attract insects; in Mimosa and Acacia the flowers are crowded in conspicuous heads or spikes. The relation of insects to the flower has been carefully studied in the Papilionatae, ghiefly in European species. Where honey is present it is secreted on the inside of the base of the stamens and accumulated in the base of the tube formed by the united fila- ments round the ovary. It is accessible only to insects with long probosces, such as bees. In these cases the posterior stamen is free, allowing access to the honey. The flowers stand more or less horizontally; the large FIG. 8. — Stamens and Pistil of Sweet Pea (Lathyrus). The stamens are diadelphous, nine of erect white or coloured standard them being unicecl by their fila- renders them conspicuous, the ments f, while the uppermost wjngs form a platform on which one («) ,s free; st, st.gma, c, ^ ingect regts and the ked encloses the stamens and pistil, protecting them from rain and the attacks of unbidden pollen- eating insects. In his book on the fertilization of flowers, Hermann Miiller distinguishes four types of papilionaceous flowers accord- ing to the way in which the pollen is applied to the bee: (l) Those in which the stamens and stigma return within the carina and thus admit of repeated visits, such are the clovers, Melilotus and laburnum. (2) Explosive flowers where stamens FIG. 9. — Broom (Cytisus scoparius), half natural size. (2-7 slightly reduced.) 1, Calyx. 3, Wing. 5, Monadelphous stamens 6, Pistil. 2, Standard. 4, Keel. and style. 7, Pod. anci style are confined within the keel under tension and the pressure of the insect causes their sudden release and the scattering of the pollen, as in brcom and Genista; these contain no honey but are visited for the sake of the pollen. (3) The piston-mechanism as in bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) , Anthyllis, OnonisandLupinus, where the pressure of the bee upon the carina while probing for honey squeezes a narrow ribbon of pollen through the opening at the tip. The pollen has been shed into the cone-like tip of the carina, and the heads of the five outer stamens form a piston beneath Papi- by but Papi- FIG. 1 1 . — Lomentum or lomentaceous le- gume of a species of FromVines'sSftafeato'TV*. Desmodium. _ Each Book of Botany, by permis- se£d IS contained in a sion of Swan, Sonnenschein separate cavity by the & Co- folding inwards of the FIG. 10. — Drydehis- walls of the legume at cent Fruit. The pod equal intervals; the legume, when ripe.sepa- rates transversely into single-seeded portions or mericarps. (legume) of the Pea. r,The dorsal suture ; b, the ventral ; c, calyx ; s, seeds. it, pushing it out at the tip when pressure is exerted on the keel; a further pressure causes the protrusion of the stigma, which is thus brought in contact with the insect's belly. (4) The style bears a brush of hairs which sweeps small quantities of pollen out of the tip of the carina, as in Lathyrus, Pisum, Vicia and Phaseolus. Leguminosae is a cosmopolitan order, and often affords a characteristic feature of the vegetation. Mimosoideae and Caesalpinioideae are richly developed in the tropical rain forests, where Papilion- atae are less con- spicuous and mostly herb- aceous; in sub- tropical forests arborescent forms of all three sub- orders occur. In the temperate regions, tree- forms are rare — • thus Mimosoideae are unrepresented in Europe; Caes- alpinioideae are represented by species of Cercis, Gymnocladus and Gleditschia; lionat ae Robinia; herbaceous lionatae abound and penetrate to the limit of growth of seed-plants in arctic and high alpine regions. Shrubs and under- shrubs, such as Ulex, Genista, Cy'asus are a characteristic feature in Europe and the Mediterranean area. Acacias are an important component of the evergreen bush-vegetation of Australia, together with genera of the tribe Podalyrieae of Papilionatae (Chorizema, Oxylobium, &c.). Astragalus, Oxytropis, Hedysarum, Onobrychis, and others are characteristic of the steppe-formations of eastern Europe and western Asia. The order is a most important one economically. The seeds, which are rich in starch and proteids, form valuable foods, as in pea, the various beans, vetch, lentil, ground-nut (Arachis) and others; seeds of Arachis and others yield oils; those of Physosligma veneno- sum, the Calabar ordeal bean, contain a strong poison. Many are useful fodder-plants, as the clovers (Trifolium) (q.v.), Medicago (e.g. M. saliva, lucerne (q.v.), or alfalfa) ; Melilotus, Vicia, Onobrychis (0. saliva is sainfoin, q.v.); species of Trifolium, lupine and others are used as green manure. Many of the tropical trees afford useful timber; Crotalaria, Sesbania, Aeschynomene and others yield fibre; species of Acacia and Astragalus yield gum; Copaifera, Hymenaea and others balsams and resins; dyes are obtained from Genista (yellow), Indigofera (blue) and others; Haematoxylon campechianum is logwood; of medicinal value are species of Cassia (senna leaves) and Astragalus; Tamarindus indica is tamarind, Glycyrrhiza glabra yields liquorice root. Well-known ornamental trees and shrubs are Cercis (C. siliquastrum is the Judas-tree), Gleditschia, Genista, Cytisus (broom), Colutea (C. arborescens is bladder-senna), Robinia and Acacia; Wistaria sinensis, a native of China, is a well-known climbing shrub; Phaseolus multiflorus is the scarlet runner; Lathy- rus (sweet and everlasting peas), Lupinus, Galega (goat's-rue) and others are herbaceous garden plants. Ceratonia Siliqua is the carob- tree of the Mediterranean, the pods of which (algaroba or St John's bread) contain a sweet juicy pulp and are largely used for feeding stock. The order is well represented in Britain. Thus Genista tinctoria is dyers' greenweed, yielding a yellow dye; G. anglica is needle furze; other shrubs are Ulex (U. europaeus, gorse, furze or whin, U. nanus, a dwarf species) and Cytisus scoparius, broom. Herbaceous plants are Ononis spinosa (rest-harrow), Medicago (medick), Melilotus (melilot) , Trifolium (the clovers), A nthyllis Vulneraria (kidney- vetch), Lotus corniculatus (bird's-foot trefoil), Astragalus (milk- vetch), Vicia (vetch, tare) and Lathyrus. LEGYA. called by the Shans LAI-HKA, a state in the central division of the southern Shan States of Burma, lying approxi- mately between 20° 15' and 21° 30' N. and 97° 50' and 98° 30' E., with an area of 1433 sq. m. The population was estimated at 30,000 in 1881. On the downfall of King Thibaw civil war LEH— LEHRS broke out, and reduced the population to a few hundreds. In 1901 it had risen again to 25,811. About seven-ninths of the land under cultivation consists of wet rice cultivation. A certain amount of upland rice is also cultivated, and cotton, sugar-cane and garden produce make up the rest; recently large orange groves have been planted in the west of the state. Laihka, the capital, is noted for its iron-work, both the iron and the implements made being produced at Pang Long in the west of the state. This and lacquer-ware are the chief exports, as also a considerable amount of pottery. The imports are chiefly cotton piece-goods and salt. The general character of the state is that of an undulating plateau, with a broad plain near the capital and along the Nam Teng, which is the chief river, with a general altitude of a little under 3000 ft. LEH, the capital of Ladakh, India, situated 4 m. from the right bank of the upper Indus 11,500 ft. above the sea, 243 m. from Srinagar and 482 m. from Yarkand. It is the great emporium of the trade which passes between India, Chinese Turkestan and Tibet. Here meet the routes leading from the central Asian khanates, Kashgar, Yarkand, Khotan and Lhasa. The two chief roads from Leh to India pass via Srinagar and through the Kulu valley respectively. Under a commercial treaty with the maharaja of Kashmir, a British officer is deputed to Leh to regulate and control the traders and the traffic, conjointly with the governor appointed by the Kashmir state. Lying upon the western border of Tibet, Leh has formed the starting- point of many an adventurous journey into that country, the best-known route being that called the Janglam, the great trade route to Lhasa and China, passing by the Manasarowar lakes and the Mariam La pass into the valley of the Tsanpo. Pop. ( 1901 ) 2079. A Moravian mission has long been established here, with an efficient little hospital. There is also a meteoro- logical observatory, the most elevated in Asia, where the average mean temperature ranges from 19-3° in January to 64-4° in July. The annual rainfall is only 3 in. LEHMANN, JOHANN GOTTLOB (P-I76?), German miner- alogist and geologist, was educated at Berlin where he took his degree of doctor of medicine. He became a teacher of mineralogy and mining in that city, and was afterwards (1761) appointed professor of chemistry and director of the imperial museum at St Petersburg. While distinguished for his chemical and miner- alogical researches, he may also be regarded as one of the pioneers in geological investigation. Although he accepted the view of a universal deluge, he gave in 1756 careful descriptions of the rocks and stratified formations in Prussia, and introduced the now familiar terms Zechstein and Rothes Todtliegendes (Roth- liegende) for subdivisions of the strata since grouped as Permian. His chief observations were published in Versuch einer Geschichte von Flotz-Gebiirgen, betreffend deren Entstehung, Lage, darinne befindliche Metatten, Miner alien und Fossilien (1756). He died at St Petersburg on the 22nd of January 1767. LEHMANN, PETER MARTIN ORLA (1810-1870), Danish statesman, was born at Copenhagen on the isth of May 1810. Although of German extraction his sympathies were with the Danish national party and he contributed to the liberal journal the Kjobenhavnsposlen while he was a student of law at the university of Copenhagen, and from 1839 to 1842 edited, with Christian N. David, the Fiidrelandet. In 1842 he was condemned to three months' imprisonment for a radical speech. He took a considerable part in the demonstrations of 1848, and was regarded as the leader of the " Eiderdanen," that is, of the party which regarded the Eider as the boundary of Denmark, and the duchy of Schleswig as an integral part of the kingdom. He entered the cabinet of Count A. W. Moltke in March 1848, and was employed on diplomatic missions to London and Berlin in connexion with the Schleswig-Holstein question. He was for some months in 1849 a prisoner of the Schleswig-Holsteiners at Gottorp. A member of the Folkething from 1851 to 1853, of the Landsthing from 1854 to 1870, and from 1856 to 1866 of the Reichsrat, he became minister of the interior in 1861 in the cabinet of K. C. Hall, retiring with him in 1863. He died at Copenhagen on the I3th of September 1870. His book On the Causes of the Misfortunes of Denmark (1864) went through many editions, and his posthumous works were published in 4 vols., 1872-1874. See Reinhardt, Orla Lehmann og hans samtid (Copenhagen, 1871); J. Clausen, Af O. Lehmanns Papirer (Copenhagen, 1903). LEHNIN, a village and health resort of Germany, in the Prussian province of Brandenburg, situated between two lakes, which are connected by the navigable Emster with the Havel, 12 m. S.W. from Potsdam, and with a station on the main line Berlin-Magdeburg, and a branch line to Grosskreuz. Pop. (1900) 2379. It contains the ruins of a Cistercian monastery called Himmelpfort am See, founded in 1180 and dissolved in 1542; a handsome parish church, formerly the monasterial chapel, restored in 1872-1877; and a fine statue of the emperor Frederick III. Boat-building and saw-milling are the chief . industries. See Heffter, Geschichte des Klosters Lehnin (Brandenburg, 1851); and Sello, Lehnin, Beitrage zur Geschichte von Kloster und Ami (Berlin, 1881). The LEHNIN PROPHECY (Lehninsche Weissagung, Vaticinium Lehninense), a poem in 100 Leonine verses, reputed to be from the pen of a monk, Hermann of Lehnin, who lived about the year 1300, made its appearance about 1690 and caused much controversy. This so-called prophecy bewails the extinction of the Ascanian rulers of Brandenburg and the rise of the Hohen- zollern dynasty to power; each successive ruler of the latter house down to the eleventh generation is described, the date of the extinction of the race fixed, and the restoration of the Roman Catholic Church foretold. But as the narrative is only exact in details down to the death of Frederick William, the great elector, in 1688, and as all prophecies of the period subsequent to that time were falsified by events, the poem came to be regarded as a compilation and the date of its authorship placed about the year 1684. Andreas Fromm (d. 1685), rector of St Peter's church in Berlin, an ardent Lutheran, is commonly believed to have been the forger. This cleric, resisting certain measures taken by the great elector against the Lutheran pastors, fled the country in 1668 to avoid prosecution, and having been received at Prague into the Roman Catholic Church was appointed canon of Leitmeritz in Bohemia, where he died. During the earlier part of the igth century the poem was eagerly scanned by the enemies of the Hohenzollerris, some of whom believed that the race would end with King Frederick William III., the repre- sentative of the eleventh generation of the family. The " Vaticinium " was first published in Lilienthal's Gelehrtes Preussen (Konigsberg, 1723), ana has been many times reprinted. See Boost, Die Weissagungen des Monchs Hermann zu Lehnin (Augsburg, 1848); Hilgenfeld, Die Lehninische Weissagung (Leipzig, !875); Sabell, Literatur der sogenannten Lehninschen Weissagung (Heilbronn, 1879) and Kampers, Die Lehninsche Weissagung iiber das Haus Hohenzollern (Miinster, 1897). LEHRS, KARL (1802-1878), German classical scholar, was born at Konigsberg on the 2nd of June 1802. He was of Jewish extraction, but in 1822 he embraced Christianity. In 1845 he was appointed professor of ancient Greek philology in Konigsberg University, which post he held till his death on the gth of June 1878. His most important works are: De Aristarchi Studiis Homericis (1833, 2nd ed. by A. Ludwich, 1882), which laid a new foundation for Homeric exegesis (on the Aristarchean lines of explaining Homer from the text itself) and textual criticism; Quaestiones Epicae (1837); De Asclepiade Myrleano (1845); Herodiani Scripta Tria emendation (1848); Popular e Aufsdtze aus dem Altertum (1856, 2nd much enlarged ed., 1875), his best- known work; Horatius Flaccus (1869), in which, on aesthetic grounds, he rejected many of the odes as spurious; Die Pindar- scholien (1873). Lehrs was a man of very decided opinions, " one of the most masculine of German scholars "; his enthusiasm for everything Greek led him to adhere firmly to the undivided authorship of the Iliad; comparative mythology and the sym- bolical interpretation of myths he regarded as a species of sacrilege. See the exhaustive article by L. Friedlander in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, xviii.; E. Kammer in C. Bursian's Jahresbericht (1879); A. Jung, Zur Erinnerung an Karl Lehrs (progr. Meseritz, 1880); A. Ludwich edited Lehrs' select correspondence (1894) and his Kleine Schriften (1902). LEIBNITZ 385 LEIBNITZ (LEIBNIZ), GOTTFRIED WILHELM (1646-1716), German philosopher, mathematician and man of affairs, was born on the ist of July 1646 at Leipzig, where his father was professor of moral philosophy. Though the name Leibniz, Leibnitz or Lubeniecz was originally Slavonic, his ancestors were German, and for three generations had been in the employ- ment of the Saxon government. Young Leibnitz was sent to the Nicolai school at Leipzig, but, from 1652 when his father died, seems to have been for the most part his own teacher. From his father he had acquired a love of historical study. The German books at his command were soon read through, and with the help of two Latin books — the Thesaurus Chronologicus of Calvisius and an illustrated edition of Livy — he learned Latin at the age of eight. His father's library was now thrown open to him, to his great joy, with the permission, " Tolle, lege." Before he was twelve he could read Latin easily and had begun Greek; he had also remarkable facility in writing Latin verse. He next turned to the study of logic, attempting already to reform its doctrines, and zealously reading the scholastics and some of the Protestant theologians. At the age of fifteen, he entered the university of Leipzig as a law student. His first two years were devoted to philosophy under Jakob Thomasius, a Neo-Aristotelian, who is looked upon as having founded the scientific study of the history of philosophy in Germany. It was at this time probably that he first made acquaintance with the modern thinkers who had already revolu- tionized science and philosophy, Francis Bacon, Cardan and Campanella, Kepler, Galileo and Descartes; and he began to consider the difference between the old and new ways of regarding nature. He resolved to study mathematics. It was not, how- ever, till the summer of 1663, which he spent at Jena under E. Weigel, that he obtained the instructions of a mathematician of repute; nor was the deeper study of mathematics entered upon till his visit to Paris and acquaintance with Huygens many years later. The next three years he devoted to legal studies, and in 1666 applied for the degree of doctor of law, with a view to obtaining the post of assessor. Being refused on the ground of his youth he left his native town for ever. The doctor's degree refused him there was at once (November 5, 1666) conferred on him at Altdorf — the university town of the free city of Nuremberg — where his brilliant dissertation procured him the immediate offer of a professor's chair. This, however, he declined, having, as he said, " very different things in view." Leibnitz, not yet twenty-one years of age, was already the author of several remarkable essays. In his bachelor's disserta- tion De principio individui (1663), he defended the nominalistic doctrine that individuality is constituted by the whole entity or essence of a thing; his arithmetical tract De complexionibus , published in an extended form under the title De arte combinatoria (1666), is an essay towards his life-long project of a reformed symbolism and method of thought; and besides these there are our juridical essays, including the Nova methodus docendi discendique juris, written in the intervals of his journey from Leipzig to Altdorf. This last essay is remarkable, not only for the reconstruction it attempted of the Corpus Juris, but as containing the first clear recognition of the importance of the historical method in law. Nuremberg was a centre of the Rosicrucians, and Leibnitz, busying himself with writings of the alchemists, soon gained such a knowledge of their tenets that he was supposed to be one of the secret brotherhood, and was even elected their secretary. A more important result of his visit to Nuremberg was his acquaintance with Johann Christian von Boyneburg (1622-1672), formerly first minister to the elector of Mainz, and one of the most distinguished German statesmen of the day. By his advice Leibnitz printed his Nova methodus in 1667, dedicated it to the elector, and, going to Mainz, presented it to him in person. It was thus that Leibnitz entered the service of the elector of Mainz, at first as an assistant in the revision of the statute-book, afterwards on more important work. The policy of the elector, which the pen of Leibnitz was now xvi. 13 called upon to promote, was to maintain the security of the German empire, threatened on the west by the aggressive power of France, on the east by Turkey and Russia. Thus when in 1669 the crown of Poland became vacant, it fell to Leibnitz to support the claims of the German candidate, which he did in his first political writing, Specimen demonstrationum politicarum pro rege Polonorum eligendo, attempting, under the guise of a Catholic Polish nobleman, to show by mathematical demonstration that it was necessary in the interest of Poland that it should have the count palatine of Neuburg as its king. But neither the diplo- matic skill of Boyneburg, who had been sent as plenipotentiary to the election at Warsaw, nor the arguments of Leibnitz were successful, and a Polish prince was elected to fill the vacant throne. A greater danger threatened Germany in the aggressions of Louis XIV. (see FRANCE: History). Though Holland was in most immediate danger, the seizure of Lorraine in 1670 showed that Germany too was threatened. It was in this year that Leibnitz wrote his Thoughts on Public Safety f in which he urged the formation of a new " Rheinbund " for the protection of Germany, and contended that the states of Europe should employ their power, not against one another, but in the conquest of the non-Christian world, in which Egypt, " one of the best situated lands in the world," would fall to France. The plan thus proposed of averting the threatened attack on Germany by a French expedition to Egypt was discussed with Boyneburg, and obtained the approval of the elector. French relations with Turkey were at the time so strained as to make a breach im- minent, and at the close of 1671, about the time when the war with Holland broke out, Louis himself was approached by a letter from Boyneburg and a short memorial from the pen of Leibnitz, who attempted to show that Holland itself, as a mercantile power trading with the East, might be best attacked through Egypt, while nothing would be easier for France or would more largely increase her power than the conquest of Egypt. On February 12, 1672, a request came from the French secretary of state, Simon Arnauld de Pomponne (1618-1699), tnat Leibnitz should go to Paris. Louis seems still to have kept the matter in view, but never granted Leibnitz the personal inter- view he desired, while Pomponne wrote, " I have nothing against the plan of a holy war, but such plans, you know, since the days of St Louis, have ceased to be the fashion." Not yet discouraged, Leibnitz wrote a full account of his project for the king,2 and a summary of the same3 evidently intended for Boyneburg. But Boyneburg died in December 1672, before the latter could be sent to him. Nor did the former ever reach its destination. The French quarrel with the Porte was made up, and the plan of a French expedition to Egypt disappeared from practical politics till the time of Napoleon. The history of this scheme, and the reason of Leibnitz's journey to Paris, long remained hidden in the archives of the Hanoverian library. It was on his taking possession of Hanover in 1803 that Napoleon learned, through the Consilium Aegyptiacum, that the idea of a French conquest of Egypt had been first put forward by a German philosopher. In the same year there was published in London an account of the Justa dissertatio 4 of which the British Government had procured a copy in 1799. But it was only with the appearance of the edition of Leibnitz's works begun by Onno Klopp in 1864 that the full history of the scheme was made known. Leibnitz had other than political ends in view in his visit to France. It was as the centre of literature and science that Paris chiefly attracted him. Political duties never made him lose sight of his .philosophical and scientific interests. At Mainz he was still busied with the question of the relation between the old and new methods in philosophy. In a letter to Jakob 1 Bedenken, welchergestalt securitas publica internet et externa und status praesens jetzigen Umstdnden nach im Reich auf festen Fuss zu stellen. 2 De expeditione Aegyptiaca regi Franciae proponenda justa dis- sertatio. 3 Consilium Aegyptiacum. 1 A Summary Account of Leibnitz's Memoir addressed to Lewis we Fourteenth, &c. [edited by Granville Penn], (London, 1803). 386 LEIBNITZ Thomasius (1669) he contends that the mechanical explanation of nature by magnitude, figure and motion alone is not incon- sistent with the doctrines of Aristotle's Physics, in which he finds more truth than in the Meditations of Descartes. Yet these qualities of bodies, he argues in 1668 (in an essay published without his knowledge under the title Confessio naturae contra atheislas), require an incorporeal principle, or God, for their ultimate explanation. He also wrote at this time a defence of the doctrine of the Trinity against Wissowatius (1669), and an essay on philosophic style, introductory to an edition of the Anti- barbarus of Nizolius (1670). Clearness and distinctness alone, he says, are what makes a philosophic style, and no language is better suited for this popular exposition than the German. In 1671 he issued a Hypothesis physica nova, in which, agreeing with Descartes that corporeal phenomena should be explained from motion, he carried out the mechanical explanation of nature by contending that the original of this motion is a fine aether, similar to light, or rather constituting it, which, penetrating all bodies in the direction of the earth's axis, produces the pheno- mena of gravity, elasticity, &c. The first part of the essay, on concrete motion, was dedicated to the Royal Society of London, the second, on abstract motion, to the French Academy. At Paris Leibnitz met with Arnauld, Malebranche and, more important still, with Christian Huygens. This was pre-eminently the period of his mathematical and physical activity. Before leaving Mainz he was able to announce ' an imposing list of dis- coveries, and plans for discoveries, arrived at by means of his new logical art, in natural philosophy, mathematics, mechanics, optics, hydrostatics, pneumatics and nautical science, not to speak of new ideas in law, theology and politics. Chief among these discoveries was that of a calculating machine for performing more complicated operations than that of Pascal — multiplying, dividing and extracting roots, as well as adding and subtracting. This machine was exhibited to the Academy of Paris and to the Royal Society of London, and Leibnitz was elected a fellow of the latter society in April 1673." In January of this year he had gone to London as an attache on a political mission from the elector of Mainz, returning in March to Paris, and while in London had become personally acquainted with Oldenburg, the secretary of the Royal Society, with whom he had already corresponded, with Boyle the chemist and Pell the mathematician. It is from this period that we must date the impulse that directed him anew to mathematics. By Pell he had been referred to Mercator's Logarithmotechnica as already containing some numerical observations which Leibnitz had thought original on his own part ; and, on his return to Paris, he devoted himself to the study of higher geometry under Huygens, entering almost at once upon the series of investigations which culminated in his discovery of the differential and integral calculus (see INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS). Shortly after his return to Paris in 1673, Leibnitz ceased to be in the Mainz service any more than in name, but in the same year entered the employment of Duke John Frederick of Bruns- wick-Luneburg, with whom he had corresponded for some time. In 1676 he removed at the duke's request to Hanover, travelling thither by way of London and Amsterdam. At Amsterdam he saw and conversed with Spinoza, and carried away with him extracts from the latter's unpublished Ethica. For the next forty years, and under three successive princes, Leibnitz was in the service of the Brunswick family, and his headquarters were at Hanover, where he had charge of the ducal library. Leibnitz thus passed into a political atmosphere formed by the dynastic aims of the typical German state (see HANOVER; BRUNSWICK). He supported the claim of Hanover to appoint an ambassador at the congress of Nimeguen (1676) 3 to defend the establishment of primogeniture in the Liineburg branch of the Brunswick family; and, when the proposal was 1 In a letter to the duke of Brunswick-Luneburg (autumn 1671), Werke, ed. Klopp, iii. 253 sq. 1 He was made a foreign member, of the French Academy in 1700. * Caesarini Furstenerh tractatus de jure supremalus ac legationis principum Germaniae (Amsterdam, 1677); Entretiens de Philarete el d'Eugene sur le droit d'ambassade (Duisb., 1677). made to raise the duke of Hanover to the electorate, he had to show that this did not interfere with the rights of the duke of Wurttemberg. In 1692 the duke of Hanover was made elector. Before, and with a view to this, Leibnitz had been employed by him to write the history of the Brunswick-Luneburg family, and, to collect material for his history, had undertaken a journey through Germany and Italy in 1687-1690, visiting and examining the records in Marburg, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Munich, Vienna (where he remained nine months), Venice, Modena and Rome. At Rome he was offered the custodianship of the Vatican library on condition, of his joining the Catholic Church. About this time, too, his thoughts and energies were partly taken up with the scheme for the reunion of the Catholic and Protestant Churches. At Mainz he had joined in an attempt made by the elector and Boyneburg to bring about a reconcilia- tion, and now, chiefly through the energy and skill of the Catholic Royas de Spinola, and from the spirit of moderation which prevailed among the theologians he met with at Hanover in 1683, it almost seemed as if some agreement might be arrived at. In 1686 Leibnitz wrote his Systema theologicum,4 in which he strove to find common ground for Protestants and Catholics in the details of their creeds. But the English revolution of 1688 interfered with the scheme in Hanover, and it was soon found that the religious difficulties were greater than had at one time appeared. In the letters to Leibnitz from Bossuet, the landgrave of Hessen-Rheinfels, and Madame de Brinon, the aim is obviously to make converts to Catholicism, not to arrive at a compromise with Protestantism, and when it was found that Leibnitz refused to be converted the correspondence ceased. A further scheme of church union in which Leibnitz was engaged, that between the Reformed and Lutheran Churches, met with no better success. Returning from Italy in 1690, Leibnitz was appointed librarian at Wolfenbiittel by Duke Anton of Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel. Some years afterwards began his connexion with Berlin through his friendship with the electress Sophie Charlotte of Brandenburg and her mother the princess Sophie of Hanover. He was invited to Berlin in 1700, and on the nth July of that year the academy (Akademie der Wissenschaften) he had planned was founded, with himself as its president for life. In the same year he was made a privy councillor of justice by the elector of Brandenburg. Four years before he had received a like honour from the elector of Hanover, and twelve years afterwards the same distinction was conferred upon him by Peter the Great, to whom he gave a plan for an academy at St Petersburg, carried out after the czar's death. After the death of his royal pupil in 1705 his visits to Berlin became less frequent and less welcome, and in 1711 he was there for the last time. In the following year he undertook his fifth and last journey to Vienna, where he stayed till 1714. An attempt to found an academy of science there was defeated by the opposition of the Jesuits, but he now attained the honour he had coveted of an imperial privy councillorship (1712), and, either at this time or on a previous occasion (1709), was made a baron of the empire (Reichsfreiherr). Leibnitz returned to Hanover in September 1714, but found the elector George Louis had already gone to assume the crown of England. Leibnitz would gladly have followed him to London, but was bidden to remain at Hanover and finish his history of Brunswick. During the last thirty years Leibnitz had been busy with many matters. Mathematics, natural science,6 philosophy, theology, history jurisprudence, politics (particularly the French wars with Germany, and the question of the Spanish succession), economics and philology, all gained a share of his attention; almost all of them he enriched with original observations. His genealogical researches in Italy — through which he established the common origin of the families of Brunswick and 4 Not published till 1819. It is on this work that the assertion has been founded that Leibnitz was at heart a Catholic — a supposition clearly disproved by his correspondence. • 6 In his Protogaea (1691) he developed the notion of the historical genesis of the present condition of the earth's surface. Cf. O. Peschel, Gesch. d. Erdkunde (Munich, 1865), pp. 615 sq. LEIBNITZ Este — -were not only preceded by an immense collection of historical sources, but enabled him to publish materials for a code of international law.1 The history of Brunswick itself was the last work of his life, and had covered the period from 768 to 1005 when death ended his labours. But the government, in whose service and at whose order the work had been carried out, left it in the archives of the Hanover library till it was published by Pertz in 1843. It was in the years between 1690 and 1716 that Leibnitz's chief philosophical works were composed, and during the first ten of these years the accounts of his system were, for the most part, preliminary sketches. Indeed, he never gave a full and systematic account of his doctrines. His views have to be gathered from letters to friends, from occasional articles in the Ada Eruditorum, the Journal des- Savants, and other journals, and from one or two more extensive works. It is evident, however, that philosophy had not been entirely neglected in the years in which his pen was almost solely occupied with other matters. A letter to the duke of Brunswick, and another to Arnauld, in 1671, show that he had already reached his new notion of substance; but it is in the correspondence with Antoine Arnauld, between 1686 and 1690, that his fundamental ideas and the reasons for them are for the first time made clear. The appearance of Locke's Essay in 1690 induced him (1696) to note down his objections to it, and his own ideas on the same subjects. In 1703-1704 these were worked out in detail and ready for publication, when the death of the author whom they criticized prevented their appearance (first published by Raspe, 1765). In 1710 appeared the only complete and systematic philosophical work of his life-time, Essais de The.od.icee sur la bonte de Dieu, la liberte de I'homme, et I'origine du mat, originally undertaken at the request of the late queen of Prussia, who had wished a reply to Bayle's opposition of faith and reason. In 1714 he wrote, for Prince Eugene of Savoy, a sketch of his system under the title of La Monadologie, and in the same year appeared his Principes de la nature et de la grace. The last few years of his life were perhaps more occupied with correspondence than any others, and, in a philosophical regard, were chiefly notable for the letters, which, through the desire of the new queen of England, he interchanged with Clarke, sur Dieu, I'dme, I'espace, la durie. Leibnitz died on the i4th of November 1716, his closing years enfeebled by disease, harassed by controversy, embittered by neglect; but to the last he preserved the indomitable energy and power of work to which is largely due the position he holds as, more perhaps than any one in modern times, a man of almost universal attainments and almost universal genius. Neither at Berlin, in the academy which he had founded, nor in London, whither his sovereign had gone to rule, was any notice taken of his death. At Hanover, Eckhart, his secretary, was his only mourner; " he was buried," says an eyewitness, " more like a robber than what he really was, the ornament of his country." * Only in the French Academy was the loss recognized, and a worthy eulogium devoted to his memory (November 13, 1717). The 2ooth anniversary of his birth was celebrated in 1846, and in the same year were opened the Koniglichsachsische Gesell- schaft der Wissenschaften and the Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften in Leipzig and Vienna respectively. In 1883, a statue was erected to him at Leipzig. Leibnitz possessed a wonderful power of rapid and continuous work. Even in travelling his time was employed 'in solving mathematical problems. He is described as moderate in his habits, quick of temper but easily appeased, charitable in his judgments of others, and tolerant of differences of opinion, though impatient of contradiction on small matters. He is also said to have been fond of money to the point of covetousness; he was certainly desirous of honour, and felt keenly the neglect in which his last years were passed. Philosophy.— The central point in the philosophy of Leibnitz was only arrived at after many advances and corrections in his 1 Codex juris gentium diplomatics (1693) ; Mantissa codicis juri gentium diplomatici (1700). 1 Memoirs of John Ker of Ker stand, by himself (1726), i. 118. opinions. This point is his new doctrine of substance (p. 702),* and it is through it that unity is given to the succession of occasional writings, scattered over fifty years", in which he explained his views. More inclined to agree than to differ with what he read (p. 425), and borrowing from almost every philosophical system, his own standpoint is yet most closely related to that of Descartes, partly as consequence, partly by way of opposition. Cartesianism, Leibnitz often asserted, is the ante-room of truth, but the ante-room only. Descartes's separation of things into two heterogeneous substances only connected by the omnipotence of God, and the more logical absorption of both by Spinoza into the one divine substance, followed from an erroneous conception of what the true nature of substance is. Substance, the ultimate reality, can only be conceived as force. Hence Leibnitz's metaphysical view of the monads as simple, per- cipient, self-active beings, the constituent elements of all things, his physical doctrines of the reality and constancy of force at the same time that space, matter and motion are merely phenomenal, and his psychological conception of the continuity and development of consciousness. In the closest connexion with the same stand his logical principles of consistency and sufficient reason, and the method he developed from them, his ethical end of perfection, and his crowning theological conception of the universe as the best possible world, and of God both as its efficient cause and its final harmony. The ultimate elements of the universe are, according to Leibnitz, individual centres of force or monads. Why they should be in- dividual, and not manifestations of one world-force, he never clearly proves.4 His doctrine of individuality seems to have been arrived at, not by strict deduction from the nature of force, but rather from the empirical observation that it is by the manifesta- tion of its activity that the separate existence of the individual becomes evident; for his system individuality is as fundamental as activity. " The monads," he says, " are the very atoms of nature • — in a word, the elements of things," but, as centres of force, they have neither parts, extension nor figure (p. 705). Hence their distinction from the atoms of Democritus and the materialists. They are metaphysical points or rather spiritual beings whose very nature it is to act. As the bent bow springs back of itself, so the monads naturally pass and are always passing into action without any aid but the absence of opposition (p. 122). Nor do they, like the atoms, act upon one another (p. 680); the action of each ex- cludes that of every other. The activity of each is the result of its own past state, the determinator of its own future (pp. 706, 722). " The monads have no windows by which anything may go in or out " (p. 705). Further, since all substances are of the nature of force, it follows that — " in imitation of the notion which we have of souls " — they must contain something analogous to feeling and appetite. It is the nature of the monad to represent the many in one, and this is per- ception, by which external events are mirrored internally (p. 438). Through their own activity the monads mirror the universe (p. 725), but each in its own way and from its own point of view, that is, with a more or less perfect perception (p. 127) ; for the Cartesians were wrong in ignoring the infinite grades of perception, and identi- fying it with the reflex cognizance of it which may be called apper- ception. Every monad is thus a microcosm, the universe in little,* and according to the degree of its activity is the distinctness of its representation of the universe (p. 709). Thus Leibnitz, borrowing the Aristotelian term, calls the monads entelechies, because they have a certain perfection (T& lvre\es) and sufficiency (afrreipictia) which make them sources of their internal actions and, so to speak, incorporeal automata (p. 706). That the monads are not pure entelechies is shown by the differences amongst them. Excluding all external limitation, they are yet limited by their own nature. All created monads contain a passive element or •materia prima (pp. 440, 687, 725), in virtue of which their perceptions are more or less confused. As the activity of the monad consists in perception, this is inhibited by the passive principle, so that there arises in the monad an appetite or tendency to overcome the inhibition and become more perceptive, whence follows the change from one perception to another (pp. 706, 714). By the proportion of activity to passivity in it one monad is differentiated from another. The greater the amount of activity or of distinct perceptions the more perfect is the monad; the stronger the element of passivity, the more confused its perceptions, the less perfect is it (p. 709). The soul would be a divinity had it nothing but distinct perceptions (p. 520). The monad is never without a perception; but, when it has a number of little perceptions with no means of distinction, a state similar to that of being stunned ensues, the monade nue being per- petually in this state (p. 707). Between this and the most distinct perception there is room for an infinite diversity of nature among the monads themselves. Thus no one monad is exactly the same as another; for, were it possible that there should be two identical, there would be no sufficient reason why God, who brings them into 3 When not otherwise stated, the references are to Erdmann s edition of the Opera philosophica. * See Considerations sur la doctrine d'un esprit universel (1702). 6 Cf. Opera, ed. Dutens, II. ii. 20. 388 LEIBNITZ actual existence, should put one of them at one definite time and place, the other at a different time and place. This is Leibnitz's principle of the identity of indiscernibles (pp. 277, 755); by it his early problem as to the principle of individuation is solved by the distinction between genus and individual being abolished, and every individual made sui generis. The principle thus established is formulated in Leibnitz's law of continuity, founded, he says, on the doctrine of the mathematical infinite, essential to geometry, and of importance in physics (pp. 104, 105), in accordance with which there is neither vacuum nor break in nature, but " everything takes place by degrees " (p. 392), the different species of creatures rising by insensible steps from the lowest to the most perfect form (p- 312). As in every monad each succeeding state is the consequence of the preceding, and as it is of the nature of every monad to mirror or represent the universe, it follows (p. 774) that the perceptive con- tent of each monad is in " accord or correspondence with that of every other (cf. p. 127), though this content is represented with infinitely varying degrees of perfection. This is Leibnitz's famous doctrine of pre-established harmony, in virtue of which the infinitely numerous independent substances of which the world is composed are related to each other and form one universe. It is essential to notice that it proceeds from the very nature of the monads as per- cipient, self-acting beings, and not from an arbitrary determination of the Deity. From this harmony of self-determining percipient units Leibnitz has to explain the world of nature and mind. As everything that really exists is of the nature of spiritual or metaphysical points (p. 126), it follows that space and matter in the ordinary sense can only have a phenomenal existence (p. 745), being dependent not on the nature of the monads themselves but on the way in which they are perceived. Considering that several things exist at the same time and in a certain order of coexistence, and mistaking this con- stant relation for something that exists outside of them, the mind forms the confused perception of space (p. 768). But space and time are merely relative, the former an order of coexistences, the latter of successions (pp. 682, 752). Hence not only the secondary qualities of Descartes and Locke, but their so-called primary qualities as well, are merely phenomenal (p. 445). The monads are really without position or distance from each other; but, as we perceive several simple substances, there is for us an aggregate or extended mass. Body is thus active extension (pp. 110, in). The unity of the aggregate depends entirely on our perceiving the monads com- posing it together. There is no such thing as an absolute vacuum or empty space, any more than there are indivisible material units or atoms from which all things are built up (pp. 126, 186, 277). Body, corporeal mass, or, as Leibnitz calls it, to distinguish it from the materia prima of which every monad partakes (p. 440), materia secunda, is thus only a " phenomenon bene fundatum " (p. 436). It is not a substantia but substantiae or substantiation (p. 745). While this, however, is the only view consistent with Leibnitz's fundamental principles, and is often clearly stated by himself, he also speaks at other times of the materia secunda as itself a composite substance, and of a real metaphysical bond between soul and body. But these expressions occur chiefly in the letters to des Bosses, in which Leibnitz is trying to reconcile his views with the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, especially with that of the real presence in the Eucharist, and are usually referred to by him as doctrines of faith or as hypothetical (see especially p. 680). The true vinculum substantiate is not the materia secunda, which a consistent develop- ment of Leibnitz's principles can only regard as phenomenal, but the materia prima, through which the monads are individualized and distinguished and their connexion rendered possible. And Leibnitz seems to recognize that the opposite assumption is inconsistent with his cardinal metaphysical view of the monads as the only realities. From Leibnitz's doctrine of force as the ultimate reality it follows that his view of nature must be throughout dynamical. And though his project of a dynamic, or theory of natural philosophy, was never carried put, the outlines of his own theory and his criticism of the mechanical physics of Descartes are known to us. The whole dis- tinction between the two lies in the difference between the mechanical and the dynamical views of nature. Descartes started from the reality of extension as constituting the nature of material substance, and found in magnitude, figure and mption the explanation of the material universe. Leibnitz, too, admitted the mechanical view of nature as giving the laws of corporeal phenomena (p. 438), applying also to everything that takes place in animal organisms,1 even the human body (p. 777). But, as phenomenal, these laws must find their explanation in metaphysics, and thus in final causes (p. 155). All things, he says (in his Specimen Dynamicum), can be explained either by efficient or by final causes. But the latter method is not appropriate to individual occurrences,* though it must be applied when the laws of mechanism themselves need explanation (p. 678). For Descartes's doctrine of the constancy of the quantity of motion 1 The difference between an organic and an inorganic body con- sists, he says, in this, that the former is a machine even in its smallest parts. 2 Opera, ed. Dutens, iii. 321. (i.e. momentum) in the world Leibnitz substitutes the principle of the conservation of vis viva, and contends that the Cartesian position that motion is measured by velocity should be superseded by the law that moving force (vis matrix) is measured by the square of the velocity (pp. 192, 193). The long controversy raised by this criticism was really caused by the ambiguity of the terms employed. The principles held by Descartes and Leibnitz were both correct, though different, and their conflict only apparent. Descartes's principle is now enunciated as the conservation of momentum, that of Leibnitz as the conservation of energy. Leibnitz further criticizes the Cartesian view that the mind can alter the direction of motion though it cannot initiate it, and contends that the quantity of " vis directiva," estimated between the same parts, is constant (p. 108) — a position developed in his statical theorem for determining geome- trically the resultant of any number of forces acting at a point. Like the monad, body, which is its analogue, has a passive and an active element. The former is the capacity of resistance, .and includes impenetrability and inertia; the latter is active force (pp. 250, 687). Bodies, too, like the monads, are self-contained activities, receiving no impulse from without — it is only by an accommodation to ordinary language that we speak of them as doing so — but moving themselves in harmony with each other (p. 250). The psychology of Leibnitz is chiefly developed in the Nouveaux essais sur Ventendement humain, written in answer to Locke's famous Essay, and criticizing it chapter by chapter. In these essays he worked out a theory of the origin and development of knowledge in harmony with his metaphysical views, and thus without Locke's implied assumption of the mutual influence of soul and body. When one monad in an aggregate perceives the others so clearly that they are in comparison with it bare monads (monades nues), it is said to be the ruling monad of the aggregate, not because it actu- ally does exert an influence over the rest, but because, being in close correspondence with them, and yet having so much clearer percep- tion, it seems to do so (p. 683). This monad is called the entelechy or soul of the aggregate or body, and as such mirrors the aggregate in the first place and the universe through it (p. 710). Each soul or entelechy is surrounded by an infinite number of monads forming its body (p. 714); soul and body together make a living being, and, as their laws are in perfect harmony — a harmony established be- tween the whole realm of final causes and that of efficient causes (p. 714) — we have the same result as if one influenced the other. This is further explained by Leibnitz in his well-known illustration of the different ways in which two clocks may keep exactly the same time. The machinery of the one may actually move that of the other, or whenever one moves the mechanician may make a similar alteration in the other, or they may have been so perfectly con- structed at first as to continue to correspond at every instant with- out any further influence (pp. 133, 134). The first way represents the common (Locke's) theory of mutual influence, the second the method of the occasionalists, the third that of pre-established harmony. Thus the body does not act on the soul in the production of cognition, nor the soul on the body in the production of motion. The body acts just as if it had no soul, the soul as if it had no body (p. 711). Instead, therefore, of all knowledge coming to us directly or indirectly through the bodily senses, it is all developed by the soul's own activity, and sensuous perception is itself but a confused kind of cognition. Not a certain select class of our ideas only (as Descartes held), but all pur ideas, are innate, though only worked up into actual cognition in the development of knowledge (p. 212). To the aphorism made use of by Locke, " Nihil est in intellectu quod non prius fuerit in sensu," must be added the clause, " nisi intellectus ipse " (p. 223). The soul at birth is not comparable to a tabula rasa, but rather to an unworked block of marble, the hidden veins of which already determine the form it is to assume in the hands of the sculptor (p. 196). Nor, again, can the soul ever be without perception; for it has no other nature than that of a percipient active being (p. 246). Apparently dreamless sleep is to be accounted for by unconscious perception (p. 223) ; and it is by such insensible perceptions that Leibnitz explains his doctrine of pre-established harmony (p. 197). In the human soul perception is developed into thought, and there is thus an infinite though gradual difference between it and the mere monad (p. 464). As all knowledge is implicit in the soul, it follows that its perfection depends on the efficiency of the instrument by which it is developed. Hence the importance, in Leibnitz's system, of the logical principles and method, the consideration of which occupied him at intervals throughout his whole career. There are two kinds of truths — (i) truths of reasoning, and (2) truths of fact (pp. 83, 99, 707). The former rest on the principle of identity (or contradiction) or of possibility, in virtue of which that is false which contains a contradiction, and that true which is contradictory to the false. The latter rest on the principle of sufficient reason or of reality (compossibilite) , according to which no fact is true unless there be a sufficient reason why it should be so and not otherwise (agreeing thus with the principtum melioris or final cause). God alone, the purely active monad, has an a priori know- ledge of the latter class of truths; they have their source in the human mind only in so far as it mirrors the outer world, i.e. in its passivity, whereas the truths of reason have their source in our mind in itself or in its activity. LEIBNITZ 389 Both kinds of truths fall into two classes, primitive and deriva- tive. The primitive truths of fact are, as Descartes held, those of internal experience, and the derivative truths are inferred from them in accordance with the principle of sufficient reason, by their agree- ment with our perception of the world as a whole. They are thus reached by probable arguments — a department of logic which Leib- nitz was the first to bring into prominence (pp. 84, 164, 168, 169, 343). The primitive truths of reasoning are identical (in later terminology, analytical) propositions, the derivative truths being deduced from them by the principle of contradiction. The part of his logic on which Leibnitz laid the greatest stress was the separation of these rational cognitions into their simplest elements — for he held that the root-notions (cogitationes primae) would be found to be few in number (pp. 92, 93) — and the designation of them by universal characters or symbols,1 composite notions being denoted by the formulae formed by the union of several definite characters, and judgments by the relation of aequipollence among these formulae, so as to reduce the syllogism to a calculus. This is the main idea of Leibnitz's " universal characteristic," never fully worked out by him, which he regarded as one of the greatest discoveries of the age. An incidental result of its adoption would be the intro- duction of a universal symbolism of thought comparable to the symbolism of mathematics and intelligible m all languages (cf. p. 356). But the great revolution it would effect would chiefly consist in this, that truth and falsehood would be no longer matters of opinion but of correctness or error in calculation,2 (pp. 83, 84,89, 93). The old Aristotelian analytic is not to be superseded; but it is to be supplemented by this new method, for of itself it is but the ABC of logic. But the logic of Leibnitz is an art of discovery (p. 85) as well as of proof, and, as such, applies both to the sphere of reasoning and to that of fact. In the former it has by attention to render explicit what is otherwise only implicit, and by the intellect to introduce order into the a priori truths of reason, so that one may follow from another and they may constitute together a monde intellectuel. To this art of orderly combination Leibnitz attached the greatest im- portance, and to it one of his earliest writings was devoted. Similarly, m the sphere of experience, it is the business of the art of discovery to find out and classify the primitive facts or data, referring every other fact to them as its sufficient reason, so that new truths of experience may be brought to light. As the perception of the monad when clarified becomes thought, so the appetite of which all monads partake is raised to will, their spontaneity to freedom, in man (p. 669). The will is an effort or tendency to that which one finds good (p. 251), and is free only in the sense of being exempt from external control3 (pp. 262, 513, 521), for it must always have a sufficient reason for its action determined by what seems good to it. The end determining the will is pleasure (p. 269), and pleasure is the sense of an increase of perfection (p. 670). A will guided by reason will sacrifice transitory and pursue constant pleasures or happiness, and in this weighing of pleasures consists true wisdom. Leibnitz, like Spinoza, says that freedom consists in following reason, servitude in following the passions (p. 669), and that the passions proceed from confused perceptions (pp. 188, 269). In love one finds joy in the happiness of another; and from love follow justice and law. " Our reason," says Leibnitz,4 " illumined by the spirit of God, reveals the law of nature," and with it positive law must not conflict. Natural law rises from the strict command to avoid offence, through the maxim of equity which gives to each his due, to that of probity or piety (honeste yivere), — the highest ethical perfection,— which presupposes a belief in God, providence and a future life.5 Moral immortality — not merely the simple continuity which belongs to every monad — comes from God having provided that the changes of matter will not make man lose his individuality (pp. 126, 466). Leibnitz thus makes the existence of God a postulate of morality as well as necessary for the realization of the monads. It is in the Theodicee that his theology is worked out and his view of the universe as the best possible world defended. In it he contends that faith and reason are essentially harmonious (pp. 402, 479), and that nothing can be received as an article of faith which contradicts an eternal truth, though the ordinary physical order may be superseded by a higher.8 The ordinary arguments for the being of God are retained by Leibnitz in a modified form (p. 375). Descartes's ontological proof is supplemented by the clause that God as the ens a se must either 1 Different symbolic systems were proposed by Leibnitz at different periods; cf. Kvet, Leibnitzens Logik (1857), p. 37. 2 The places at which Leibnitz anticipated the modern theory of logic mainly due to Boole are pointed out in Mr Venn's Symbolic Logic (1881). * Hence the difference of his determinism from that of Spinoza, though Leibnitz too says in one place that " it is difficult enough to distinguish the actions of God from those of the creatures " (Werke, ed. Pertz, 2nd ser. vol. i. p. 160). 4 Opera omnia, ed. Dutens, IV. lii. 282. 5 Ibid. IV. iii. 295. Cf. Bluntschli, Gesch. d. allg. Staatsrechts u. Politik (1864), pp. 143 sqq. 6 P. 480; cf. Werke. ed. Pertz, 2nd ser. vol. i. pp. 158,159. exist or be impossible (pp. 80, 177, 708); in the cosmological proof he passes from the infinite series of finite causes to their sufficient reason which contains all changes in the series necessarily in itself (pp. 147, 708) ; and he argues ideologically from the existence of harmony among the monads without any mutual influence to God as the author of this harmony (p. 430). In these proofs Leibnitz seems to have in view an extramundane power to whom the monads owe their reality, though such a concep-- tion evidently breaks the continuity and harmony of his system; and can only be externally connected with it. But he also speaks in one place at any rate7 of God as the " universal harmony "; and the historians Erdmann and Zeller are of opinion that this is the only sense in which his system can be consistently theistic. Yet it would seem that to assume a purely active and therefore perfect monad as the source of all things is in accordance with the principle of continuity and with Leibnitz's conception of the gradation of existences. In this sense he sometimes speaks of God as the first or highest of the monads (p. 678), and of created substances proceeding from Him continually by " figurations " (p. 708) or by " a sort of emanation as we produce our thoughts."8 The positive properties or perfections of the monads, Leibnitz holds, exist eminenter, i.e. without the limitation that attaches td created monads (p. 716), in God — their perception as His wisdom or intellect, and their appetite as His absolute will or goodness (p. 654) '; while the absence of all limitation is the divine independence or power, which again consists in this, that the possibility of things' depends on His intellect, their reality on His will (p. 506). The universe in its harmonious order is thus the realization of the divine end, and as such must be the best possible (p. 506). The teleology of Leibnitz becomes necessarily a Theodicee. God created a world to manifest and communicate His perfection (p. 524), and, in chops- ing this world out of the infinite number that exist in the region of ideas (p. 515), was guided by the principium melioris (p. 506). With this thoroughgoing optimism Leibnitz has to reconcile the existence of evil in the best of all possible worlds.9 With this end in view he distinguishes (p. 655) between (i) metaphysical evil or imperfection, which is unconditionally willed by God as essential to created beings; (2) physical evil, such as pain, which is con- ditionally willed by God as punishment or as a means to greater good (cf. p. 510); and (3) moral evil, in which the great difficulty lies, and which Lejbnitz makes various attempts to explain. He says that it was merely permitted not willed by God (p. 655), and, that being obviously no explanation, adds that it was permitted becaus^ it was foreseen that the world with evil would nevertheless be better than any other possible world (p. 350). He also speaks of the evil as a mere set-off to the good in the world, which it increases by con- trast (p. 149), and at other times reduces moral to metaphysical evil by giving it a merely negative existence, or says that their evil actions are to be referred to men alone, while it is only the power of action that comes from God, and the power of action is good (p. 658). , ' The great problem of Leibnitz's Theodicee thus remains unsolved. The suggestion that evil consists in a mere imperfection, like his idea of the monads proceeding from God by a continual emanation, was too bold and too inconsistent with his immediate apologetic aim to be carried out by him. Had he done so his theory would have transcended the independence of the monads with which it started, and found a deeper unity in the world than that resulting from the somewhat arbitrary assertion that the monads reflect the universe. The philosophy of Leibnitz, in the more systematic and abstract form it received at the hands of Wolf, ruled the schools of Germany for nearly a century, and largely determined the character of the critical philosophy by which it was superseded. On it Baumgarteri laid the foundations of a science of aesthetic. Its treatment 'of theological questions heralded the German Aufkldrung. And on many special points — in its physical doctrine of the conservation of force, its psychological hypothesis of unconscious perception, its attempt at a logical symbolism — it has suggested ideas fruitful for the progress of science. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — (i) Editions: Up to 1900 no attempt had beeri made to publish the complete works. Several editions existed, but a vast mass of MSS. (letters, &c.) remained only roughly classified in the Hanover library. The chief editions were: (i) L. Dutens (Geneva, 1768), called Opera Omnia, but far from complete r (2) G. H. Pertz, Leibnizens gesammelte Werke (Berlin, 1843-1863) (ist ser. History, 4 vols. ; 2nd ser. Philosophy, vol. i. correspondence: with Arnauld, &c., ed. C. L. Grotefend; 3rd ser. Mathematics, 7 vols., ed. C. J. Gerhardt); (3) Foucher de Careil (planned in 20 vols., 7 published, Paris, 1859-1875), the same editor having previously published Lettres et opuscules inedits de Leibniz (Paris, 1854-1857); (4) Onno Klopp, Die Werke von Leibniz gemass seinent Handschriftlichen Nachlasse in der Koniglichen Bibliothek zu Hannover (ist series, Historico-Political and Political, 10 vols., 1864-1877). The (Euvres de Leibnitz, by A. Jacques (2 vols., Paris, 1846) also 7 Werke, ed. Klopp, iii. 259; cf. Op. phil., p. 716. 8 Werke, ed. Pertz, 2nd ser. vol. i. p. 167. 9 " Si c'est ici le meilleur des mondes possibles, que sont done les autres? " — Voltaire, Candide, ch. vi. 39° LEICESTER, EARLS OF deserves mention. The philosophical writings had been published by Raspe (Amsterdam and Leipzig, 1765), by J. E. Erdmann, Leibnitii opera philos. quae extant Latina, Gallica, Germanica, omnia (Berlin, 1840), by P. Janet (2 vols., Paris, 1866, 2nd ed. 1900), and the fullest by C. J. Gerhardt, Die Philosophischen Schriften von G. W. Leibniz (7 vols., 1875-1890); cf. also Die kleineren philos. wichtigeren Schriften (trans, with commentary, J. H. von Kirchmann, 1879). The German works had also been partly published separately ; G. E. Guhrauer (Berlin, 1838-1840). Of the letters various collec- tions had been published up to 1900, e.g.: C. J. Gerhardt (Halle, 1860) and Der Briefwechsel von G. W. Leibnitz mil Mathemalikern (1899); Corrispondenza tra L. A. Muratori e G. Leibnitz (1899); and cf . Neue Beitrage zum Briefwechsel zwischen D. E. Jablonsky und G. W. Leibnitz (1899). In 1900 it was decided by scholars in Berlin and Paris that a really complete edition should be published, and with this object four German and four French critics were entrusted with the pre- liminary task of correlating the MSS. in the royal library at Hanover. This process resulted in the preparation of the Kritischer Katalog der Leibnitz-Handschriften zur Vorbereitung der interakademischen Leibnitz- Ausgabe unternemmen (1908), and also in certain other preliminary publications, e.g. L. Couturat, Opuscules et fragments inedits (1903); E. Gerland, Leibnizens nachgelassene Schriften physikalischen, mechanischen und technischen Inhalts (1906); Jean Baruzi, Leibniz (1909), containing unedited MSS. and a sketch- biography; cf. the same author's Leibniz et V organisation religieuse de la terre (1907). Translations. — Of the Sy sterna Theologicum (1850, C. W. Russell), of the correspondence with Clarke (1717); Works, by G. M. Duncan (New Haven, 1890); of the Nouveaux Essais, by A. G. Langley (London, 1894); the Monadology and other Writings, by R. Latta (Oxford, 1898). Biographical. — The materials for the life of Leibnitz, in addition to his own works, are the notes of Eckhart (not published till 1779)1 the Eloge by Fontenelle (read to the French Academy in 1717), the " Eulogium," by Wolf, in the Acta Eruditorium for July 1717, and the " Supplementum " to the same by Feller, published m his Otium Hannover anum (Leipzig, 1718). The best biography is that of G. E. Guhrauer, G. W. Freiherr von Leibnitz (2 vols., Breslau, 1842; Nachlrage, Breslau, 1846). A shorter Life of G. W. von Leibnitz, on the Basis of the German Work of Guhrauer, has been published by J. M. Mackie (Boston, 1845). More recent works are those of L. Grote, Leibniz und seine Zeit (Hanover, 1869); E. Pfleiderer, Leibniz als Patriot, Staatsmann, und Bttdungstrager (Leipzig, 1870); the slighter volume of F. Kirchner, G. W. Leibniz: sein Leben und Denken (Kothen, 1876); Kuno Fischer, vol. iii. in Gesch. der neuern Philosophic (4th ed., 1902). Critical.— -The monographs and essays on Leibnitz are too numer- ous to mention, but reference may be made to Feuerbach, Darstettung, Entwicklung, und Kritik der Leibnitz' schen Phil. (2nded., Leipzig, 1844); Nourrisson, La Philosophic de Leibniz (Paris, 1860); R. Zimmermann, Leibnitz und Herbart: eine Vergleichung ihrer Mona- dologieen (Vienna, 1849); O. Caspari, Leibniz' Philosophic beleuchtet vom Gesichtspunkt der physikalischen Grundbegriffe von Kraft und Staff (Leipzig, 1870); G. Hartenstein, "Locke's Lehre von der menschl. Erk. in Vergl. mit Leibniz's Kritik derselben dargestellt," in the Abhandl. d. philol.-hist. Cl. d. K. Sachs. Gesetts. d. Wiss., vol. iv. (Leipzig, 1865); G. Class, Die metaph. Voraussetzungen des Leibnitzischen Determinismus (Tubingen, 1874); F. B. KvSt, Leib- nitzens Logik (Prague, 1857); the essays on Leibnitz in Trendelen- burg's Beitrage, vols. ii. and iii. (Berlin, 1855, 1867); L. Neff, Leibniz als Sprachforscher (Heidelberg, 1870-1871); J. Schmidt, Leibniz und Baumgarten (Halle, 1875); D. Nolen, La Critique de Kant et la Metaphysique de Leibniz (Paris, 1875); and the exhaustive work of A. Pichler, D ie Theologie des Leibniz (Munich, 1869-1870). Among the more recent works are: C. Braig, Leibniz: sein Leben und die Bedeutung seiner Lehre (1907); E. Cassirer, Leibniz' System in seinem wissenschaftlichen Grundlagen (1902); L. Couturat, La Logique de Leibniz d'apres des documents inedits (1901); L. Davilld, Leibniz historien (1909); Kuno Fischer, G. W. Leibniz (1889); R. B. Frenzel, Der Associationsbegriff bei Leibniz (1898); R. Herbertz, Die Lehre vom Unbewussten im System des Leibniz (1905); H. Hoff- mann, Die Leibniz' sche Religions-philosophic in ihrer geschichtlichen Stellung (1903); W. Kabitz, Die Philosophic des jungen Leibniz (1909), a study of the development of the Leibnitzian system; H. L. Koch, Materie und Organismus bei Leibniz (1908); G. Niel, L'Optimisme de Leibniz (1888); Bertrand A. W. Russell, A Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz (1900) ; F. Schmoger, Leibniz in seiner Stellung zur tellurischen Physik (1901); A. Silberstein, Leibnizens Apriorismus in Verhdltnis zu seiner Metaphysik (1904); Stein, Leibniz und Spinoza (1890); F. Thilly, Leibnizens Streit gegen Locke in Ansehung der angeborenen Ideen (1891); R. Urbach, Leibnizens Rechtferligung des Uebels in der besten Welt (1901); W. Werckmeister, Der Leibnizsche Substanzbegriff (1899); F. G. F. VVernicke, Leibniz' Lehre von der Freiheit des menschlichen Willens (1890). (W. R. So.) LEICESTER, EARLS OF. The first holder of this English earldom belonged to the family of Beaumont, although a certain Saxon named Edgar has been described as the ist earl of Leicester. Robert de Beaumont (d. 1118) is frequently but erroneously considered to have received the earldom from Henry I., about 1107; he had, however, some authority in the county of Leicester and his son Robert was undoubtedly earl of Leicester in 1131. The 3rd Beaumont earl, another Robert, was also steward of England, a dignity which was attached to the earldom of Leicester from this time until 1399. The earldom reverted to the crown when Robert de Beaumont, the 4th earl, died in January 1204. In 1207 Simon IV., count of Montfort (q.v.), nephew and heir of Earl Robert, was confirmed in the possession of the earldom by King John, but it was forfeited when his son, the famous Simon de Montfort, was attainted and was killed at Evesham in August 1265. Henry III.'s son Edmund, earl of Lancaster, was also earl of Leicester and steward of England, obtaining these offices a few months after Earl Simon's death. Edmund's sons, Thomas and Henry, both earls of Lancaster, and his grandson Henry, duke of Lancaster, in turn held the earldom, which then passed to a son-in-law of Duke Henry, William V., count of Holland (c. 1327-1389), and then to another and more celebrated son-in-law, John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. When in 1399 Gaunt's son became king as Henry IV. the earldom was merged in the crown. In 1564 Queen Elizabeth created her favourite, Lord Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester. The new earl was a son of John Dudley, duke of Northumberland; he left no children, or rather none of undoubted legitimacy, and when he died in September 1588 the title became extinct. In 1618 the earldom of Leicester was revived in favour of Robert Sidney, Viscount Lisle, a nephew of the late earl and a brother of Sir Philip Sidney; it remained in this family until the death of Jocelyn (1682-1743), the 7th earl of this line, in July 1743. Jocelyn left no legitimate children, but a certain John Sidney claimed to be his son and consequently to be 8th earl of Leicester. In 1744, the year after Jocelyn's death, Thomas Coke, Baron Lovel (c. 1695-1759), was made earl of Leicester, but the title became extinct on his death in April 1759. The next family to hold the earldom was that of Townshend, George Townshend (1755-1811) being created earl of Leicester in 1784. In 1807 George succeeded his father as 2nd marquess Townshend, and when his son George Ferrars Townshend, the 3rd marquess (1778-1855), died in December 1855 the earldom again became extinct. Before this date, however, another earldom of Leicester was in existence. This was created in 1837 in favour of Thomas William Coke, who had inherited the estates of his relative Thomas Coke, earl of Leicester. To distinguish his earldom from that held by the Townshends Coke was ennobled as earl of Leicester of Holkham; his son Thomas William Coke (1822- 1909) became 2nd earl of Leicester in 1842, and the latter's son Thomas William (b. 1848) became 3rd earl. See G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage, vol. v. (1893). LEICESTER, ROBERT DUDLEY, EARL OF (c. 1531-1588). This favourite of Queen Elizabeth came of an ambitious family. They were not, indeed, such mere upstarts as their enemies loved to represent them; for Leicester's grandfather — the notorious Edmund Dudley who was one of the chief instruments of Henry VII. 's extortions— was descended from a younger branch of the barons of Dudley. But the love of power was a passion which seems to have increased in them with each succeed- ing generation, and though the grandfather was beheaded by Henry VIII. for his too devoted services in the preceding reign, the father grew powerful enough in the days of Edward VI. to trouble the succession to the crown. This was that John Dudley, duke of Northumberland, who contrived the marriage of Lady Jane Grey with his own son Guildford Dudley, and involved both her and her husband in a common ruin with himself. Robert Dudley, the subject of this article, was an elder brother of Guildford, and shared at that time in the misfortunes , of the whole family. Having taken up arms with them against Queen Mary, he was sent to the Tower, and was sentenced to death; but the queen not only pardoned and restored him to LEICESTER, EARLS OF 391 liberty, but appointed him master of the ordnance. On the accession of Elizabeth he was also made master of the horse. He was then, perhaps, about seven-and-twenty, and was evidently rising rapidly in the queen's favour. At an early age he had been married to Amy, daughter of Sir John Robsart. The match had been arranged by his father, who was very studious to provide in this way for the future fortunes of his children, and the wedding was graced by the presence of King Edward. But if it was not a love match, there seems to have been no positive estrangement between the couple. Amy visited her husband in the Tower during his imprisonment; but afterwards when, under the new queen, he was much at court, she lived a good deal apart from him. He visited her, however, at times, in different parts of the country, and his expenses show that he treated her liberally. In September 1560 she was staying at Cumnor Hall in Berkshire, the house of one Anthony Forster, when she met her death under circumstances which certainly aroused suspicions of foul play. It is quite clear that her death had been surmised some time before as a thing that would remove an obstacle to Dudley's marriage with the queen, with whom he stood in so high favour. We may take it, perhaps, from Venetian sources, that she was then in delicate health, while Spanish state papers show further that there were scandalous rumours of a design to poison her; which were all the more propagated by malice after the event. The occurrence, however, was explained as owing to a fall down stairs in which she broke her neck; and the explanation seems perfectly adequate to account for all we know about it. Certain it is that Dudley continued to rise in the queen's favour. She made him a Knight of the Garter, and bestowed on him the castle of Kenilworth, the lordship of Denbigh and other lands of very great value in Warwickshire and in Wales. In September 1564 she created him baron of Denbigh, and immediately afterwards earl of Leicester. In the preceding month, when she visited Cambridge, she at his request addressed the university in Latin. The honours shown him excited jealousy, especially as it was well known that he entertained still more ambitious hopes, which the queen apparently did not altogether discourage. The earl of Sussex, in opposition to him, strongly favoured a match with the archduke Charles of Austria. The court was divided, and, while arguments were set forth on the one side against the queen's marrying a subject, the other party insisted strongly on the disadvantages of a foreign alliance. The queen, however, was so far from being foolishly in love with him that in 1 564 she recommended him as a husband for Mary Queen of Scots. But this, it was believed, was only a blind, and it may be doubted how far the proposal was serious. After his creation as earl of Leicester great attention was paid to him both at home and abroad. The university of Oxford made him their chancellor, and Charles IX. of France sent him the order of St Michael. A few years later he formed an ambiguous connexion with the baroness dowager of Sheffield, which was maintained by the lady, if not with truth at least with great plausibility, to have been a valid marriage, though it was concealed from the queen. Her own subsequent conduct, however, went far to discredit her statements; for she married again during Leicester's life, when he, too, had found a new conjugal partner. Long afterwards, in the days of James I., her son, Sir Robert Dudley, a man of extraordinary talents, sought to establish his legitimacy; but his suit was suddenly brought to a stop, the witnesses discredited and the documents connected with it sealed up by an order of the Star Chamber. In J575 Queen Elizabeth visited the earl at Kenilworth, where she was entertained for some days with great magnificence. The picturesque account of the event given by Sir Walter Scott has made every one familiar with the general character of the scene. Next year Walter, earl of Essex, died in Ireland, and Leicester's subsequent marriage with his widow again gave rise to very serious imputations against him. For report said that he had had two children by her during her husband's absence in Ireland, and, as the feud between the two earls was notorious, Leicester's many enemies easily suggested that he lad poisoned his rival. .This marriage, at all events, tended to Leicester's discredit and was kept secret at first; but it was revealed to the queen in 1579 by Simier, an emissary of the duke of Alenfon, to whose projected match with Elizabeth the earl seemed to be the principal obstacle. The queen showed great displeasure at the news, and had some thought, it is said, of committing Leicester to the Tower, but was dissuaded from doing so by his rival the earl of Sussex. He had not, indeed, favoured the Alengon marriage, but otherwise he had sought to promote a league with France against Spain. He and Bur- leigh had listened to proposals from France for the conquest and division of Flanders, and they were in the secret about the capture of Brill. When Alencon actually arrived, indeed, in August 1579, Dudley being in disgrace, snowed himself for a time anti-French; but he soon returned to his former policy. He encouraged Drake's piratical expeditions against the Spaniards and had a share in the booty brought home. In February 1582 he, with a number of other noblemen and gentlemen, escorted the duke of Alengon on his return to Antwerp to be invested with the government of the Low Countries. In 1584 he in- augurated an association for the protection of Queen Elizabeth against conspirators. About this time there issued from the press the famous pamphlet, supposed to have been the work of Parsons the Jesuit, entitled Leicester's Commonwealth, which was intended to suggest that the English constitution was subverted and the government handed over to one who was at heart an atheist and a traitor, besides being a man of in- famous life and morals. The book was ordered to be suppressed by letters from the privy council, in which it was declared that the charges against the earl were to the queen's certain knowledge untrue; nevertheless they produced a very strong impression, and were believed in by some who had no sympathy with Jesuits long after Leicester's death. In 1585 he was ap- pointed commander of an expedition to the Low Countries in aid of the revolted provinces, and sailed with a fleet of fifty ships to Flushing, where he was received with great enthusiasm. In January following he was invested with the government of the provinces, but immediately received a strong reprimand from the queen for taking upon himself a function which she had not authorized. Both he and the states general were obliged to apologize; but the latter protested that they had no intention of giving him absolute control of their affairs, and that it would be extremely dangerous to them to revoke the appointment. Leicester accordingly was allowed to retain his dignity; but the incident was inauspicious, nor did affairs prosper greatly under his management. The most brilliant achievement of the war was. the action at Zutphen, in which his nephew Sir Philip Sidney was slain. But complaints were made by the states general of the conduct of the whole campaign. He returned to England for a time, and went back in 1587, when he made an abortive effort to raise the siege of Sluys. Disagreements increasing between him and the states, he was recalled by the queen, from whom he met with a very good reception; and he continued in such favour that in the following summer (the year being that of the Armada, 1 588) he was appointed lieutenant- general of the army mustered at Tilbury to resist Spanish in- vasion. . After the crisis was past he was returning homewards from the court to Kenilworth, when he was attacked by a sudden illness and died at his house at Cornbury in Oxfordshire, on the 4th September. Such are the main facts of Leicester's life. Of his character it is more difficult to speak with confidence, but some features of it are indisputable. Being in person tall and remarkably handsome, he improved these advantages by a very ingratiating manner. A man of no small ability and still more ambition, he was nevertheless vain, and presumed at times upon his influence with the queen to a degree that brought upon him a sharp rebuff. Yet Elizabeth stood by him. That she was ever really in love with him, as modern writers have supposed, is extremely questionable; but she saw in him some valuable qualities which marked him as the fitting recipient of high favours. He was a man of princely tastes, especially in architec- ture. At court he became latterly the leader of the Puritan party. 392 LEICESTER, EARLS OF and his letters were pervaded by expressions of religious feeling which it is hard to believe were insincere. Of the darker sus- picions against him it is enough to say that much was cer- tainly reported beyond the truth; but there remain some facts sufficiently disagreeable, and others, perhaps, sufficiently mys- terious, to make a just estimate of the man a rather perplexing problem. No special biography of Leicester has yet been written except in biographical dictionaries and encyclopaedias. A general account of him will be found in the Memoirs of the Sidneys prefixed to Collins's Letters and Memorials of State • but the fullest yet published is Mr Sidney Lee's article in the Dictionary of National Biography (London, 1888) where the sources are given. Leicester's career nas to be made out from documents and state papers, especially from the Hatfield MSS. and Major Hume's Calendar of documents from the Spanish archives bearing on the history of Queen Elizabeth. This last is the most recent source. Of others the principal are Digges's Compleat Ambassador (1655), John Nichols's Progresses of Queen Elizabeth and the Leycester Correspondence edited by J. Bruce for the Camden Society. The death of Dudley's first wife has been a fruitful source of literary controversy. The most recent addition to the evidences, which considerably alters their com- plexion, will be found in the English Historical Review, xiii. 83, giving the full text (in English) of De Quadra's letter of Sept. 1 1 , 1560, on which so much has been built. (J. GA.) LEICESTER, ROBERT SIDNEY, EARL OF (1563-1626), second son of Sir Henry Sidney (p. (1891) 373,584, (1901) 434-°'9- The area of the administrative county is 532,788 acres. The county con- tains six hundreds. The municipal boroughs are: Leicester, the county town and a county borough (pop. 211,579), Loughborough (21,508). The urban districts are : Ashby-de-la-Zouch (4726), Ashby Woulds (2799), Coalville (15,281), Hinckley (11,304), Market Har- borough (7735), Melton Mowbray (7454), Quorndon (2173), Shepshed (5293), Tnurmaston (1732), Wigston Magna (8404). The county is in the Midland circuit, has one court of quarter sessions, and is divided into 9 petty sessional divisions. The county borough of Leicester has a separate court of quarter sessions and a separate commission of the peace. There are 327 civil parishes. The county is divided into four parliamentary divisions (Eastern or Melton, Mid or Loughborough, Western or Bosworth, Southern or Har- borough), each returning one member; and the parliamentary borough of Leicester returns 2 members. The county is in the diocese of Peterborough, with the exception of small parts in those of Southwell and Worcester; and contains 255 ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or in part. History. — The district which is now Leicestershire was reached in the 6th century by Anglian invaders who, making their way across the Trent, penetrated Charnwood Forest as far as Leicester, the fall of which may be dated at about 556. In 679 the district formed the kingdom of the Middle Angles within the kingdom of Mercia, and on the subdivision of the Mercian see in that year was formed into a separate bishopric having its see at Leicester. In the gth century the district was subjugated by the Danes, and Leicester became one of the five Danish boroughs. It was re- covered by ^Ethelflaed in 918, but the Northmen regained their supremacy shortly after, and the prevalence of Scandinavian place-names in the county bears evidence of the extent of their settlement. Leicestershire probably originated as a shire in the icth century, and at the time of the Domesday Survey was divided into the four wapentakes of Guthlaxton, Framland, Goscote and Gartree. The Leicestershire Survey of the 1 2th century shows an additional grouping of the vills into small local hundreds, manorial rather than administrative divisions, which have completely disappeared. In the reign of Edward I. the divisions appear as hundreds, and in the reign of Edward III. the additional hundred of Sparkenhoe was formed out of Guthlaxton. Before the i7th century Goscote was divided into East and West Goscote, and since then the hundreds have undergone little change. Until 1566 Leicester- shire and Warwickshire had a common sheriff, the shire-court for the former being held at Leicester. Leicestershire constituted an archdeaconry within the diocese of Lincoln from 1092 until its transference to Peterborough in 1837. In 1291 it comprised the deaneries of Akeley, Leicester (now Christianity), Framland, Gartree, Goscote, Guthlaxton and Sparkenhoe. The deaneries remained unaltered until 1865. Since 1894 they have been as follows: East, South and West Akeley, Christianity, Framland (3 portions), Sparkenhoe (2 portions), Gartree (3 portions), Goscote (2 portions), Guthlaxton (3 portions). Among the earliest historical events connected with the county were the siege and capture of Leicester by Henry II. in 1173 on the rebellion of the earl of Leicester; the surrender of Leicester to Prince Edward in 1264; and the parliament held at Leicester in 1414. During the Wars of the Roses Leicester was a great Lancastrian stronghold. In 1485 the battle of Bosworth was fought in the county. In the Civil War of the 1 7th century the greater part of the county favoured the parlia- ment, though the mayor and some members of the corporation of Leicester sided with the king, and in 1642 the citizens of Leicester on a summons from Prince Rupert lent Charles £500. In 1645 Leicester was twice captured by the Royalist forces. Before the Conquest large estates in Leicestershire were held by Earls Ralf, Morcar, Waltheof and Harold, but the Domesday Survey of 1086 reveals an almost total displacement of English by Norman landholders, only a few estates being retained by Englishmen as under-tenants. The first lay-tenant mentioned in the survey is Robert, count of Meulan, ancestor of the Beau- mont family and afterwards earl of Leicester, to whose fief was afterwards annexed the vast holding of Hugh de Grantmesnil, lord high steward of England. Robert de Toeni, another Domes- day tenant, founded Belvoir Castle and Priory. The fief of Robert de Buci was bestowed on Richard Basset, founder of Laund Abbey, in the reign of Henry I. Loughborough was an ancient seat of the Despenser family, and Brookesby was the seat of the Villiers and the birthplace of George Villiers, the famous duke of Buckingham. Melton Mowbray was named from its former lords, the Mowbrays, descendants of Nigel de Albini, the founder of Axholme Priory. Lady Jane Grey was born at Bradgate near Leicester, and Bishop Latimer was born at Thurcaston. The woollen industry flourished in Leicestershire in Norman times, and in 1343 Leicestershire wool was rated at a higher value than that of most other counties. Coal was worked at Coleorton in the early isth century and at Measham in the I7th century. The famous blue slate of Swithland has been quarried from time immemorial, and the limestone quarry at Barrow-on- Soar is also of very ancient repute, the monks of the abbey of St Mary de Pr6 formerly enjoying the tithe of its produce. The staple manufacture of the county, that of hosiery, originated in the I7th century, the chief centres being Leicester, Hinckley and Loughborough, and before the development of steam-driven frames in the igth century hand framework knitting of hose and gloves was carried on in about a hundred villages. Wool- carding was also an extensive industry before 1840. In 1290 Leicestershire returned two members to parliament, and in 1295 Leicester was also represented by two members. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned four members in two divisions until the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885, under which it returned four members in four divisions. Antiquities. — Remains of monastic foundations are slight, though there were a considerable number of these. There are traces of Leicester Abbey and of Gracedieu near Coalville, while at Ulvers- croft in Charnwood, where there was an Augustinian priory of the 1 2th century, there are fine Decorated remains, including a tower. The most noteworthy churches are found in the towns, as at Ashby- de-la-Zouch, Hinckley, Leicester, Loughborough, Lutterworth, Market Bosworth, Market Harborough, and Melton Mowbray LEIDEN— LEIDY 395 (qq.v.). The principal old castle is that of Ashby-de-la-Zouch, while at Kirby Muxloe there is a picturesque fortified mansion of Tudor date. There are several good Elizabethan mansions, as that at Laund in the E. of the county. Among modern mansions that of the dukes of Rutland, Belvoir Castle in the extreme N.E., is a massive mansion of the early igth century, finely placed on the summit of a hill. See Victoria County History, Leicestershire; W. Burton, Descrip- tion of Leicestershire (London, 1622; 2nd ed., Lynn, 1777); John Nicholls, History and Antiquities of the County of Leicester (4 vols., London, 1795-1815); John Curtis, A Topographical History of the County of Leicester (Ashby-de-la-Zouch, 1831). LEIDEN or LEYDEN, a city in the province of South Holland, the kingdom of the Netherlands, on the Old Rhine, and a junction station 18 m. by rail S.S.W. of Haarlem. It is connected by steam tramway with Haarlem and The Hague respectively, and with the seaside resorts of Katwyk and Noordwyk. There is also regular steamboat connexion with Katwyk, Noordwyk, Amster- dam and Gouda. The population of Leiden which, it is estimated, reached 100,000 in 1640, had sunk to 30,000 between 1796 and 1811, and in 1904 was 56,044. The two branches of the Rhine which enter Leiden on the east unite in the centre of the town, which is further intersected by numerous small and sombre canals, with tree-bordered quays and old houses. On the south side of the town pleasant gardens extend along the old Singel, or outer canal, and there is a large open space, the Van der Werf Park, named after the burgomaster, Pieter Andriaanszoon van der Werf, who defended the town against the Spaniards in 1574. This open space was formed by the accidental explosion of a powdershipin 1807, hundreds of houses being demolished, includ- ing that of the Elzevir family of printers. At the junction of the two arms of the Rhine stands the old castle (De Burcht), a circular tower built on an earthen mound. Its origin is unknown, but some connect it with Roman days and others with the Saxon Hengist. Of Leiden's old gateways only two — both dating from the end of the i?th century — are standing. Of the numerous churches the chief are the Hooglandsche Kerk, or the church of St Pancras, built in the i5th century and restored in 1885- 1902, containing the monument of Pieter Andriaanszoon van der Werf, and the Pieterskerk (1315) with monuments to Scaliger, Boerhaave and other famous scholars. The most interesting buildings are the town hall (Stadhuis), a fine example of 16th- century Dutch building; the Gemeenlandshuis van Rynland (1596, restored 1878); the weight-house built by Pieter Post (1658); the former court-house, now a military storehouse; and the ancient gymnasium (1599) and the so-called city timber- house (Stads Timmerhuis) (1612), both built by Lieven de Key (c. 1560-1627). In spite of a certain industrial activity and the periodical bustle of its cattle and dairy markets, Leiden remains essentially an academic city. The university is a flourishing institution. It was founded by William of Orange in 1575 as a reward for the heroic defence of the previous year, the tradition being that the citizens were offered the choice between a university and a certain exemption from taxes. Originally located in the convent of St Barbara, the university was removed in 1581 to the convent of the White Nuns, the site of which it still occupies, though that building was destroyed in 1616. The presence within half a century of the date of its foundation of such scholars as Justus Lipsius, Joseph Scaliger, Francis Gomarus, Hugo Grotius, Jacobus Arminius, Daniel Heinsius and Guardas Johannes Vossius, at once raised Leiden university to the highest European fame, a position which the learning and reputation of Jacobus Gronovius, Hermann Boerhaave, Tiberius Hemsterhuis and David Ruhnken, among others, enabled it to maintain down to the end of the i8th century. The portraits of many famous professors since the earliest days hang in the university aula, one of the most memorable places, as Niebuhr called it, in the history of science. The university library contains upwards of 190,000 volumes and 6000 MSS. and pamphlet portfolios, and is very rich in Oriental and Greek MSS. and old Dutch travels. Among the institutions connected with the university are the national institution for East Indian languages, ethnology and geography; the fine botanical gardens, founded in 1587; the observatory (1860); the natural history museum, with a very complete anatomical cabinet; the museum of antiquities (Museum van Oudheden), with specially valuable Egyptian and Indian depart- ments; a museum of Dutch antiquities from the earliest times; and three ethnographical museums, of which the nucleus was P. F. von Siebold's Japanese collections. The anatomical and pathological laboratories of the university are modern, and the museums of geology and mineralogy have been restored. The university has now five faculties, of which those of law and medicine are the most celebrated, and is attended by about 1 200 students. The municipal museum, founded in 1869 and located in the old cloth-hall (Laeckenhalle) (1640), contains a varied collection of antiquities connected with Leiden, as well as some paintings including works by the elder van Swanenburgh, Cornelius Engel- brechtszoon, Lucas van Leiden and Jan Steen, who were all natives of Leiden. Jan van Goyen, Gabriel Metsu, Gerard Dou and Rembrandt were also natives of this town. There is also a small collection of paintings in the Meermansburg. The Thysian library occupies an old Renaissance building of the year 1655, and is especially rich in legal works and native chronicles. Noteworthy also are the collection of the Society of Dutch Literature (1766); the collections of casts and of engravings; the seamen's training school; the Remonstrant seminary, transferred hither from Amsterdam in 1873; the two hospitals (one of which is private); the house of correction; and the court-house. Leiden is an ancient town, although it is not the Lugdunum Batavorum of the Romans. Its early name was Leithen, and it was governed until 1420 by burgraves, the representatives of the courts of Holland. The most celebrated event in its history is its siege by the Spaniards in 1574. Besieged from May until October, it was at length relieved by the cutting of the dikes, thus enabling ships to carry provisions to the inhabitants of the flooded town. The weaving establishments (mainly broadcloth) of Leiden at the close of the 1 5th century were very important, and after the expulsion of the Spaniards Leiden cloth, Leiden baize and Leiden camlet were familiar terms. These industries afterwards declined, and in the beginning of the igth century the baize manufacture was altogether given up. Linen and woollen manufactures are now the most important industries, while there is a considerable transit trade in butter and cheese. Katwyk, or Katwijk, 6 m. N.W. of Leiden, is a popular seaside resort and fishing village. Close by are the great locks constructed in 1807 by the engineer, F. W". Conrad (d. 1808), through which the Rhine (here called the Katwyk canal) is admitted into the sea at low tide. The shore and the entrance to the canal are strengthened by huge dikes. In 1520 an ancient Roman camp known as the Britten- burg was discovered here. It was square in shape, each side measur- ing 82 yds., and the remains stood about 10 ft. high. By the middle of the l8th century it had been destroyed and covered by the sea. See P. J. Blok, Eine hollandsche stad in de middeleeuwen (The Hague, 1883); and for the siege see J. L. Motley, The Rise of the Dutch Republic (1896). LEIDY, JOSEPH (1823-1891), American naturalist and palaeontologist, was born in Philadelphia on the gth of September 1823. He studied mineralogy and botany without an instructor, and graduated in medicine at the university of Pennsylvania in 1844. Continuing his work in anatomy and physiolpgy, he visited Europe in 1848, but both before and after this period of foreign study lectured and taught in American medical colleges. In 1853 he was appointed professor of anatomy in the university of Pennsylvania, paying special attention to comparative anatomy. In 1884 he promoted the establishment in the same institution of the department of biology, of which he became director, and meanwhile taught natural history in Swarthmore College, near Philadelphia. His papers on biology and palae- ontology were very numerous, covering both fauna and flora, and ranging from microscopic forms of animal life to the higher vertebrates. He wrote also occasional papers on minerals. He was an active member of the Boston Society of Natural History and of the American Philosophical Society; and was the recipient of various American and foreign degrees and honours. His Cretaceous Reptiles of the United Stales (1865) and Contributions to the Extinct Vertebrate Fauna of the Western Territories (1873) were the most important of his larger works; the best known and most widely circulated was an Elementary Treatise on Human 396 LEIF ERICSSON— LEIGHTON, LORD Anatomy (1860, afterwards revised in new editions). He died in Philadelphia on the aoth of April 1891. See Memoir and portrait in Amer. Geologist, vol. ix. (Jan. 1892) and Bibliography in vol. viii. (Nov. 1891) and Memoir by H. C. Chapman in Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. (Philadelphia, 1891), p. 342- LEIF ERICSSON [LEIFR EIRIKSSON] (fl. 990-1000), Scandi- navian explorer, of Icelandic family, the first known European discoverer of " Vinland," " Vineland " or " Wineland, the Good," in North America. He was a son of Eric the Red (Eirikr hinn raudi Thorvaldsson), the founder of the earliest Scandinavian settlements — from Iceland — in Greenland (985). In 999 he went from Greenland to the court of King Olaf Tryggvason in Norway, stopping in the Hebrides on the way. On his departure from Norway in 1000, the king commissioned him to proclaim Christianity in Greenland. As on his outward voyage, Leif was again driven far out of his course by contrary weather — this time to lands (in America) " of which he had previously had no knowledge," where " self-sown " wheat grew, and vines, and " mosur " (maple?) wood. Leif took specimens of all these, and sailing away came home safely to his father's home in Brattahlid on Ericsfiord in Greenland. On his voyage from this Vineland to Greenland, Leif rescued some shipwrecked men, and from this, and his discoveries, gained his name of " The Lucky " (hinn heppni). On the subsequent expedition of Thorfinn Karlsefni for the further exploration and settlement of the Far Western vine-country, it is recorded that certain Gaels, incredibly fleet of foot, who had been given to Leif by Olaf Tryggvason, and whom Leif had offered to Thorfinn, were put on shore to scout. Such is the account of the Saga of Eric the Red, supported by a number of briefer references in early Icelandic and other literature. The less trustworthy history of the Flatey Book makes Biarni Heriulfsson in 985 discover Helluland (Labrador?) as well as other western lands which he does not explore, not even permitting his men to land; while Leif Ericsson follows up Biarni's discoveries, begins the exploration of Helluland, Markland and Vinland, and realizes some of the charms of the last named, where he winters. But this secondary authority (the Flatey Book narrative), which till lately formed the basis of all general knowledge as to Vinland, abounds in contradictions and difficulties from which Eric the Red Saga is comparatively free. Thus (in Flatey) the grapes of Vinland are found in winter and gathered in spring; the man who first finds them, Leif's foster-father Tyrker the German, gets drunk from eating the fruit ; and the vines themselves are spoken of as big trees afford- ing timber. Looking at the record in Eric the Red Saga, it would seem probable that Leif's Vinland answers to some part of southern Nova Scotia. See VINLAND. (As to Helluland and Markland see THORFINN KARLSEFNI.) The MSS. of Eric the Red's Saga are Nos. 544 and 557 of the Arne-Magnaean collection in Copenhagen; the MS. of the Flatey Book, so called because it was long the property of a family living on Flat Island in Broad Firth (Flatey in BreiSafjord [B-eidafj-d]), on the north-west coast of Iceland, was presented in 1662 to the Royal Lib- rary of Denmark, of which it is still one of the chief treasures. These leading narratives are supplemented by Adam of Bremen, Gestc Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum, chap. 38 (247 Lappenberg. of book iv. (often separately entitled Descriptio Insularum Aquilonis Adam's is the earliest extant reference to Vinland, c. 1070): we have also notices of Vinland in the Libellus Islandorum of Ari Frod (c. 1120), the oldest Icelandic historian; in the Kristni Saga (re peated in Snorri Sturlason's Heimskringla) ; in Eyrbyggia Saga (c. 1250); in Gretti Saga (c. 1290); and in an Icelandic chorography of the I4th century, or earlier, partly derived from the famous traveller Abbot Nicolas of Thing-eyrar (tn59)- See Gustav Storm, " Studies on the Vineland Voyages," in th- Memoir es de la Societe royale des Antiquaires du Nord (Copenhagen 1888); and Eiriks Saga Raudha (Copenhagen, 1891); A. M. Reeves Finding of Wineland the Good: the History of the Icelandic Discovery of America (London, 1890); in this work the original authentic are given in full, with photographic facsimiles, English translation and adequate commentary; Rafn's Antiquitates Americana (Copenhagen, 1837) contains all the sources, but the editor's persona views have in many cases failed to satisfy criticism; the Plate) text is printed also by Vigfusson and Unger in Flateyjar-bok, vol. i (Christiania, 1860). There are also translations of Flatey and Ret Eric Saga in Beamish, Discovery of North America by the Northmen (Lond., 1841); E. F. Slafter, Voyages of the Northmen (Boston, 1877) J. F. de Costa, Pre-Columbian Discovery of America by the Northmen Albany, 1901); and Original Narratives of Early American Jistory; The Northmen, Columbus and Cabot, pp. 1-66 (New York, 906). See also C. Raymond Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography J. 48-83 (London, 1901); Josef Fischer, Die Entdeckungen der Nor- mannen in Amerika (Freiburg i. B., 1902); John Fiske, Discovery f America, vol. i.; Juul Dieserud, " Norse Discoveries in America, ' n the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society (February, 1901); 3. Vigfusson, Origines Islandicoe (1905), which strangely expresses a preference for the Flatey Book " account of the first sighting of he American continent " by the Norsemen. (C. R. B.) LEIGH, EDWARD (1602-1671), English Puritan and theo- ogian, was born at Shawell, Leicestershire. He was educated at Vlagdalen Hall, Oxford, from 1616, and subsequently became a member of the Middle Temple. In 1636 he entered parliament as member for Stafford, and during the Civil War held a colonelcy n the parliamentary army. He has sometimes been confounded with John Ley (1583-1662), and so represented as having sat n the Westminster Assembly. The public career of Leigh ter- minated with his expulsion from parliament with the rest of he Presbyterian party in 1648. From an early age he had studied theology and produced numerous compilations, the most mportant being the Critica Sacra, containing Observations on all the Radices of the Hebrew Words of the Old and the Greek of the New Testament (1639-1644; new ed., with supplement, 1662), for which the author received the thanks of the Westminster Assembly, to whom it was dedicated. His other works include Select and Choice Observations concerning the First Twelve Caesars (1635); A Treatise of Divinity (1646-1651); Annotations upon the New Testament (1650), of which a Latin translation by Arnold was published at Leipzig in 1732; A Body of Divinity (1654); A Treatise of Religion and Learning (1656); Annotations of the Five Poetical Books of the Old Testament (1657). Leigh died in Staffordshire in June 1671. LEIGH, a market town and municipal borough in the Leigh parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, n m. W. by N. from Manchester by the London & North- Western railway. Pop. (1891) 30,882, (1901) 40,001. The ancient parish church of St Mary the Virgin was, with the exception of the tower, rebuilt in 1873 in the Perpendicular style. The grammar school, the date of whose foundation is unknown, received its principal endowments in 1655, 1662 and 1681. The staple manufactures are silk and cotton; there are also glass works, foundries, breweries, and flour mills, with extensive collieries. Though the neighbourhood is principally an industrial district, several fine old houses are left near Leigh. The town was incorporated in 1899, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area, 6358 acres. LEIGHTON, FREDERICK LEIGHTON, BARON (1830-1896), English painter and sculptor, the son of a physician, was born at Scarborough on the 3rd of December 1830. His grandfather, Sir James Leighton, also a physician, was long resident at the court of St Petersburg. Frederick Leighton was taken abroad at a very early age. In 1840 he learnt drawing at Rome under Signor Meli. The family moved to Dresden and Berlin, where he attended classes at the Academy. In 1843 he was sent to school at Frankfort, and in the winter of 1844 accompanied his family to Florence, where his future career as an artist was decided. There he studied under Bezzuoli and Segnolini at the Accademia delle Belle Arti, and attended anatomy classes under Zanetti; but he soon returned to complete his general education at Frank- fort, receiving no further direct instruction in art for five years. He went to Brussels in 1848, where he met Wiertz and Gallait, and painted some pictures, including " Cimabue finding Giotto," and a portrait of himself. In 1849 he studied for a few months in Paris, w*iere he copied Titian and Correggio in the Louvre, and then returned to Frankfort, where he settled down to serious art work under Edward Steinle, whose pupil he declared he was " in the fullest sense of the term." Though his artistic training was mainly German, and his master belonged to the same school as Cornelius and Overbeck, he loved Italian art and Italy, and the first picture by which he became known to the British public was " Cimabue's Madonna carried in Procession through the LEIGHTON, LORD 397 Streets of Florence," which appeared at the Royal Academy in 1855. At this time the works of the Pre-Raphaelites almost absorbed public interest in art — it was the year of Holman Hunt's " Light of the World," and the " Rescue," by Millais. Yet Leighton's picture, painted in quite a different style, created a sensation, and was purchased by Queen Victoria. Although, since his infancy, he had only visited England once (in 1851, when he came to see the Great Exhibition), he was not quite unknown in the cultured and artistic world of London, as he had made many friends during a residence in Rome of some two years or more after he left Frankfort in 1852. Amongst these were Giovanni Costa, Robert Browning, James Knowles, George Mason and Sir Edward Poynter, then a youth, whom he allowed to work in his studio. He also met Thackeray, who wrote from Rome to the young Millais: " Here is a versatile young dog, who will run you close for the presidentship one of these days." During these years he painted several Florentine subjects — "Tybalt and Romeo," " The Death of Brunelleschi," a cartoon of " The Pest in Florence according to Boccaccio," and " The Reconciliation of the Montagues and the Capulets." He now turned his attention to themes of classic legend, which at first he treated in a " Romantic spirit." His next picture, exhibited in 1856, was " The Triumph of Music: Orpheus by the Power of his Art redeems his Wife from Hades." It was not a success, and he did not again exhibit till 1858, when he sent a little picture of " The Fisherman and the Syren " to the Royal Academy, and " Samson and Delilah " to the Society of British Artists in Suffolk Street. In 1 858 he visited London and made the acquaint- ance of the leading Pre-Raphaelites — Rossetti, Holman Hunt and Millais. In the spring of 1859 he was at Capri, always a favourite resort of his, and made many studies from nature, including a very famous drawing of a lemon tree. It was not till 1860 that he settled in London, when he took up his quarters at 2 Orme Square, Bayswater, where he stayed till, in 1866, he moved to his celebrated house in Holland Park Road, with its Arab hall decorated with Damascus tiles. There he lived till his death. He now began to fulfil the promise of his " Cimabue," and by such pictures as " Paolo e Francesca," " The Star of Bethlehem," " Jezebel and Ahab taking Possession of Naboth's Vineyard," " Michael Angelo musing over his Dying Servant," " A Girl feeding Peacocks," and " The Odalisque," all exhibited in 1861- 1863, rose rapidly to the head of his profession. The two latter pictures were marked by the rhythm of line and luxury of colour which are among the most constant attributes of his art, and may be regarded as his first dreams of Oriental beauty, with which he afterwards showed so great a sympathy. In 1864 he exhibited "Dante in Exile" (the greatest of his Italian pictures), "Orpheus and Eurydice " and " Golden Hours." In the winter of the same year he was elected a-n Associate of the Royal Academy. After this the main effort of his life was to realize visions of beauty suggested by classic myth and history. If we add to pictures of this class a few Scriptural subjects, a few Oriental dreams, one or two of tender sentiment like " Wedded " (one of the most popular of his pictures, and well known by not only an engraving, but a statuette modelled by an Italian sculptor), a number of studies of very various types of female beauty, " Teresina," " Biondina," " Bianca," " Moretta," &c., and an occasional portrait, we shall nearly exhaust the two classes into which Lord Leighton's work (as a painter) can be divided. Amongst the finest of his classical pictures were — " Syracusan Bride leading Wild Beasts in Procession to the Temple of Diana " (1866), " Venus disrobing for the Bath " (1867), " Electra at the Tomb of Agamemnon," and "Helios and Rhodos " (1869), " Hercules wrestling with Death for the Body of Alcestis " (1871), " Clytemnestra " (1874), " The Daphnephoria " (1876), " Nausicaa " (1878), " An Idyll " (1881), two lovers under a spreading oak listening to the piping of a shepherd and gazing on the rich plain below; " Phryne " (1882), a nude figure stand- ing in the sun; " Cymon and Iphigenia " (1884), " Captive Andromache " (1888), now in the Manchester Art Gallery; with the " Last Watch of Hero " (1887), " The Bath of Psyche " (1890), now in the Chantrey Bequest collection; " The Garden of the Hesperides " (1892), " Perseus and Andromeda "and" The Return of Persephone," now in the Leeds Gallery (1891); and " Clyde," his last work (1896). All these pictures are char- acterized by nobility of conception, by almost perfect draughts- manship, by colour which, if not of the highest quality, is always original, choice and effective. They often reach distinction and dignity of attitude and gesture, and occasionally, as in the " Hercules and Death, "the" Electra "and the" Clytemnestra," a noble intensity of feeling. Perhaps, amidst the great variety of qualities which they possess, none is more universal and more characteristic than a rich elegance, combined with an almost fastidious selection of beautiful forms. It is the super-eminence of these qualities, associated with great decorative skill, that make the splendid pageant of the " Daphnephoria " the most perfect expression of his individual genius. Here we have his com- position, his colour, his sense of the joy and movement of life, his love of art and nature at their purest and most spontaneous, and the result is a work without a rival of its kind in the British School. Leighton was one of the most thorough draughtsmen of his day. His sketches and studies for his pictures are numerous and very highly esteemed. They contain the essence of his conceptions, and much of their spiritual beauty and subtlety of expression was often lost in the elaboration of the finished picture. He seldom succeeded in retaining the freshness of his first idea more completely than in his last picture — " Clytie " — which was left unfinished on his easel. He rarely painted sacred subjects. The most beautiful of his few pictures of this kind was the " David musing on the Housetop" (1865). Others were " Elijah in the Wilderness " (1879), " Elisha raising the Son of the Shunammite " (1881) and a design intended for the decoration of the dome of St Paul's Cathedral, " And the Sea gave up the Dead which were in it " (1892), now in the Tate Gallery, and the terrible " Rizpah " of 1893. His diploma picture was " St Jerome," exhibited in 1869. Besides these pictures of sacred subjects, he made some designs for Dalziel's Bible, which for force of imagination excel the paintings. The finest of these are " Cain and Abel," and " Samson with the Gates of Gaza." Not so easily to be classed, but among the most individual and beautiful of his pictures, are a few of which the motive was purely aesthetic. Amongst these may specially be noted " The Summer Moon," two Greek girls sleeping on a marble bench, and "The Music Lesson," in which a lovely little girl is seated on her lovely young mother's lap learning to play the lute. With these, as a work produced without any literary suggestion, though very different in feeling, may be associated the " Eastern Slinger scaring Birds in the Harvest-time: Moon-rise " (1875), a nude figure standing on a raised platform in a field of wheat. Leighton also painted a few portraits, including those of Signer Costa, the Italian landscape painter, Mr F. P. Cockerell, Mrs Sutherland Orr (his sister), Amy, Lady Coleridge, Mrs Stephen Ralli and (the finest of all) Sir Richard Burton, the traveller and Eastern scholar, which was exhibited in 1876 and is now in the National Portrait Gallery. Like other painters of the day, notably G. F. Watts, Lord Leighton executed a few pieces of sculpture. His " Athlete struggling with a Python " was exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1877, and was purchased for the Chantrey Bequest collectio'n. Another statue, " The Sluggard," of equal merit, was exhibited in 1886; and a charming statuette of a nude figure of a girl looking over her shoulder at a frog, called " Needless Alarms," was completed in the same year, and presented by the artist to Sir John Millais in acknowledgment of the gift by the latter of his picture, " Shelling Peas." He made the beautiful design for the reverse of the Jubilee Medal of 1887. It was also his habit to make sketch models in wax for the figures in his pictures, many of which are in the possession of the Royal Academy. As an illustrator in black and white he also deserves to be remem- bered, especially for the cuts to Dalziel's Bible, already mentioned, and his illustrations to George Eliot's Romola, which appeared in the Cornhill Magazine. The latter are full of the spirit of LEIGHTON, R. Florence and the Florentines, and show a keen sense of humour, elsewhere excluded from his work. Of his decorative paintings, the best known are the elegant compositions (in spirit fresco) on the walls of the Victoria and Albert Museum, representing " The Industrial Arts of War and Peace." There, also, is the refined and spirited figure of " Cimabue " in mosaic. In Lynd- hurst church are mural decorations to the memory of Mr Pepys Cockerell, illustrating " The Parable of the Wise and Foolish Virgins." Leighton's life was throughout marked by distinction, artistic and social. Though not tall, he had a fine presence and manners, at once genial and courtly. He was welcomed in all societies, from the palace to the studio. He spoke German, Italian and French, as well as English. He had much taste and love for music, and considerable gifts as an orator of a florid type. His Presidential Discourses (published, London, 1806) were full of elegance and' culture. For seven years (1876-1883) he com- manded the 2oth Middlesex (Artists) Rifle Volunteers, retiring with the rank of honorary colonel, and subsequently receiving the Volunteer Decoration. Yet no social attractions or successes diverted him from his devotion to his profession, the welfare of his brethren in art or of the Royal Academy. As president he was punctilious in the discharge of his duties, ready to give help and encouragement to artists young and old, and his tenure of the office was marked by some wise and liberal reforms. He frequently went abroad, generally to Italy, where he was well known and appreciated. He visited Spain in 1866, Egypt in 1868, when he went up the Nile with Ferdinand de Lesseps in a steamer lent by the Khedive. He was at Damascus for a short time in 1873. It was his custom on all these trips to make little lively sketches of landscape and buildings. These fresh little flowers of his leisure used to decorate the walls of his studio, and at the sale of its contents after his death realized considerable prices. It was when he was in the full tide of his popularity and success, and apparently in the full tide of his personal vigour also, that he was struck with angina pectoris. For a long time he struggled bravely with this cruel disease, never omitting except from absolute necessity any of his official duties except during a brief period of rest abroad, which failed to produce the desired effect. His death occurred on the 25th of January 1896. Leighton was elected an Academician in 1868, and succeeded Sir Francis Grant as President in 1878, when he was knighted. He was created a baronet in 1886, and was raised to the peerage in 1896, a few days before his death. He held honorary degrees at the universities of Oxford, Cambridge, Dublin, Edinburgh and Durham, was an Associate of the Institute of France; a Commander of the Legion of Honour, and of the Order of Leopold. He was a Knight of the Coburg Order, " Dem Ver- dienste," and of the Prussian Order, " Pour le Merite," and a member of at least ten foreign Academies. In 1859 he won a medal of the second class at the Paris Salon, and at the Exposi- tion Universelle of 1889 a gold medal. As a sculptor he was awarded a medal of the first class in 1878 and the Grand Prix in 1889. See Art Annual (Mrs A. Lang), 1884; Royal Academy Cata- logue, Winter Exhibition, 1897; National Gallery of British Art Catalogue; C. Monkhouse, British Contemporary Artists (London, 1899); Ernest Rhys, Frederick, Lord Leighton (London, 1898, 1900). (C. Mo.) LEIGHTON, ROBERT (1611-1684), archbishop of Glasgow, was born, probably in London (others say at Ulishaven, Forfar- shire), in 1611, the eldest son of Dr Alexander Leighton, the author of Zion's Plea against the Prelacie, whose terrible sufferings for having dared to question the divine right of Episcopacy, under the persecution of Laud, form one of the most disgraceful incidents of the reign of Charles I. Dr Leighton is said to have been of the old family of Ulishaven in Forfarshire. From his earliest childhood, according to Burnet, Robert Leighton was distinguished for his saintly disposition. In his sixteenth year (1627) he was sent to the university of Edinburgh, where, after studying with distinguished success for four years, he took the degree of M.A. in 1631. His father then sent him to travel abroad, and he is understood to have spent several years in France, where he acquired a complete mastery of the French language. While there he passed a good deal of time with relatives at Douai who had become Roman Catholics, and with whom he kept up a correspondence for many years afterwards. Either at this time or on some subsequent visit he had also a good deal of intercourse with members of the Jansenist party. This intercourse contributed to the charity towards those who differed from him in religious opinion, which ever afterwards formed a feature in his character. The exact period of his return to Scotland has not been ascertained; but in 1641 he was ordained Presbyterian minister of Newbattle in Midlothian. In 1652 he resigned his charge and went to reside in Edinburgh. What led him to take this step does not distinctly appear. The account given is that he had little sympathy with the fiery zeal of his brother clergymen on certain political questions, and that this led to severe censures on their part. Early in 1653 he was appointed principal of the university of Edinburgh, and primarius professor of divinity. In this post he continued for seven or eight years. A considerable number of his Latin prelections and other addresses (published after his death) are remarkable for the purity and elegance of their Latinity, and their subdued and meditative eloquence. They are valuable instructions in the art of living a holy life rather than a body of scientific divinity. Throughout, however, they bear the marks of a deeply learned and accomplished mind, saturated with both classical and patristic reading, and like all his works they breathe the spirit of one who lived very much above the world. His mental temper was too unlike the temper of his time to secure success as a teacher. In 1661, when Charles II. had resolved to force Episcopacy once more upon Scotland, he fixed upon Leighton for one of his bishops (see SCOTLAND, CHURCH OF). Leighton, living very much out of the world, and being somewhat deficient in what may be called the political sense, was too open to the persuasions used to induce him to enter a sphere for which he instinctively felt he was ill qualified. The Episcopacy which he contemplated was that modified form which had been suggested by Archbishop Ussher, and to which Baxter and many of the best of the English Nonconformists would have readily given their adherence. It is significant that he always refused to be addressed as " my lord," and it is stated that when dining with his clergy on one occasion he wished to seat himself at the foot of the table. Leighton soon began to discover the sort of men with whom he was to be associated in the episcopate. He travelled with them in the same coach from London towards Scotland, but having become, as he told Burnet, very weary of their company (as he doubted not they were of his), and having found that they intended to make a kind of triumphal entrance into Edinburgh, he left them at Morpeth and retired to the earl of Lothian's at Newbattle. He very soon lost all hope of being able to build up the church by the means which the government had set on foot, and his work, as he confessed to Burnet, " seemed to him a fighting against God." He did, however, what he could, governing his diocese (that of Dunblane) with the utmost mildness, as far as he could, preventing the persecuting measures in active operation elsewhere, and endeavouring to persuade the Presbyterian clergy to come to an accommodation with their Episcopal brethren. After a hopeless struggle of three or four years to induce the government to put a stop to their fierce persecution of the Covenanters, he determined to resign his bishopric, and went up to London in 1665 for this purpose. He so far worked upon the mind of Charles that he promised to enforce the adoption of milder measures, but it does not appear that any material improvement took place. In 1669 Leighton again went to London and made fresh representations on the subject, but little result followed. The slight disposition, however, shown by the government to accommodate matters appears to have inspired Leighton with so much hope that in the following year he agreed, though with a good deal of hesitation, to accept the archbishopric of Glasgow. In this higher sphere he redoubled his efforts with the Presbyterians to bring about LEIGHTON BUZZARD— LEIPZIG 399 some degree of conciliation with Episcopacy, but the only result was to embroil himself with the hot-headed Episcopal party as well as with the Presbyterians. In utter despair, therefore, of being able to be of any further service to the cause of religion, he resigned the archbishopric in 1674 and retired to the house of his widowed sister, Mrs Lightmaker, at Broadhurst in Sussex. Here he spent the remaining ten years, probably the happiest of his life, and died suddenly on a visit to London in 1684. It is difficult to form a just or at least a full estimate of Leighton's character. He stands almost alone in his age. In some respects he was immeasurably superior both in intellect and in piety to most of the Scottish ecclesiastics of his time; and yet he seems to have had almost no influence in moulding the characters or conduct of his contemporaries. So intense was his absorption in the love of God that little room seems to have been left in his heart for human sympathy or affection. Can it be that there was after all something to repel in his outward manner? Burnet tells us that he had never seen him laugh, and very seldom even smile. In other respects, too, he gives the impression of standing aloof from human interests and ties. It may go for little that he never married, but -'t was surely a curious idiosyncrasy that he habitually cherished the wish (which was granted him) that he might die in an inn. In fact, holy meditation seems to have been the one absorbing interest of his life. At Dunblane tradition preserved the memory of " the good bishop," silent and companionless, pacing up and down the sloping walk by the river's bank under the beautiful west window of his cathedral. And from a letter of the earl of Lothian to his countess it appears that, whatever other reasons Leighton might have had for resigning his charge at Newbattle, the main object which he had in view was to be left to his own thoughts. It is therefore not very wonderful that he was completely misjudged and even disliked both by the Presbyterian and by the Episcopal party. It was characteristic of him that he could never be made to understand that anything which he wrote possessed the smallest value. None of his works were published by himself, and it is stated that he left orders that all his MSS. should be destroyed after his death. But fortunately for the world this charge was disregarded. Like all the best writing, it seems to flow without effort; it is the easy unaffected outcome of his saintly nature. Throughout, how- ever, it is the language of a scholar and a man of perfect literary taste ; and with all its spirituality of thought there are no mystical raptures, such as are often found mingled with the Scottish practical theology of the 1 7th century. It was a common reproach against Leighton that he had leanings towards Roman Catholicism, and perhaps this is so far true that he had formed himself in some degree upon the model of some of the saintly persons of that faith, such as Pascal and Thomas a Kempis. The best account of Leighton's character is that of Bishop Burnet in Hist, of his Own Times (1723-1734). No perfectly satisfactory edition of Leighton's works exists. After his death his Commentary on Peter and several of his other works were published under the editorship of his friend Dr Fall, and those early editions may be said to be, with some drawbacks, by far the best. His later editors have been possessed by the mania of reducing his good archaic and nervous language to the bald feebleness of modern phraseology. It is unfortunately impossible to exempt from this criticism even the edition, in other respects very valuable and meritorious, published under the superintendence of the Rev. W. West (7 vols., London, 1869-1875); see also volume of selections (with biography) by Dr Blair of Dunblane (1883), who also contributed " Bibliography of Archbishop Leighton " to the British and Foreign Evangelical Review (July 1883); Andrew Lang, History of Scotland (1902). LEIGHTON BUZZARD, a market town in the southern parlia- mentary division of Bedfordshire, England, 40 m. N.W. of London by the London & North- Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 6331. It lies in the flat valley of the Ouzel, a tributary of the Ouse, sheltered to east and west by low hills. The river here forms the county boundary with Buckinghamshire. The Grand Junction canal follows its course, and gives the town extensive water-communications. The church of All Saints is cruciform, with central tower and spire. It is mainly Early English, and a fine example of the style; but some of the windows including the nave clerestory, and the beautiful carved wooden roof, are Perpendicular. The west door has good early iron- work; and on one of the tower-arch pillars are some remarkable early carvings of jocular character, one of which represents a man assaulted by a woman with a ladle. The market cross is of the I4th century, much restored, having an open arcade supporting a pinnacle, with flying buttresses. The statues in its niches are modern, but the originals are placed on the exterior of the town hall. Leighton has a considerable agricultural trade, and some industry in straw-plaiting. Across the Ouzel in Buckinghamshire, where Leighton railway station is situated, is the urban district of Linslade (pop. 2157). LEININGEN, the name of an old German family, whose lands lay principally in Alsace and Lorraine. The first count of Leiningen ab6ut whom anything certain is known was a certain Emicho (d. 1117), whose family became extinct in the male line when Count Frederick, a Minnesinger, died about 1220. Frederick's sister, Liutgarde, married Simon, count of Saar- briicken, and Frederick, one of their sons, inheriting the lands of the counts of Leiningen, took their arms and their name. Having increased its possessions the Leiningen family was divided about 1317 into two branches; the elder of these, whose head was a landgrave, died out in 1467. On this event its lands fell to a female, the last landgrave's sister Margaret, wife of Reinhard, lord of Westerburg, and their descendants were known as the family of Leiningen-Westerburg. Later this family was divided into two branches, those of Alt-Leiningen- Westerburg and Neu-Leiningen-Westerburg, both of which are represented to-day. Meanwhile the younger branch of the Leiningens, known as the family of Leiningen-Dagsburg, was flourishing, and in 1560 this was divided into the lines of Leiningen-Dagsburg- Hartenburg, founded by Count John Philip (d. 1562), and Leiningen-Dagsburg-Heidesheim or Falkenburg, founded by Count Emicho (d. 1593). In 1779 the head of the former line was raised to the rank of a prince of the Empire. In 1801 this family was deprived of its lands on the left bank of the Rhine by France, but in 1803 it received ample compensation for these losses. A few years later its possessions were mediatized, and they are now included mainly in Baden, but partly in Bavaria and in Hesse. A former head of this family, Prince Emich Charles, married Maria Louisa Victoria, princess of Saxe-Coburg; after his death in 1814 the princess married George III.'s son, the duke of -Kent, by whom she became the mother of Queen Victoria. In 1910 the head of the family was Prince Emich (b. 1866). The family of Leiningen-Dagsburg-Heidesheim was divided into three branches, the two senior of which became extinct during the i8th century. At present it is represented by the counts of Leiningen-Guntersblum and Leiningen-Heidesheim, called also Leiningen-Billigheim and Leiningen-Neidenau. See Brinckmeier, Genealogische Geschichte des Houses Leiningen (Brunswick, 1890-1891). LEINSTER, a province of Ireland, occupying the middle and south-eastern portion of the island, and extending to the left bank of the Shannon. It includes counties Longford, West- meath, Meath, Louth, King's County, Kildare, Dublin, Queen's County, Carlow, Wicklow, Kilkenny and Wexford (q.v. for topography, &c.). Leinster (Laighen) was one of the early Milesian provinces of Ireland. Meath, the modern county of which is included in Leinster, was the name of a separate province created in the 2nd century A.D. The kings of Leinster retained their position until 1171, and their descendants maintained independence within a circumscribed territory as late as the i6th century. In 1170 Richard Strongbow married Aoife, daughter of the last king Diarmid, and thus acquired the nominal right to the kingdom of Leinster. Henry II. confirmed him in powers of jurisdiction equivalent to those of a palatinate. His daughter Isabel married William Marshal, earl of Pembroke. Their five daughters shared the territory of Leinster, which was now divided into five liberties carrying the same extensive privileges as the undivided territory, namely, Carlow, Kilkenny, Wexford, Kildare and Leix. The history of Leinster thereafter passes to the several divisions which were gradually organized into the present counties. LEIPZIG, a city of Germany, the second town of the kingdom of Saxony in size and the first in commercial importance, 70 m. N.W. of Dresden and mm. S.W. of Berlin by rail, and 6 m. from the Prussian frontier. It lies 350 ft. above the sea-level, in a broad and fertile plain, just above the junction of three small rivers, the Pleisse, the Parthe and the Elster, which flow in various branches through or round the town and afterwards. 400 LEIPZIG under the name of the Elster, discharge themselves into the Saale. The climate, though not generally unhealthy, may be inclement in winter and hot in summer. Leipzig is one of the most enterprising and prosperous of German towns, and in point of trade and industries' ranks among German cities immediately after Berlin and Hamburg. It possesses the third largest German university, is the seat of the supreme tribunal of the German empire and the headquarters of the XIX. (Saxon) army corps, and forms one of the most prominent literary and musical centres in Europe. Its general aspect is imposing, owing to the number of new public buildings erected during the last 20 years of the igth century. It consists of the old, or inner city, surrounded by a wide and pleasant promenade laid out on the site of the old fortifications, and of the very much more extensive inner and outer suburbs. Many thriving suburban villages, such as Reudnitz, Volkmarsdorf, Gohlis, Eutritzsch, Plagwitz and Lindenau, have been incorpor- ated with the city, and with these accretions the population in 1905 amounted to 502,570. On the north-west the town is bordered by the fine public park and woods of the Rosenthal, and on the west by the Johanna Park and by pleasant groves leading along the banks of the Pleisse. The old town, with its narrow streets and numerous houses of the i6th and I7th centuries, with their high-pitched roofs, preserves much of its quaint medieval aspect. The market square, lying almost in its centre, is of great interest. Upon it the four main business streets, the Grimmaische-, the Peters-, the Hain- and the Katharinen-strassen, converge, and its north side is occupied by the beautiful old Rathaus, a Gothic edifice built by the burgomaster Hieronymus Lotter in 1556, and containing life-size portraits of the Saxon rulers. Superseded by the new Rathaus, it has been restored and accommodates a municipal museum. Behind the market square and the main street lie a labyrinth of narrow streets interconnected by covered courtyards and alleys, with extensive warehouses and cellars. The whole, in the time of the great fairs, when every available place is packed with merchandise and thronged with a motley crowd, presents the semblance of an oriental bazaar. Close to the old Rathaus is Auerbach's Hof, built about 1530 and interesting as being immor- talized in Goethe's Faust. It has a curious old wine vault (Keller) which contains a series of mural paintings of the i6th century, representing the legend on which the play is based. Near by is the picturesque Konigshaus, for several centuries the palace of the Saxon monarchs in Leipzig and in which King Frederick Augustus I. was made prisoner by the Allies after the battle of Leipzig in October 1813. At the end of the Petersstrasse, in the south-west corner of the inner town and on the promenade, lay the Pleissenburg, or citadel, modelled, according to tradition, on that of Milan, and built early in the I3th century. Here Luther in 1519 held his momentous disputation. The round tower was long used as an observatory and the building as a barrack. With the exception of the tower, which has been encased and raised to double its former height — to 300 ft. — the citadel has been removed and its site is occupied by the majestic pile of the new Rathaus in Renaissance style, with the tower as its central feature. The business of Leipzig is chiefly concen- trated in the inner city, but the headquarters of the book trade lie in the eastern suburb. Between the inner town and the latter lies the magnificent Augustusplatz, one of the most spacious squares in Europe. Upon it, on the side of the inner town and included within it, is the Augusteum, or main building of the university, a handsome edifice containing a splendid hall (1900), lecture rooms and archaeological collections; adjoining it is the Paulinerkirche, the university church. The other sides of the square are occupied by the new theatre, an imposing Renaissance structure, designed by C. F. Langhans, the post office and the museum of sculpture and painting, the latter faced by the Mende fountain. The churches of Leipzig are compara- tively uninteresting. The oldest, in its present form, is the Paul- inerkirche, built in 1229-1240, and restored in 1900, with a curiously grooved cloister; the largest in the inner town is the Thomaskirche, with a high-pitched roof dating from 1496, and memorable for its association with J. Sebastian Bach, who was organist here. Among others may be mentioned the new Gothic Petrikirche, with a lofty spire, in the south suburb. On the. east is the Johanniskirche, round which raged the last conflict in the battle of 1813, when it suffered severely from cannon shot. In it is the tomb of Bach, and outside that of the poet Gellert. Opposite its main entrance is the Reformation monument, with bronze statues of Luther and Melanchthon, by Johann Schilling, unveiled in 1883. In the Johanna Park is the Lutherkirche (1886), and close at hand the Roman Catholic and English churches. To the south-west of the new Rathaus, lying beyond the Pleisse and between it and the Johanna Park, is the new academic quarter. Along the fine thoroughfares, noticeable among which is the Karl Tauchnitz Strasse, are closely grouped many striking buildings. Here is the new Gewandhaus, or Konzerthaus, built in 1880-1884, in which the famous concerts called after its name are given, the old Gewandhaus, or Drapers' Hall, in the inner town having again been devoted to commercial use as a market hall during the fairs. Immediately opposite to it is the new university library, built in 1891, removed hither from the old monasterial buildings behind the Augusteum, and containing some 500,000 volumes and 5000 MSS. Behind that again is the academy of art, one wing of which accommodates the industrial art school; and close beside it are the school of technical arts and the conservatoire of music. Between the university library and the new Gewandhaus stands a monument of Mendelssohn (1892). Immediately to the east of the school of arts rises the grand pile of the supreme tribunal of the German empire, the Reichsgericht, which compares with the Reichstag building in Berlin. It was built in 1888-1895 from plans by Ludwig Hoffmann, and is distinguished for the symmetry and harmony of its proportions. It bears an imposing dome, 225 ft. high, crowned by a bronze figure of Truth by O. Lessing, 18 ft. high. Opposite, on the outer side of the Pleisse, are the district law-courts, large and substantial, though not specially imposing edifices. In the same quarter stands the Grassi Museum (1893- 1896) for industrial art and ethnology, and a short distance away are the palatial buildings of the Reichs and Deutsche Banks. Farther east and lying in the centre of the book-trade quarter stand close together the Buchhandlerhaus (booksellers' exchange), the great hall decorated with allegorical pictures by Sascha Schneider, and the Buchgewerbehaus, a museum of the book trade, both handsome red brick edifices in the German Renais- sance style, erected in 1886-1890. South-west of these buildings, on the other side of the Johannisthal Park, are clustered the medical institutes and hospitals of the university — the infirmary, clinical and other hospitals, the physico-chemical institute, pathological institute, physiological institute, ophthalmic hospital, pharmacological institute, the schools of anatomy, the chemical laboratory, the zoological institute, the physico- mineralogical institute, the botanical garden and also the veterinary schools, deaf and dumb asylum, agricultural college and astronomical observatory. Among other noteworthy buildings in this quarter must be noted the Johannisstift, an asylum for the relief of the aged poor, with a handsome front and slender spire. On the north side of the inner town and on the promenade are the handsome exchange with library, and the reformed church, a pleasing edifice in late Gothic. Leipzig has some interesting monuments; the Siegesdenkmal, commemorative of the wars of 1866 and 1870, on the market square, statues of Goethe, Leibnitz, Gellert, J. Sebastian Bach, Robert Schumann, Hahnemann, the homeopathist, and Bismarck. There are also many memorials of the battle of Leipzig, including an obelisk on the Randstadter-Steinweg, on the site of the bridge which was prematurely blown up, when Prince Poniatowski was drowned ; a monument of cannon balls collected after the battle; a " relief " to Major Friccius, who stormed the outer Grimma gate; while on the battle plain itself and close to " Napoleonstein," which commemorates Napoleon's position on the last day of the battle, a gigantic obelisk sur- rounded by a garden has been planned for dedication on the hundredth anniversary of the battle (October 19, 1913). LEIPZIG 401 The University and Education. — The university of Leipzig, founded in 1409 by a secession of four hundred German students from Prague, is one of the most influential universities in the world. It was a few years since the most numerously attended of any university in Germany, but it has since been outstripped by those of Berlin and of Munich. Its large revenues, derived to a great extent from house property in Leipzig and estates in Saxony, enable it, in conjunction with a handsome state sub- vention, to provide rich endowments for the professorial chairs. To the several faculties also belong various collegiate buildings, notably, to the legal, that of the Collegium beatae Virginis in the Petersstrasse, and to the philosophical the Rothe Haus on the promenade facing the theatre. The other educational institutions of Leipzig include the Nicolai and Thomas gymnasia, several " Realschulen," a commercial academy (Handelsschule), high schools for girls, and a large number of public and private schools of all grades. Art and Literature. — The city has a large number of literary, scientific and artistic institutions. One of the most important is the museum, which contains about four hundred modern paintings, a large number of casts, a few pieces of original sculp- ture and a well-arranged collection of drawings and engravings. The collection of the historical society and the ethnographical and art-industrial collections in the Grassi Museum are also of considerable interest. The museum was erected with part of the munificent bequest made to the city by Dominic Grassi in 1 88 1. As a musical centre Leipzig is known all over the world for its excellent conservatorium, founded in 1843 by Mendelssohn. The series of concerts given annually in the Gewandhaus is also of world-wide reputation, and the operatic stage of Leipzig is deservedly ranked among the finest in Germany. There are numerous vocal and orchestral societies, some of which have brought their art to a very high pitch of perfection. The promin- ence of the publishing interest has attracted to Leipzig a large number of gifted authors, and made it a literary centre of con- siderable importance. Over five hundred newspapers and periodicals are published here, including several of the most widely circulated in Germany. Intellectual interests of a high order have always characterized, Leipzig, and what Karl von Holtei once said of it is true to-day: " There is only one city in Germany that represents Germany; only a single city where one can forget that he is a Hessian, a Bavarian, a Swabian, a Prussian or a Saxon; only one city where, amid the opulence of the commercial world with which science is so gloriously allied, even the man who possesses nothing but his personality is honoured and esteemed; only one city, in which, despite a few narrownesses, all the advantages of a great, I may say a world-metropolis, are conspicuous ! This city is, in my opinion, and in my experience, Leipzig." Commerce, Fairs. — The outstanding importance of Leipzig as a commercial town is mainly derived from its three great fairs, which annually attract an enormous concourse of merchants from all parts of Europe, and from Persia, Armenia and other Asiatic countries. The most important fairs are held at Easter and Michaelmas, and are said to have been founded as markets about 1170. The smaller New Year's fair was established in 1458. Under the fostering care of the margraves of Meissen, and then of the electors of Saxony they attained great popularity. In 1 268 the margrave of Meissen granted a safe-conduct to all frequenters of the fairs, and in 1497 and 1507 the emperor Maximilian I. greatly increased their importance by prohibiting the holding of annual markets at any town within a wide radius of Leipzig. During the Thirty Years' War, the Seven Years' War and the troubles consequent upon the French Revolution, the trade of the Leipzig fairs considerably decreased, but it re- covered after the accession of Saxony to the German Customs Union (Zollverein) in 1834, and for the next twenty years rapidly and steadily increased. Since then, owing to the greater facilities of communication, the transactions at the fairs have diminished in relative, though they have increased in actual, value. Wares that can be safely purchased by sample appear at the fairs in steadily diminishing quantities, while others, such as hides, furs and leather, which require to be actually examined, show as marked an increase. The value of the sales considerably exceeds £10,000,000 sterling per annum. The principal com- modity is furs (chiefly American and Russian), of which about one and a quarter million pounds worth are sold annually; other articles disposed of are leather, hides, wool, cloth, linen and glass. The Leipzig wool-market, held for two days in June, is also important. In the trades of bookselling and publishing Leipzig occupies a unique position, not only taking the first place in Germany, but even surpassing London and Paris in the number and total value of its sales. There are upwards of nine hundred pub- lishers and booksellers in the town, and about eleven thousand firms in other parts of Europe are represented here. Several hundred booksellers assemble in Leipzig every year, and settle their accounts at their own exchange (Buchhandler-Borse). Leipzig also contains about two hundred printing-works, some of great extent, and a corresponding number of type-foundries, binding-shops and other kindred industries. The book trades give employment to over 15,000 persons, and since 1878 Leipzig has grown into an industrial town of the first rank. The iron and machinery trades employ 4500 persons ; the textile industries, cotton and yarn spinning and hosiery, 6000; and the making of scientific and musical instruments, including pianos, 2650. Other industries include the manufac- ture of artificial flowers, wax-cloth, chemicals, ethereal oils and essences, beer, mineral waters, tobacco and cigars, lace, india- rubber wares, rush-work and paper, the preparation of furs and numerous other branches. These industries are mostly carried on in the suburbs of Plagwitz, Reudnitz, Lindena\i, Gohlis, Eutritzsch, Konnewitz and the neighbouring town of Markranstadt. Communications. — Leipzig lies at the centre of a network of railways giving it direct communication with all the more important cities of Germany. There are six main line railway stations, of which the Dresden and the Magdeburg lie side by side in the north-east corner of the promenade, the Thur- ingian and Berlin stations further away in the northern suburb; in the eastern is the Eilenburg station (for Breslau and the east) and in the south the Bavarian station. The whole traffic of these stations is to be directed into a vast central station (the largest in the world), lying on the sites of the Dresden, Magde- burg and Thuringian stations. The estimated cost, borne by Prussia, Saxony and the city of Leipzig, is estimated at 6 million pounds sterling. The city has an extensive electric tramway system, bringing all the outlying suburbs into close connexion with the business quarters of the town. Population. — The population of Leipzig was quintupled within the igth century, rising from 31,887 in 1801 to 153,988 in 1881, to 455,089 in 1900 and to 502,570 in 1905. History. — Leipzig owes its origin to a Slav settlement between the Elster and the Pleisse, which was in existence before the year 1000, and its name to the Slav word lipa, a lime tree. There was also a German settlement near this spot, probably round a castle erected early in the loth century by the German king, Henry the Fowler. The district was part of the mark of Merseburg, and the bishops of Merseburg were the lords of extensive areas around the settlements. In the nth century Leipzig is mentioned as a fortified place and in the I2th it came into the possession of the margrave of Meissen, being granted some municipal privileges by the mar- grave, Otto the Rich, before 1190. Its favourable situation in the midst of a plain intersected by the principal highways of central Europe, together with the fostering care of its rulers, now began the work of raising Leipzig to the position of a very important commercial town. Its earliest trade was in the salt produced at Halle, and its enterprising inhabitants constructed roads and bridges to lighten the journey of the traders and travellers whose way Ted to the town. Soon Leipzig was largely used as a depot by the merchants of Nuremberg, who carried on a considerable trade with Poland. Powers of self-government were acquired by the council (Rat) of the town, the importance of which was enhanced during the isth century by several grants of privileges from the emperors. When Saxony was divided in 1485 Leipzig fell to the Albertme, or ducal branch of the family, whose head Duke George gave new rights to the burghers. This duke, however, at whose instigation the famous discussion between Luther and Johann von Eck took place in the Pleissenburg of Leipzig, inflicted some injury upon the 402 LEIRIA— LEISNIG town's trade and also upon its university by the harsh treatment which he meted out to the adherents of the new doctrines; but under the rule of his successor, Henry, Leipzig accepted the teaching of the reformers. In 1547 during the war of the league of Schmal- kalden the town was besieged by the elector of Saxony, John Frederick I. It was not captured, although its suburbs were de- stroyed. These and the Pleissenburg were rebuilt by the elector Maurice, who also strengthened the fortifications. Under the elector Augustus I. emigrants from the Netherlands were encouraged to settle in Leipzig and its trade with Hamburg and with England was greatly extended. During the Thirty Years' War Leipzig suffered six sieges and on four occasions was occupied by hostile troops, being retained by the Swedes as security for the payment of an indemnity from 1648 to 1650. After 1650 its fortifications were strengthened; its finances were put on a better footing; and its trade, especially with England, began again to prosper; important steps being taken with regard to its organization. Towards the end of the 1 7th century the publishing trade began to increase very rapidly, partly because the severity of the censorship at Frankfort-on-the-Main caused many booksellers to remove to Leipzig. During the Seven Years' War Frederick the Great exacted a heavy contribution from Leipzig, but this did not seriously interfere with its prosperity. In 1784 the fortifications were pulled down. The wars in the first decade of the igth century were not on the whole unfavourable to the commerce of Leipzig, but in 1813 and 1814, owing to the presence of enormous armies in the neighbourhood, it suffered greatly. Another revival, however, set in after the peace of 1815, and this was aided by the accession of Saxony to the German Zollverein in 1834, and by the opening of the first railway a little later. In 1831 the town was provided with a new constitution, and in 1837 a scheme for the reform of the university was completed. A riot in 1845, the revolutionary movement of 1848 and the Prussian occupation of 1866 were merely passing shadows. In 1879 Leipzig acquired a new importance by becoming the seat of the supreme court of the German empire. The immediate neighbourhood of Leipzig has been the scene of several battles, two of which are of more than ordinary importance. These are the battles of Breitenfeld, fought on the 1 7th of September 1631, between the Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus and the im- perialists, and the great battle of Leipzig, known in Germany as the Volkerschlacht, fought in October 1813 between Napoleon and the allied forces of Russia, Prussia and Austria. Towards the middle of the i8th century Leipzig was the seat of the most influential body of literary men in Germany, over whom Johann Christoph Gottsched, like his contemporary, Samuel Johnson, in England, exercised a kind of literary dictatorship. Then, if ever, Leipzig deserved the epithet of a " Paris in miniature " (Klein Parts) assigned to it by Goethe in his Faust. The young Lessing produced his first play in the Leipzig theatre, and the university counts Goethe, Klopstock, Jean Paul Richter, Fichte and Schelling among its alumni. Schiller and Gellert also resided for a time in Leipzig, and Sebastian Bach and Mendelssohn filled musical posts here. Among the celebrated natives of the town are the philosopher Leibnitz and the composer Wagner. AUTHORITIES. — For the history of Leipzig see E. Hasse, Die Stadt Leipzig und ihre Umgebung, geographisch und statistisch be- schrieben (Leipzig, 1878); K. Grosse, Geschichte der Stadt Leipzig (Leipzig, 1897-1898); Rachel, Veruialtungsorganisation und Amter- wesen der Stadt Leipzig bis 1627 (Leipzig, 1902); G. Wustmann, Aus Leipzig! Vergangenheit (Leipzig, 1898); Bilderbuch aus der Geschichte der Stadt Leipzig (Leipzig, 1897); Leipzig durch drei Jahrhunderte, Atlas zur Geschichte des Leipziger Stadtbildes (Leipzig, 1891); Quellen zur Geschichte Leipzig! (Leipzig, 1889-1895); and Geschichte der Stadt Leipzig (Leipzig, 1905); F. Seifert, Die Re- formation in Leipzig (Leipzig, 1883); G. Buchwald, Reformations- geschichte der Stadt Leipzig (Leipzig, 1900); Geffcken and Tyko- cinski, Stiftungsbuch der Stadt Leipzig (Leipzig, 1905); the Urkun- denbuch der Sladt Leipzig, edited by C. F. Posern-Klett and Forste- mann (Leipzig, 1870-1895); and the Schriften des Vereins fur die Geschichte Leipzigs (Leipzig, 1872-1904). For other aspects of the town's life see Hirschfeld, Leipzigs Grossindustrie und Grosshandel (Leipzig, 1887); Hassert, Die geographische Lage und Entwickelung Leipzigs (Leipzig, 1899); Helm, Heimatkunde von Leipzig (Leipzig, 1903); E. Friedberg, Die Universitdt Leipzig in Vergangenheit und Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1897); F. Zarncke, Die Statutenbucher der Universitat Leipzig (Leipzig, 1861); E. Hasse, Geschichte der Leip- ziger Messen (Leipzig, 1885); Tille, Die Anfdnge der hohen Land- strasse (Gptha, 1906) ; Biedermann, Geschichte der Leipziger Kramerin- nung (Leipzig, 1881); and Mpltke, Die Leipziger Kramerinnung im 15 und 1 6 Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1901). LEIRIA, an episcopal city and the capital of the district of Leiria, formerly included in Estremadura, Portugal; on the river Liz and on the Lisbon-Figueria da Foz railway. Pop. (1900) 4459. The principal buildings of Leiria are the ruined citadel, which dates from 1135, and the cathedral, a small Renaissance building erected in 1571 but modernized in the 1 8th century. The main square of the city is named after the poet Francisco Rodrigues Lobo, who was born here about 1500. Between Leiria and the Atlantic there are extensive pine woods known as the Pinhal de Leiria, which were planted by King Diniz (1279-1325) with trees imported from the Landes in France, in order to give firmness to the sandy soil. In the neighbourhood there are glass and iron foundries, oil wells and mineral springs. Leiria, the Roman Calippo, was taken from the Moors in 1135 by Alphonso I. (Affonso Henriques). King Diniz made it his capital. In 1466 the first Portuguese printing- press was established here; in 1545 the 'city was made an episcopal see. The administrative district of Leiria coincides with the north and north-west of the ancient province of Estremadura (q.v.); pop. (1900) 238,755; area 1317 sq. m. LEISLER, JACOB (c. 1635-1691), American political agitator, was born probably at Frankfort-on-Main, Germany, about 1635. He went to New Netherland (New York) in 1660, married a wealthy widow, engaged in trade, and soon accumulated a fortune. The English Revolution of 1688 divided the people of New York into two well-defined factions. In general the small shop-keepers, small farmers, sailors, poor traders and artisans were arrayed against the patroons, rich fur-traders, merchants, lawyers and crown officers. The former were led by Leisler, the latter by Peter Schuyler (1657-1724), Nicholas Bayard (c. 1644- 1 707), Stephen van Cortlandt (1643-1 700), William Nicolls (1657- 1723) and other representatives of the aristocratic Hudson Valley families. The " Leislerians " pretended greater loyalty to the Protestant succession. When news of the imprisonment of Gov. Andros in Massachusetts was received, they took possession on the 3ist of May 1689 of Fort James (at the southern end of Manhattan Island) , renamed it Fort William and announced their determination to hold it until the arrival of a governor commis- sioned by the new sovereigns. The aristocrats also favoured the Revolution, but preferred to continue the government under authority from James II. rather than risk the danger of an inter- regnum. Lieutenant-Governor Francis Nicholson sailed for Eng- land on the 24th of June, a committee of safety was organized by the popular party, and Leisler was appointed commander-in-chief. Under authority of a letter from the home government addressed to Nicholson, " or in his absence, to such as for the time being takes care for preserving the peace and administering the laws in His Majesty's province of New York," he assumed the title of lieutenant-governor in December 1689, appointed a council and took charge of the government of the entire province. He summoned the first Intercolonial Congress in America, which met in New York on the ist of May 1690 to plan concerted action against the French and Indians. Colonel Henry Sloughter was commissioned governor of the province on the 2nd of September 1689 but did not reach New York until the igth of March 1691. In the meantime Major Richard Ingoldsby and two companies of soldiers had landed (January 28, 1691) and demanded possession of the fort. Leisler refused to surrender it, and after some con- troversy an attack was made on the I7th of March in which two soldiers were killed and several wounded. When Sloughter arrived two days later Leisler hastened to give over to him the fort and other evidences of authority. He and his son-in-law, Jacob Milborne, were charged with treason for refusing to sub- mit to Ingoldsby, were convicted, and on the i6th of May 1691 were executed. There has been much controversy among historians with regard both to the facts and to the significance of Leisler's brief career as ruler in New York. See J. R. Brodhead, History of the State of New York (vol. 2, New York, 1871). For the documents connected with the controversy see E. B. O'Callaghan, Documentary History of the State of New York (vol. 2, Albany, 1850). LEISNIG, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, prettily situated on the Freiberger Mulde, 7 m. S. of Grimma by the railway from Leipzig to Dresden via Dobeln. Pop. (1905) 8147. On a high rock above the town lies the old castle of Mildenstein, now utilized as administrative offices. The industries include the manufacture of cloth, furniture, boots, buttons, cigars, beer, machinery and chemicals. Leisnig is a place of considerable LEITH 403 antiquity. About 1080 it passed into the possession of the counts of Groitzsch, but was purchased in 1157 by the emperor Frederick I., who committed it to the charge of counts. It fell to' Meissen in 1365, and later to Saxony. LEITH, a municipal and police burgh, and seaport, county of Midlothian, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 77,439- It is situated on the south shore of the Firth of Forth, i| m. N.N.E. of Edinburgh, of which it is the port and with which it is connected by Leith Walk, practically a continuous street. It has stations on the North British and Caledonian railways, and a branch line (N.B.R.) to Portobello. Lying at the mouth of the Water of Leith, which is crossed by several bridges and divides it into the parishes of North and South Leith, it stretches for 3$ m. along the shore of the Firth from Seafield in the east to near Granton in the west. There is tramway communication with Edinburgh and Newhaven. The town is a thriving centre of trade and commerce. St Mary's in Kirkgate, the parish church of South Leith, was founded in 1483, and was originally cruciform but, as restored in 1852, consists of an aisled nave and north-western tower. Here David Lindsay (1531-1613), its minister, James VI.'s chaplain and afterwards bishop of Ross, preached before the king the thanksgiving sermon on the Gowrie conspiracy (1600). John Logan, the hymn-writer and reputed author of " The Ode to the Cuckoo," was minister for thirteen years; and in its graveyard lies the Rev. John Home, author of Douglas, a native of Leith. Near it in Constitution Street is St James's Episcopal church (1862-1869), in the Early English style by Sir Gilbert Scott, with an apsidal chancel and a spire 160 ft. high. The parish church of North Leith, in Madeira Street, with a spire 158 ft. high, is one of the best livings in the Established Church of Scotland. St Thomas's, at the head of Shirra Brae, in the Gothic style, was built in 1843 by Sir John Gladstone of Fasque, who — prior to his removal to Liverpool, where his son, W. E. Gladstone, was born — had been a merchant in Leith. The public buildings are wholly modern, the principal being of classic design. They include the custom house (1812) in the Grecian style; Trinity House (1817), also Grecian, containing Sir Henry Raeburn's portrait of Admiral Lord Duncan, David Scott's " Vasco da Gama Rounding the Cape " and other paintings; the markets (1818); the town hall (1828), with an Ionic facade on Constitution Street and a Doric porch on Charlotte Street; the corn exchange (1862) in the Roman style; the assembly rooms; exchange buildings; the public institute (1867) and Victoria public baths ( 1 899) . Trinity House was founded in 1 5 5 5 as a home for old and disabled sailors, but on the decline of its revenues it became the licensing authority for pilots, its humane office being partly fulfilled by the sailors' home, established about 1840 in a building adjoining the Signal Tower, and re- housed in a handsome structure in the Scottish Baronial style in 1883-1884. Other charitable institutions include the hospital, John Watt's hospital and the smallpox hospital. The high school, built in 1806, for many years a familiar object on the west margin of the Links, gave way to the academy, a hand- some and commodious structure, to which are drafted senior pupils from the numerous board schools for free education in the higher branches. Here also is accommodated the technical college. Secondary instruction is given also in Craighall Road school. A bronze statue of Robert Burns was unveiled in 1898. Leith Links, one of the homes of golf in Scotland, is a popular resort, on Lochend Road are situated Hawkhill recreation grounds, and Lochend Loch is used for skating and curling. There are small links at Newhaven, and in Trinity are Starbank Park and Cargilfield playing ground. The east pier (1177 yds. long) and the west pier (1041 yds.) are favourite promenades. The waterway between them is the entrance to the harbour. Leith cemetery is situated at Seafield and the Eastern cemetery in Easter Road. The oldest industry is shipbuilding, which dates from 1313. Here in 1511 James IV. built the"St Michael," "aneverrie monstruous great ship, whilk tuik sae meikle timber that schee waisted all the woodis in Fyfe, except Falkland wood, besides the timber that cam out of Norroway." Other important industries are engineering, sugar-refining (established 1757), meat-preserving, flour-milling, sailcloth-making, soap-boiling, rope and twine-making, tanning, chemical manures-making, wood-sawing, hosiery, biscuit-baking, brewing, distilling and lime-juice making. Of the old trade of glass-making, which began in 1682, scarcely a trace survives. As a distributing centre, Leith occupies a prominent place. It is the headquarters of the whisky business in Great Britain, and stores also large quantities of wine from Spain, Portugal and France. This pre-eminence is due to its excellent dock and harbour accom- modation and capacious warehouses. The two old docks (1801-1807) cover io| acres; Victoria Dock (1852) 5 acres; Albert Dock (1863-1869) iof acres; Edinburgh Dock (1874- 1881) i6f acres; and the New Dock (1892-1901) 60 acres. There are several dry docks, of which the Prince of Wales Graving Dock (1858), the largest, measures 370 ft. by 60 ft. Space can always be had for more dock room by reclaiming the east sands, where in the I7th and i8th centuries Leith Races were held, the theme of a humorous descriptive poem by Robert Fergusson. Apart from coasting trade there are constant sailings to the leading European ports, the United States and the British colonies. In 1908 the tonnage of ships entering the harbour was (including coastwise trade) 1,975,457; that of ships clearing the harbour 1,993,227. The number of vessels registered at the port was 213 (net tonnage 146,799). The value of imports was £12,883,890, of exports £5,377,188. In summer there are frequent excursions to the Bass Rock and the Isle of May, North Berwick, Elie, Aberdour, Alloa and Stirling. Leith Fort, built in North Leith in 1779 for the defence of the harbour, is now the headquarters of the Royal Artillery in Scotland. Leith is the head of a fishery district. The town, which is governed by a provost, bailies and council, unites with Musselburgh and Portobello to send one member to parliament. Leith figures as Inverleith in the foundation charter of Holyrood Abbey (1128). In 1329 Robert I. granted the harbour to the magistrates of Edinburgh, who did not always use their power wisely. They forbade, for example, the building of streets wide enough to admit a cart, a regulation that accounted for the number of narrow wynds and alleys in the town. Had the overlords been more considerate incorporation with Edinburgh would not have been so bitterly resisted. Several of the quaint bits of ancient Leith yet remain, and the appearance, of the shore as it was in the 1 7th and i8th centuries, and even at a later date, was picturesque in the extreme. During the centuries of strife between Scotland and England its situation exposed the port to attack both by sea and land. At least twice (in 1313 and 1410) its shipping was burned by the English, who also sacked the town in 1544 — when the 1st earl of Hertford destroyed the first wooden pier — and 1547. In the troublous times that followed the death of James V., Leith became the stronghold of the Roman Catholic and French party from 1548 to 1560, Mary of Guise, queen regent, not deeming herself secure in Edinburgh. In 1549 the town was walled and fortified by Montalembert, sieur d'Ess6, the commander of the French troops, and endured an ineffectual siege in 1560 by the Scots and their English allies. A house in Coalhill is thought to be the " handsome and spacious edifice " erected for her privy council by Mary of Guise. D'Esse's wall, pierced by six gates, was partly dismantled on the death of the queen regent, but although rebuilt in 1571, not a trace of it exists. The old tolbooth, in which William Maitland of Lethington, Queen Mary's secretary, poisoned himself in 1573, to avoid execution for adhering to Mary s cause, was demolished in 1819. Charles I. is said to have received the first tidings of the Irish rebellion while playing golf on the links in 1641. Cromwell in his Scottish campaign built the Citadel in 1650 and the mounds on the links, known as "Giant's Brae" and "Lady Fife's Brae," were thrown up by the Protector as batteries. In 1698 the sailing of the first Darien expedition created great excitement. In 1715 William Mackintosh of Borlum (1662-1743) and his force of Jacobite Highlanders captured the Citadel, of which only the name of Citadel Street and the archway in Couper Street have preserved the memory. A mile S.E. of the links lies the ancient village of RESTALRIG, the home of the Logans, from whom the superiority of Leith was purchased in 1553 by the queen regent. Sir Robert Logan (d. 1606) was alleged to have been one of the Gowrie conspirators and to have arranged to imprison the king in Fast Castle. This charge, how- ever, was. not made until three years after his death, when his bones were exhumed for trial. He was then found guilty of high treason and sentence of forfeiture pronounced; but there is reason to suspect that the whole case was trumped up. The old church escaped demolition at the Reformation and even the fine east 4°4 LEITMERITZ— LEIXOES window was saved. In the vaults repose Sir Robert and other Logans, besides several of the lords Balmerino, and Lord Brougham's father lies in the kirkyard. The well of St Triduana, which was reputed to possess wonderful curative powers, vanished when the North British railway was constructed. LEITMERITZ (Czech, Litomefice), a town and episcopal see of Bohemia, 45 m. N. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 13,075, mostly German. It lies on the right bank of the Elbe, which becomes here navigable for steamers and is spanned by an iron bridge 1700 ft. in length. The fine cathedral, founded in 1057, was built in 1671 and contains some valuable paintings. The library of the episcopal palace, built between 1694 and 1 701 , possesses the oldest maps of Bohemia made in 1518 by Nicolaus Claudianus of Jung-Bunzlau. Of the other churches that of All Saints dates from the i3th century. The town-hall, with its remarkable bell tower, dates from the 1 5th century. Leitmeritz is situated in the midst of a very fertile country, called the " Bohemian Paradise," which produces great quantities of corn, fruit, hops and wines. The beer brewed here enjoys a high reputation. On the opposite bank of the river, where the Eger discharges itself into the Elbe, lies Theresienstadt (pop. 7046), an important garrison town. It was formerly an important fortress, erected in 1780 by the emperor Joseph II. and named after his mother Maria Theresa, but the fortress was dismantled in 1882. Leitmeritz was originally the castle of a royal count and is first mentioned, in 993, in the foundation charter of the convent of St Margaret near Prague. In 1248 it received a town charter, and was governed by the laws of Magdeburg until the time of Ferdinand I., having a special court of jurisdiction over all the royal towns where this law obtained. The town reached its highest degree of prosperity under Charles IV., who bestowed upon it large tracts of forest, agricultural land and vineyards. In the Hussite wars, after its capture by the utraquist, Leitmeritz remained true to " the Chalice," shared also in the revolt against Ferdinand I., and suffered in con- sequence. It was still more unfortunate during the Thirty Years' War, in the course of which most of the Protestant inhabitants left it; the property of the Bohemian refugees being given to German immigrants. The present bishopric was established in 1655. LEITNER, GOTTLIEB WILHELM (1840-1899), Anglo-Hun- garian orientalist, was born at Budapest in 1840. He was the son of a physician, and was educated at Malta Protestant college. At the age of fifteen he acted as an interpreter in the Crimean War. He entered King's College, London, in 1858, and in 1861 was appointed professor of Arabic and Mahommedan law. He became principal of the government college at Lahore in 1864, and there originated the term " Dardistan " for a portion of the mountains on the north-west frontier, which was subse- quently recognized to be a purely artificial distinction. He collected much valuable information on Graeco-Buddhist art and the origins of Indian art. He spoke, read and wrote twenty- five languages. He founded an oriental institute at Woking, and for some years edited the Asiatic Quarterly Review. He died at Bonn in 1899. See J. H. Stocqueler, Life and Labours of Dr Leitner (1875). LEITRIM, a county of Ireland in the province of Connaught, bounded N.W. by Donegal Bay, N.E. by Fermanagh, E. by Cavan, S.E. b*y Longford, S.W. by Roscommon and W. by Sligo. The area is 392,381 acres, or about 613 sq. m. The northern portion of the county consists of an elevated table-land, of which the highest summits belong to the Truskmore Hills, reaching 1712 ft.; with Benbo, 1365 ft. and Lackagh, 1446 ft. In the southern part the country is comparatively level, and is generally richly wooded. The county touches the south coast of Donegal Bay, but the coast-line is only about 3 m. The principal river is the Shannon, which, issuing from Lough Allen, forms the south-western boundary of the county with Ros- common. The Bonnet rises in the north-west and flows to Lough Gill, and the streams of Drones and Duff separate Leitrim from Donegal and Sligo. Besides Lough Allen, which has an area of 8900 acres, the other principal lakes in the county are Lough Macnean, Lough Scur, Lough Garadice and Lough Melvin. The scenery of the north is wild and attractive, while in the neighbourhood of the Shannon it is of great beauty. Lough Melvin and the coast rivers afford rod fishing, the lough being noted for its gillaroo trout. This varied county has in general a floor of Carboniferous Limestone, which forms finely scarped hills as it reaches the sea in Donegal Bay. The underlying sandstone appears at Lough Melvin, and again on the margin of a Silurian area in the extreme south. The Upper Carboniferous series, dipping gently south- ward, form mountainous country round Lough Allen, where the name of Slieve Anierin records the abundance of clay-ironstone beneath the coal seams. The sandstones and shales of this series scarp boldly towards the valley of the Bonnet, across which rises, in picturesque contrast, the heather-clad ridge of ancient gneiss which forms, in Benbo, the north-east end of the Ox Mountains. The ironstone was smelted in the upland at Creevelea down to 1859, and the coal is worked in a few thin seams. The climate is moist and unsuitable for grain crops. On the higher districts the soil is stiff and cold, and, though abounding in stones, retentive of moisture, but in the valleys there are some fertile districts. Lime, marl and similar manures are abundant, and on the coast seaweed is plentiful. The proportion of tillage to pasture is roughly as i to 3. Potatoes are grown, but oats, the principal grain crop, are scanty. The live stock consists chiefly of cattle, pigs and poultry. Coarse linens for domestic purposes are manufactured and coarse pottery is also made. The Sligo, Leitrim and Northern Counties railway, connecting Sligo with Enniskillen, crosses the northern part of the county, by way of Manor Hamilton; the Mullingar and Sligo line of the Midland Great Western touches the south- western boundary of the county, with a station at Carrick-on- Shannon; while connecting with this line at Dromod is the Cavan and Leitrim railway to Ballinamore and Arigna, and to Belturbet in county Cavan. The population (78,618 in 1891; 69,343 in 1901) decreases owing to emigration, the decrease being one of the most serious shown by any Irish county. It includes nearly 90% of Roman Catholics. The only towns are Carrick-on-Shannon (pop. 1118) and Manor Hamilton (993). The county is divided into five baronies. It is within the Connaught circuit, and assizes are held at Carrick-on-Shannon, and quarter sessions at Ballinamore, Carrick-on-Shannon and Manor Hamilton. It is in the Protestant diocese of Kilmore, and the Roman Catholic dioceses of Ardagh and Kilmore. In the Irish House of Commons two members were returned for the county and two for the boroughs of Carrick- on-Shannon and Jamestown, but at the Union the boroughs were disfranchised. The county divisions are termed the North and South, each returning one member. With the territory which afterwards became the county Cavan, Leitrim formed part of Brenny or Breffny, which was divided into two principalities, of which Leitrim, under the name of Hy Bruin-Brenny, formed the western. Being for a long time in the possession of the O'Rourkes, descendants of Roderick, king of Ireland, it was also called Brenny O'Rourke. This family long maintained its independence; even in 1579, when the other existing counties of Connaught were created, the creation of Leitrim was deferred, and did not take place until 1583. Large confiscations were made in the reigns of Elizabeth and James I., in the Cromwellian period, and after the Revolu- tion of 1688. There are " druidical " remains near Fenagh and at Letter- fyan, and important monastic ruins at Creevelea near the Bonnet, with several antique monuments, and in the parish of Fenagh. There was a flourishing Franciscan friary at James- town. The abbeys of Mohill, Annaduff and Drumlease are converted into parish churches. Among the more notable old castles are Manor Hamilton Castle, originally very extensive, but now in ruins, and Castle John on an island in Lough Scur. There is a small village named Leitrim about 4 m. N. of Carrick- on-Shannon, which was once of enough importance to give its name to a barony and to the county, and is said to have been the seatjjf an early bishopric. LEIXOES, a seaport and harbour of refuge of northern Portugal; in 41° 9' 10" N., 8° 40' 35" W., 3 m. N. of the mouth of the Douro. Leixoes is included in the parish of Matozinhos (pop. 1900, 7690) and constitutes the main port of the city of LEJEUNE— LELAND, J. 405 Oporto (q.v.), with which it is connected by an electric tramway. The harbour, of artificial construction, has an area of over 220 acres, and admits vessels of any size, the depth at the entrance being nearly 50 ft. The transference of cargo to and from ships lying in the Leixoes basin is effected entirely by means of lighters from Oporto. In addition to wine, &c., from Oporto, large numbers of emigrants to South America are taken on board here. The trade of the port is mainly in British hands, and large numbers of British ships call at Leixoes on the voyage between Lisbon and Liverpool, London or Southampton. LEJEUNE, LOUIS FRANCOIS, BARON (1776-1848), French general, painter, and lithographer, was born at Versailles. As aide-de-camp to General^Berthier he took an active part in many of the Napoleonic campaigns, which he made the subjects of an important series of battle-pictures. The vogue he enjoyed is due to the truth and vigour of his work, which was generally executed from sketches and studies made on the battlefield. When his battle-pictures were shown at the Egyptian Hall in London, a rail had to be put up to protect them from the eager crowds of sightseers. Among his chief works are " The Entry of Charles X. into Paris, 6 June 1825 " at Versailles; " Episode of the Prussian War, October 1807 " at Douai Museum; " Marengo " (1801) ; "Lodi," " Thabor," " Aboukir " (1804) ; " The Pyramids " (1806); " Passage of the Rhine in 1795 " (1824), and " Moskawa " (1812). The German campaign of 1806 brought him to Munich, where he visited the workshop of Senef elder, the inventor of lithography. Lejeune was so fascinated by the possibilities of the new method that he then and there made the drawing on stone of his famous " Cossack " (printed by C. and T. Senefelder, 1806). Whilst he was taking his dinner, and with his horses harnessed and waiting to take him back to Paris, one hundred proofs were printed, one of which he subse- quently submitted to Napoleon. The introduction of litho- graphy into France was greatly due to the efforts of Lejeune. Many of his battle-pictures .were engraved by Coiny and Bovinet. See Fournier-SarlovSze, Le General Lejeune (Paris, Libraire de Vart). LEKAIN, the stage name of Henri Louis Cain (1728-1778), French actor, who was born in Paris on the i4th of April 1728, the son of a silversmith . He was educated at the College Mazarin , and joined an amateur company of players against which the Comedie Franchise obtained an injunction. Voltaire supported him for a time and enabled him to act in his private theatre and also before the duchess of Maine. Owing to the hostility of the actors it was only after a struggle of seventeen months that, by the command of Louis XV., he was received at the Comedie Franchise. His success was immediate. Among his best parts were Herod in Mariamne, Nero in Britannicus and similar tragic roles, in spite of the fact that he was short and stout, with irregular and rather common features. His name is connected with a number of important scenic reforms. It was he who had the benches removed on which privileged spectators formerly sat encumbering the stage, Count Lauragais paying for him an excessive indemnity demanded. Lekain also protested against the method of sing-song declamation prevalent, and endeavoured to correct the costuming of the plays, although unable to obtain the historic accuracy at which Talma aimed. He died in Paris on the 8th of February 1778. His eldest son published his Memoiret (1801) with his correspond- nce with Voltaire, Garrick and others. They were reprinted with i preface by Talma in Memoires sur I'art dramatique (1825). LELAND, CHARLES GODFREY (1824-1903), American author, son of a merchant, was born at Philadelphia on the isth of August 1824, and graduated at Princeton in 1845. He after- wards studied at Heidelberg, Munich and Paris. He was in Paris during the revolution of 1848, and took an active part in it. He then returned to Philadelphia, and after being admitted to the bar in 1851, devoted himself to contributing to periodicals, editing various magazines and writing books. At the opening of the Civil War he started at Boston the Continental Magazine, which advocated emancipation. In 1868 he became known as the humorous author of Hans Breilmann's Party and Ballads, which was followed by other volumes of the same kind, collected in 187 1 with the title of Hans Breitmann's Ballads. These dialect poems, burlesquing the German American, at once became popular. In 1869 he went to Europe, and till 1880 was occupied, chiefly in London, with literary work; after returning to Phila- delphia for six years, he again made his home in Europe, generally at Florence, where he died on the 2oth of March 1903. Though his humorous verses were most attractive to the public, Leland was a serious student of folk-lore, particularly of the gipsies, his writings on the latter (The English Gypsies and their Language, 1872; The Gypsies, 1882; Gypsy Sorcery and Fortune- telling . . . , 1891, &c.) being recognized as valuable contribu- tions to the literature of the subject. He was president of the first European folk-lore congress, held in Paris in 1889. His other publications include Poetry and Mystery of Dreams (1855), Meister Karl's Sketch-book (1855), Pictwes of Travel (1856), Sunshine in Thought (1862), Heine's Book of Songs (1862), The Music Lesson of Confucius (1870), Egyptian Sketch-book (1873), Abraham Lincoln (1879), The Minor Arts (1880), Algonquin Legends of New England (1884), Songs of the Sea and Lays of the Land (1895), Hans Breitmann in Tyrol (1895), One Hundred Profitable Acts (1897), Unpublished Legends of Vergil (1899), Kuloskap the Master, and other Algonquin Poems (1903, with J. Dyneley Prince). See his Memoirs (2 vols., 1893), and E. R. Pennell, C. G. Leland (1906). LELAND (LEYLAND or LAYLONDE), JOHN (c. 1506-1552), English antiquary, was born in London on the i3th of September, probably in 1506. He owed his education at St Paul's school under William Lilly, and at Christ's College, Cambridge, to the kindness of a patron, Thomas Myles. He graduated at Cambridge in 1521, and subsequently studied at All Souls College, Oxford, and in Paris under Francois Dubois (Sylvius). On his return to England he took holy orders. He had been tutor to Lord Thomas Howard, son of the 3rd duke of Norfolk, and to Francis Hastings, afterwards earl of Huntingdon. Meanwhile his learning had recommended him to Henry VIII., who presented him to the rectory of Peuplingues in the marches of Calais in 1530. He was already librarian and chaplain to the king, and in 1533 he received a novel commission under the great seal as king's antiquary, with power to search for records, manuscripts and relics of antiquity in all the cathedrals, colleges and religious houses of England. Probably from 1534, and definitely from 1536 onwards to 1542, he was engaged on an antiquarian tour through England and Wales. He sought to preserve the MSS. scattered at the dissolution of the monasteries, but his powers did not extend to the actual collection of MSS. Some valuable additions, however, he did procure for the king's library, chiefly from the abbey of St Augustine at Canterbury. He had received a special dispensation permitting him to absent himself from his rectory of Peuplingues in 1536, and on his return from his itinerary he received the rectory of Haseley in Oxfordshire; his support of the church policy of Henry and Cranmer being further rewarded by a canonry and prebend of King's College (now Christ Church), Oxford, and a prebend of Salisbury. In a Strena Henrico1 (pr. 1546), addressed to Henry VIII. in 1545, he proposed to execute from the materials which he had collected in his journeys a topography of England, an account of the adjacent islands, an account of the British nobility, and a great history of the antiquities of the British Isles. He toiled over his papers at his house in the parish of St Michael le Querne, Cheapside, London, but he was not destined to complete these great undertakings, for he was certified insane in March 1550, and died on the i8th of April 1552. Leland was an exact observer, and a diligent student of local chronicles. The bulk of his work remained in MS. at the time of his death, and various copies were made, one by John Stowe in 1576. After passing through various hands the greater part of 1 Re-edited in 1549 by John Bale as The laboryeuse Journey and Serche of J. Leylande for Englandes Antiquitees geven of him for a Neu Yeares Gifte, &c., modern edition by W. A. Copinger (Man- chester, 1895). 406 LELAND, J.— LELEGES Leland's MSS. were deposited by William Burton, the historian of Leicestershire, in the Bodleian at Oxford. They had in the mean- time been freely used by other antiquaries, notably by John Bale, William Camden and Sir William Dugdale. The account of his journey in England and Wales in eight MS. quarto volumes received its name The Itinerary of John Leland from Thomas Burton and was edited by Thomas Hearne (9 vols., Oxford, 1710-1712; other editions in 1745 and 1770). The scattered portions dealing with Wales were re-edited by Miss L. Toulmin Smith in 1907. His other most important work, the Collectanea, in four folio MS. volumes, was also published by Hearne (6 vols., Oxford, 1715). His Com- mentarii de scriptoribus Britannicis, which had been used and dis- torted by his friend John Bale, was edited by Anthony Hall (2 vols., Oxford, 1709). Some of Leland's MSS., which formerly belonged to Sir Robert Cotton, passed into the possession of the British Museum. He was a Latin poet of some merit, his most famous piece being the Cygnea Cantio (1545) in honour of Henry VIII. Many of his minor works are included in Hearne's editions of the Itinerary and the Collectanea. For accounts of Leland see John Bale, Catalogus (1557); Anthony a Wood, Athenae Oxonienses; W. Huddesford, Lives of those eminent Antiquaries John Leland, Thomas Hearne and Anthony a Wood (Oxford, 1772). A life of Leland, attributed to Edward Burton (c. 1750), from the library of Sir Thomas Phillipps, printed in 1896 contains a bibliography. See also the biography by Sidney Lee, in the Diet. Nat. Biog. LELAND, JOHN (1691-1766), English Nonconformist divine, was born at Wigan, Lancashire, and educated in Dublin, where he made such progress that in 1716, without having attended any college or hall, he was appointed first assistant and afterwards sole pastor of a congregation of Presbyterians in New Row. This office he continued to fill until his death on the i6th of January 1766. He received the degree of D.D. from Aberdeen in 1739. His first publication was A Defence of Christianity (J733)> in reply to Matthew Tindal's Christianity as old as the Creation', it was succeeded by his Divine Authority of the Old and New Testaments asserted (1738), in answer to The Moral Philoso- pher of Thomas Morgan; in 1741 he published two volumes, in the form of two letters, being Remarks on [H. Dodwell's] Christianity not founded on Argument; and in 1753 Reflexions on the late Lord Bolingbroke's Letters on the Study and Use of History. His View of the Principal Deistical Writers that have appeared in England was published in 1754-1756. This is the chief work of Leland — " most worthy, painstaking and common- place of divines," as Sir Leslie Stephen called him — and in. spite of many defects and inconsistencies is indispensable to every student of the deistic movement of the i8th century. His Discourses on various Subjects, with a Life prefixed, was published posthumously (4 vols., 1768-1789). LELAND STANFORD JR. UNIVERSITY, near Palo Alto, California, U.S.A., in the beautiful Santa Clara valley, was founded in 1885 by Leland Stanford l (1824-1893), and by his wife Jane Lathrop Stanford (1825-1905), as a memorial to their only child, Leland Stanford, Jr., who died in 1884 in his seven- teenth year. The doors were opened in 1891 to 559 students. The university campus consists of Stanford's former Palo Alto farm, which comprises about 9000 acres. From the campus there are charming views of San Francisco Bay, of the Coast Range, particularly of Mount Hamilton some 30 m. E. with the Lick Observatory on its summit, of mountain foothills, and of the magnificent redwood forests toward Santa Cruz. The buildings, designed originally by H. H. Richardson and completed by his successors, Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge, are of soft buff sandstone in a style adapted from the old Cali- fornia mission (Moorish-Romanesque) architecture, being long and low with wide colonnades, open arches and red tiled roofs. An outer surrounds an inner quadrangle of buildings. The 'Stanford was born in Watervliet, New York; studied law in Albany; removed to California in 1852 and went into business at Michigan Bluff, Placer county, whence he removed to Sacramento in 1856; was made president in 1 86 1 of the Central Pacific railroad company, which built the first trans-continental railway line over the Sierra Nevada; was governor of California in 1862-1863, and United States senator in _ 1885-1 893; and was owner of the great Vina farm (55,000 acres) in Tehama county, containing the largest vineyard in the world (13,400 acres), the Gridley tract (22,000 acres) in Butte county, and the Palo Alto breeding farm, which was the home of his famous thoroughbred racers, Electioneer, Arion, Snoot, Palo Alto and Advertiser. inner quadrangle, about a court which is 586 by 246 ft. and is faced by a continuous open arcade and adorned with large circular beds of tropical plants and flowers, consists of twelve one-storey buildings and a beautiful memorial church. Of the fourteen buildings of the outer quadrangle some are two storeys high. A magnificent memorial arch (100 ft. high), adorned with a frieze designed by John Evans, representing the " Progress of Civilization in America," and forming the main gateway, was destroyed by the earthquake of 1906. Outside the quad- rangles are other buildings — a museum of art and archaeology, based on collections made by Leland Stanford, Jr., chemical laboratories, engineering work-shops, dormitories, a mausoleum of the founders, &c. There is a fine arboretum (300 acres) and a cactus garden. The charming views, the grace and harmonious colours of the buildings, and the tropic vegetation make a campus of wonderful beauty. The students in 1907-1908 numbered 1738, of whom 126 were graduates, 99 special students, and 500 women.2 The university library (with the library of the law department) contained in 1908 about 107,000 volumes. A marine biological laboratory, founded by Timothy Hopkins, is maintained at Pacific Grove on the Bay of Monterey. The university has an endowment from its founders estimated at $30,000,000, including three great estates with 85,000 acres of farm and vineyard lands, and several smaller tracts; but the endowment was very largely in interest-bearing securities, income from which was temporarily cut off in the early years of the university's life by litigation. The founders wished the university " to qualify students for personal success and direct usefulness in life; to promote the public welfare by exercising an influence in behalf of humanity and civilization, teaching the blessings of liberty regulated by law, and inculcating love and reverence for the great principles of government as derived from the inalienable rights of man to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness." There are no inflexible entrance requirements as to particular studies except English composition to ensure a degree of mental maturity, the minimum amount of preparation is fixed as that which should be given by four years in a secondary school, leaving to the applicants a wide choice of subjects (35 in 1906) ranging from ancient history to woodworking and machine shop. In the curriculum, liberty perhaps even greater than at Harvard is allowed as to " electives." Work on some one major subject occupies about one-third of the undergraduate course; the remaining two-thirds (or more) is purely elective. The influence of sectarianism and politics is barred from the university by its charter, and by its private origin and private support. At the same time in its policy it is practically a state university of the most liberal type. Instruction is entirely free. The president of the university has the initiative in all appoint- ments and in all matters of general policy. Within the university faculty power lies in an academic council, and, more particularly, in an advisory board of nine professors, elected by the academic council, to which all propositions of the president are submitted. The growth of the university has been steady, and its conduct careful. David Starr Jordan3 was its first president. See O. H. Elliot and O. V. Eaton, Stanford University and there- abouts (San Francisco, 1896), and the official publications of the university. LELEGES, the name applied by Greek writers to an early people or peoples of which traces were believed to remain in Greek lands. i. In Asia Minor. — In Homer the Leleges are allies of the Trojans, but they do not occur in the formal catalogue in Iliad, 2 The number of women attending the university as students in any semester is limited by the founding grant to 500. 3 President Jordan was born in 1851 at Gainesville, New York; was educated at Cornell, where he taught botany for a time; be- came an assistant to the United States fish commission in 1872; in 1885-1891 was president of the university of Indiana, where from 1879 he had been professor of zoology; and in 1891 was elected president of Leland Stanford Jr. University. An eminent ichthyologist, he wrote, with Barton Warren Evermann (b. 1853), of the United States Bureau of Fisheries, Fishes of North and Middle America (4 vols., 1896-1900), and Food and Game Fishes of North America (1902); and prepared A Guide to the Study of Fishes (1905). LELEWEL— LELONG 407 bk. ii., and their habitat is not specified. They are distinguished from the Carians, with whom some later writers confused them; they have a king Altes, and a town Pedasus which was sacked by Achilles. The name Pedasus occurs (i.) near Cyzicus, (ii.) in the Troad on the Satnioeis river, (iii.) in Caria, as well as (iv.) in Messenia. Alcaeus (7th-6th centuries B.C.) calls An- tandrus in the Troad Lelegian, but Herodotus (sth century) substitutes Pelasgian (q.v.). Gargara in the Troad also counted as Lelegian. Pherecydes (sth century) attributed to Leleges the coast land of Caria from Ephesus to Phocaea, with the islands of Samos and Chios, placing the " true Carians " farther south from Ephesus to Miletus. If this statement be from Pherecydes of Leros (c. 480) it has great weight. In the 4th century, how- ever, Philippus of Theangela in south Caria describes Leleges still surviving as serfs of the true Carians, and Strabo, in the ist century B.C., attributes to the Leleges a well-marked group of deserted forts, tombs and dwellings which ranged (and can still be traced) from the neighbourhood of Theangela and Halicarnassus as far north as Miletus, the southern limit of the " true Carians " of Pherecydes. Plutarch also implies the historic existence of Lelegian serfs at Tralles in the interior. 2. In Greece and the Aegean. — A single passage in the Hesiodic catalogue (fr. 136 Kinkel) places Leleges " in Deucalion's time," i.e. as a primitive people, in Locris in central Greece. Not until the 4th century B.C. does any other writer place them anywhere west of the Aegean. But the confusion of the Leleges with the Carians (immigrant conquerors akin to Lydians and Mysians, and probably to Phrygians) which first appears in a Cretan legend (quoted by Herodotus, but repudiated, as he says, by the Carians themselves) and is repeated by Callisthenes, Apollo- dorus and other later writers, led easily to the suggestion of Callisthenes, that Leleges joined the Carians in their (half legendary) raids on the coasts of Greece. Meanwhile other writers from the 4th century onwards claimed to discover them inBoeotia, west Acarnania (Leucas), and later again in Thessaly, Euboea, Megara, Lacedaemon and Messenia. In Messenia they were reputed immigrant founders of Pylos, and were connected with the seafaring Taphians and Teleboans of Homer, and distinguished from the Pelasgians; in Lacedaemon and in Leucas they were believed to be aboriginal. These European Leleges must be interpreted in connexion with the recurrence of place names like Pedasus, Physcus, Larymna and Abac, (a) in Caria, and (b) in the " Lelegian " parts of Greece; perhaps this is the result of some early migration; perhaps it is also the cause of these Lelegian theories. Modern speculations (mainly corollaries of Indo-Germanic theory) add little of value to the Greek accounts quoted above. H. Kiepert (" Uber den Volksstamm der Leleges," in Monatsber. Berl. Akad., 1861, p. 114) makes the Leleges an aboriginal people akin to Al- banians and Illyrians; K. W. Deimling, Die Leleger (Leipzig, 1862), starts them in south-west Asia Minor, and brings them thence to Greece (practically the Greek view); G. F. Unger, " Hellas in Thes- salien," in Philologus, Suppl. ii. (1863), makes them Phoenician, and derives their name from XaXdftix (cf . the names 0a.pf}apof,Walsche). E. Curtius (History of Greece, i.) distinguished a " Lelegian " phase of nascent Aegean culture. Most later writers follow Deimling. For Strabo's " Lelegian " monuments, cf. Paton and Myres, Journal of Hellenic Studies, xvi. 188-270. (J. L. M.) LELEWEL, JOACHIM (1786-1861), Polish historian, geo- grapher and numismatist, was born at Warsaw on the 22nd of March 1786. His family came from Prussia in the early part of the i Sth century; his grandfather was appointed physician to the reigning king of Poland, and his father caused himself to be naturalized as a Polish citizen. The original form of the name appears to have been Lolhoffel. Joachim was educated at the university of Vilna, and became in 1807 a teacher in a school at Krzemieniec in Volhynia, in 1814 teacher of history at Vilna, and in 1818 professor and librarian at the university of Warsaw. He returned to Vilna in 1821. His lectures enjoyed great popularity, and enthusiasm felt for him by the students is shown in the beautiful lines addressed to him by Mickiewicz. But this very circumstance made him obnoxious to the Russian government, and at Vilna Novosiltsev was then all-powerful. Lelewel was removed from his professorship in 1824, and returned to Warsaw, where he was elected a deputy to the diet in 1829. He joined the revolutionary movement with more enthusiasm than energy, and though the emperor Nicholas I. distinguished him as one of the most dangerous rebels, did not appear to advantage as a man of action. On the suppression of the rebellion he made his way in disguise to Germany, and sub- sequently reached Paris in 1831. The government of Louis Philippe ordered him to quit French territory in 1833 at the request of the Russian ambassador. The cause of this expulsion is said to have been his activity in writing revolutionary pro- clamations. He went to Brussels, where for nearly thirty years he earned a scanty livelihood by his writings. He died on the 2oth of May 1861 in Paris, whither he had removed a few days previously. Lelewel, a man of austere character, simple tastes and the loftiest conception of honour, was a lover of learning for its own sake. His literary activity was enormous, extending from his Edda Skandinawska (1807) to his Geographic des Arabes (2 vols., Paris, 1851). One of his most important publications was La Geographic du moyen Age (5 vols., Brussels, 1852-1857), with an atlas (1849) of fifty plates entirely engraved by himself, for he rightly attached such importance to the accuracy of his maps that he would not allow them to be executed by any one else. His works on Polish history are based on minute and critical study of the documents; they were collected under the title Polska, dzieje i rzeczy jej rozpatrzyivane (Poland, her History and Affairs surveyed), in 20 vols. (Posen, 1853-1876). He in- tended to write a complete history of Poland on an extensive scale, but never accomplished the task. His method is shown in the little history of Poland, first published at Warsaw in Polish in 1823, under the title Dzieje Polski, and afterwards almost rewritten in the Histoire de Pologne (2 vols., Paris, 1844). Other works on Polish history which may be especially mentioned are La Pologne au moyen dge (3 vols., Posen, 1846-1851), an edition of the Chronicle of Matthew Cholewa l (1811) and Ancient Memorials of Polish Legislation (Ksiegi ustaiv polskich i mazo- wieckich). He also wrote on the trade of Carthage, on Pytheas of Marseilles, the geographer, and two important works on numismatics {La Numismatique du moyen Age, Paris, a vols., 1835; Etudes numismatiques, Brussels, 1840). While employed in the university library of Warsaw he studied bibliography, and the fruits of his labours may be seen in his Bibliograficznych Ksiag dwoje (A Couple of Books on Bibliography) ( 2 vols., Vilna, 1823-1826). The characteristics of Lelewel as an historian are great research and power to draw inferences from his facts; his style is too often careless, and his narrative is not picturesque, but his expressions are frequently terse and incisive. He left valuable materials for a just comprehension of his career in the autobiography (Adventures while Prosecuting Researches and Inquiries on Polish Matters) printed in his Polska. LELONG, JACQUES (1665-1721), French bibliographer, was born at Paris on the igth of April 1665. He was a priest of the Oratory, and was librarian to the establishment of the Order in Paris, where he spent his life in seclusion. He died at Paris on the i3th of August 1721. He first published a Bibliotheca sacra (1709), an index of all the editions of the Bible, then a Biblio- theque historique de la France (1719), a volume of considerable size, containing 17,487 items to which Lelong sometimes appends useful notes. His work is far from complete. He vainly hoped that his friend and successor Father Desmolets, would continue it; but it was resumed by Charles-Marie Fevret de Fontette, a councillor of the parlement of Dijon, who spent fifteen years of his life and a great deal of money in rewriting the Bibliotheque historique. The first two volumes (1768 and 1769) contained as many as 29,143 items. Fevret de Fontette died on the 1 6th of February 1772, leaving the third volume almost finished. It appeared in 1772, thanks to Barbaud de La Bruyere, who later brought out the 4th and 5th volumes.(i775 and 1778). 1 I.e. the three first books of the Historia Polonica of Vincentius (Kadlbek), bishop of Cracow (d. 1223), wrongly ascribed by Lelewel to Matthaeus Cholewa, bishop of Cracow. See Potthast, Bibliotheca hist. med. aev., s.v. " Vincentius." 408 LELY— LE MANS In this new edition the Bibliotheque historique is a work of reference of the highest order; it is still of great value. LELY, SIR PETER (1617-1680) English painter, was born at Soest, Westphalia, in 1617. His father, a military captain and a native of Holland, was originally called van der Vaes; the nickname of Le Lys or Lely, by which he was generally known, was adopted by his son as a surname. After studying for two years under Peter de Grebber, an artist of some note at Haarlem, Lely, induced by the patronage of Charles I. for the fine arts, removed to England in 1641. There he at first painted historical subjects and landscape; he soon became so eminent in his profession as to be employed by Charles to paint his portrait shortly after the death of Vandyck. He afterwards portrayed Cromwell. At the Restoration his genius and agreeable manners won the favour of Charles II., who made him his state- painter, and afterwards knighted him. He formed a famous collection, the best of his time, containing drawings, prints and paintings by the best masters; it sold by auction for no less than £26,000. His great example, however, was Vandyck, whom, in some of his most successful pieces, he almost rivals. Lely's paintings are carefully finished, warm and clear in colour- ing, and animated in design. The graceful posture of the heads, the delicate rounding of the hands, and the broad folds of the draperies are admired in many of his portraits. The eyes of the ladies are drowsy with languid sentiment, and allegory of a commonplace sort is too freely introduced. His most famous work is a collection of portraits of the ladies of the court of Charles II., known as " the Beauties," formerly at Windsor Castle, and now preserved at Hampton Court Palace. Of his few historical pictures, the best is " Susannah and the Elders," at Burleigh House. His " Jupiter and Europa," in the duke of Devonshire's collection, is also worthy of note. Lely was nearly as famous for crayon work as for oil-painting. Towards the close of his life he often retired to an estate which he had bought at Kew. He died of apoplexy in the Piazza, Covent Garden, London, and was buried in Covent Garden church, where a monument was afterwards erected to his memory. Pepys characterized Lely as " a mighty proud man and full of state." The painter married an English lady of family, and left a son and daughter, who died young. His only disciples were J. Greenhill and J. Buckshorn; he did not, however, allow them to obtain an insight into his special modes of work. (W. M. R.) LE MAQON (or LE MASSON), ROBERT (c. 1365-1443), chan- cellor of France, was born at Chateau du Loir, Sarthe. He was ennobled in March 1401 , and became six years later a councillor of Louis II., duke of Anjou and king of Sicily. A partisan of the house of Orleans, he was appointed chancellor to Isabella of Bavaria on the 2Qth of January 1414, on the 2oth of July commissary of the mint, and in June 1416 chancellor to the count of Ponthieu, afterwards Charles VII. On the i6th of August he bought the barony of Treves in Anjou, and henceforward bore the title of seigneur of Treves. When Paris was surprised by the Burgundians on the night of the 2gth of May 1418 he assisted Tanguy Duchatel in saving the dauphin. His devotion to the cause of the latter having brought down on him the wrath of John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, he was excluded from the political amnesty known as the peace of Saint Maur des Fosses, though he retained his seat on the king's council. He was by the dauphin's side when John the Fearless was murdered at the bridge of Montereau on the loth of September 1419. He resigned the seals at the beginning of 1422; but he continued to exercise great influence, and in 1426 he effected a reconciliation between the king and the duke of Brittany. Having been captured by Jean de Langeac, seneschal of Auvergne, in August of the same year, he was sfiut up for three months in the chateau of Usson. When set at liberty he returned to court, where he staunchly supported Joan of Arc against all the cabals that menaced her. It was he who signed the patent of nobility for the Arc family in December 1429. In 1430 he was once more entrusted with an embassy to Brittany. Having retired from political life in 1436, he died on the 28th of January 1443, and was interred at Treves, where his epitaph may still be seen. See C. Bourcier, " Robert le Masson," in the Revue historique de I' Anjou (1873); and the Nouvelle biographic gen6rale, vol. xxx. a- v.*) LE MAIRE DE BELGES, JEAN (i473~c. 1525), French poet and historiographer, was born at Bavai in Hainault. He was a nephew of Jean Molinet, and spent some time with him at Valenciennes, where the elder writer held a kind of academy of poetry. Le Maire in his first poems calls himself a disciple of Molinet. In certain aspects he does belong to the school of the grands rhftoriqueurs, but his great merit as a poet is that he emancipated himself from the affectations and puerilities of his masters. This independence of the Flemish school he owed in part perhaps to his studies at the university of Paris and to the study of the Italian poets at Lyons, a centre of the French renascence. In 1503 he was attached to the court of Margaret of Austria, duchess of Savoy, afterwards regent of the Netherlands. For this princess he undertook more than one mission to Rome; he became her librarian and a canon of Valenciennes. To her were addressed his most original poems, Epistres de I'amand verd, the amant vert being a green parrot belonging to his patroness. Le Maire gradually became more French in his sympathies, eventually entering the service of Anne of Brittany. His prose Illustrations des Gaules et singularity de Troye (1510-1512), largely adapted from Benoit de Sainte More, connects the Bur- gundian royal house with Hector. Le Maire probably died before 1525. Etienne Pasquier, Ronsard and Du Bellay all acknow- ledged their indebtedness to him. In his love for antiquity, his sense of rhythm, and even the peculiarities of his vocabulary he anticipated the Pltiade. His works were edited in 1882-1885 by J- Stecher, who wrote the article on him in the Biographic nationale de Belgique. LEMAfTRE, FRANCOIS ELIE JULES (1853- ), French critic and dramatist, was born at Vennecy (Loiret) on the 27th of April 1853. He became a professor at the university of Grenoble, but he had already become known by his literary criticisms, and in 1884 he resigned his position to devote himself entirely to literature. He succeeded J. J. Weiss as dramatic critic of the Journal des Dfbats, and subsequently filled the same office on the Revue des Deux Mondes. His literary studies were collected under the title of Les Contemporains (7 series, 1886- 1899), and his dramatic feuilletons as Impressions de ihtdtre (10 series, 1888-1898). His sketches of modern authors are interesting for the insight displayed in them, the unexpectedness of the judgments and the gaiety and originality of their expression. He published two volumes of poetry: Les Mfdaillons (1880) and F 'elites orienlales (1883); also some volumes of conies, among them En marge des vieux litres (1005). His plays are: Revoltfe (1889), Le depute Leveau, and Le Manage blanc (1891), Les Rois (1893), Le Pardon and L'Age difficile (1895), La Massiere (1005) and Bertrade (1906). He was admitted to the French Academy on the i6th of January 1896. His political views were defined in La Campagne nationalist (1902), lectures delivered in the provinces by him and by G. Cavaignac. He conducted a nationalist campaign in the Echo de Paris, and was for some time president of the Ligue de la Patrie Francaise, but resigned in 1904, and again devoted himself to literature. LE MANS, a town of north-western France, capital of the department of Sarthe, 77 m. S.W. of Chartres on the railway from Paris to Brest. Pop. (1906) town, 54,907, commune, 65,467. It is situated just above the confluence of the Sarthe and the Huisne, on an elevation rising from the left bank of the Sarthe. Several bridges connect the old town and the new quarters which have sprung up round it with the more extensive quarter of Pr£ on the right bank. Modern thoroughfares are gradually superseding the winding and narrow streets of old houses; a tunnel connects the Place des Jacobins with the river side. The cathedral, built in the highest part of the town, was originally founded by St Julian, to whom it is dedicated. The nave dates from the nth and 1 2th centuries. In the I3th century the choir was enlarged in the grandest and boldest style of that period. The transepts, which are higher than the nave, were rebuilt in the isth century, and the bell-tower of the south LE MARCHANT— LEMBERG 409 transept, the lower part of which is Romanesque, was rebuilt in the isth and i6th centuries. Some of the stained glass in the nave, dating from the first half of the I2th century, is the oldest in France; the west window, representing the legend of St Julian, is especially interesting. The south lateral portal (i2th century) is richly decorated, and its statuettes exhibit many costumes of the period. The austere simplicity of the older part of the building is in striking contrast with the lavish richness of the ornamentation in the choir, where the stained glass is especially fine. The rose- window (isth century) of the north transept, representing the Last Judgment, contains many historical figures. The cathedral also has curious tapestries and some remarkable tombs, including that of Berengaria, queen of Richard Coeur de Lion. Close to the western wall is a megalithic monument nearly 15 ft. in height: The church of La Couture, which belonged to an old abbey founded in the 7th century by St Bertrand, has a porch of the I3th century with fine statuary; the rest of the building is older. The church of Notre-Dame du Pre, on the right bank of the Sarthe, is Romanesque in style. The h6tel de ville was built in 1756 on the site of the former castle of the counts of Maine; the prefecture (1760) occupies the site of the monastery of La Couture, and contains the library, the communal archives, and natural history and art collections; there is also an archaeological museum. Among the old houses may be mentioned the H6tel du Grabatoire of the Renaissance, once a hospital for the canons and the so-called house of Queen Berengaria (i6th century), meeting place of the historical and archaeological society of Maine. A monument to General Chanzy commemorates the battle of Le Mans (1871). Le Mans is the seat of a bishopric dating from the $rd century, of a prefect, and of a court of assizes, and headquarters of the IV. army corps. It has also tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a council of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, a branch of the Bank of France, an exchange, a lycee for boys, training colleges, a higher ecclesiastical seminary and a school of music. The town has a great variety of industries, carried on chiefly in the southern suburb of Pontlieue. The more important are the state manufacture of tobacco, the preparation of preserved vegetables, fish, &c., tanning, hemp-spinning, bell-founding, flour-milling, the founding of copper and other metals, and the manufacture of railway wagons, machinery and engineering material, agri- cultural implements, rope, cloth and stained glass. The fatten- ing of poultry is an important local industry, and there is trade in cattle, wine, cloth, farm-produce, &c. The town is an important railway centre. As the capital of the Aulerci Cenomanni, Le Mans was called Suindinum or Vindinum. The Romans built walls round it in the 3rd century, and traces of them are still to be seen close to the left bank of the river near the cathedral. In the same century the town was evangelized by St Julian, who became its first bishop. Ruled at first by his successors — notably St Aldric — Le Mans passed in the middle ages to the counts of Maine (q.v.), whose capital and residence it became. About the middle of the nth century the citizens secured a communal charter, but in 1063 the town was seized by William the Conqueror, who deprived them of their liberties, which were recovered when the countship of Maine had passed to the Plantagenet kings of England. Le Mans was taken by Philip Augustus in 1189, recaptured by John, subsequently confiscated and later ceded to Queen Beren- garia, who did much for its prosperity. It was several times besieged in the isth and i6th centuries. In 1793 it was seized by the Vendeans, who were expelled by the Republican generals Marceau and Westermann after a stubborn battle in the streets. In 1709 it was again occupied by the Chouans. The battle of Le Mans (ioth-i2th January 1871) was the culminating point of General Chanzy's fighting retreat into western France after the winter campaign in Beauce and Perche (see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR). The numerous, but ill-trained and ill-equipped, levies of the French were followed up by Prince Frederick Charles with the German II. Army, now very much weakened but consisting of soldiers who had in six months' active warfare acquired the self-confidence of veterans. The Germans advanced with three army corps in first line and one in reserve. On the pth of January the centre corps (III.) drove an advanced division of the French from Ardenay (13 m. E. of Le Mans). On the loth of January Chanzy's main defensive position was approached. Its right wing was east of the Sarthe and 3-5 m. from Le Mans, its centre on the heights of Anvours with the river Huisne behind it, and its left scattered along the western bank of the same river as far as Montfort (12 m. E.N.E. of Le Mans) and thence northward for some miles. On the loth there was a severe struggle for the villages along the front of the French centre. On the nth Chanzy attempted a counter- offensive from many points, but owing to the misbehaviour of certain of his rawest levies, the Germans were able to drive him back, and as their cavalry now began to appear beyond his extreme left flank, he retreated in the night of the nth on Laval, the Germans occupying Le Mans after a brief rearguard fight on the 1 2th. LE MARCHANT, JOHN GASPARD (1766-1812), English major-general, was the son of an officer of dragoons, John Le Marchant, a member of an old Guernsey family. After a some- what wild youth, Le Marchant, who entered the army in 1781, attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel in 1797. Two years before this he had designed a new cavalry sword; and in 1801 his scheme for establishing at High Wycombe and Great Marlow schools for the military instruction of officers was sanctioned by Parliament, and a grant of £30,000 was voted for the " royal military college," the two original departments being afterwards combined and removed to Sandhurst. Le Marchant was the first lieutenant-governor, and during the nine years that he held this appointment he trained many officers who served with distinction under Wellington in the Peninsula. Le Marchant himself was given the command of a cavalry brigade in 1810, and greatly distinguished himself in several actions, being killed at the battle of Salamanca on the 22nd of July 1812, after the charge of his brigade had had an important share in the English victory. He wrote several treatises on cavalry tactics and other military subjects, but few of them were published. By his wife, Mary, daughter of John Carey of Guernsey, Le Marchant had four sons and six daughters. His second son, SIR DENIS LE MARCHANT, Bart. (1795-1874), was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge, and was called to the bar in 1823. In 1830 he became secretary to Lord Chancellor Brougham, and in the Reform Bill debates made himself exceedingly useful to the ministers. Having been secretary to the board of trade from 1836 to 1841, he was created a baronet in 1841. He entered the House of Commons in 1846, and was under secretary for the home department in the govern- ment of Lord John Russell. He was chief clerk of the House of Commons from 1850 to 1871. He published a Life of his father in 1841, and began a Life of Lord Althorpe which was completed after his death by his son; he also edited Horace Walpole's Memoirs of the Reign of George III. (1845). Sir Denis Le Marchant died in London on the 3Oth of October 1874. The third son of General Le Marchant, SIR JOHN GASPARD LE MARCHANT (1803-1874), entered the English army, and saw service in Spain in the Carlist War of 1835-37. He was after- wards lieutenant-governor of Newfoundland (1847-1852) and of Nova Scotia (1852-1857); governor of Malta (1859-1864); commander-in-chief at Madras (1865-1868). He was made K.C.B. in 1865, and died on the 6th of February 1874. See Sir Denis Le Marchant, Memoirs of General Le Marchant (1841); Sir William Napier, History of the War in the Peninsula (6 vols., 1828-1840). LEMBERG (Pol. Lw6w, Lat. Leopolis), the capital of the crownland of Galicia, Austria, 468 m. N.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 159,618, of whom over 80% were Poles, 10% Germans, and 8% Ruthenians; nearly 30% of the population were Jews. According to population Lemberg is the fourth city in the Austrian empire, coming after Vienna, Prague and Trieste. Lemberg is situated on the small river Peltew, an affluent of the Bug, in a valley in the Sarmatian plateau, and is surrounded by hills. It is composed of the inner town and of four suburbs. 410 LEMERCIER— LEMERY The inner town was formerly fortified, but the fortifications were transformed into pleasure grounds in 1811. Lemberg is the residence of Roman Catholic, Greek Catholic and Armenian archbishops, and contains three cathedrals. The Roman Catholic cathedral was finished by Casimir IV. in 1480 in Gothic style; near it is a chapel (1609) remarkable for its architecture and sculpture. The Greek cathedral, built in 1740-1779 in the Basilica style, is situated on a height which dominates the town. The Armenian cathedral was built in 1437 in the Armenian- Byzantine style. The Dominican church, built in 1749 after the model of St Peter's at Rome, contains a monument by Thorvaldsen to the Countess Dunin-Borkowska; the Greek St Nicholas church was built in 1292; and the Roman Catholic St Mary church was built in 1363 by the first German settlers. The town hall (1828-1837) with a tower 250 ft. high is situated in the middle of a square. Also notable are the hall of the estates (1877-1881), the industrial museum, the theatre, the palace of the Roman Catholic archbishop and several educational establishments. There are many beautiful private buildings, broad and well-paved streets, numerous squares and public gardens. At the head of the educational institutions stands the university, founded in 1784 by Joseph II., transformed into a lycee in 1803, and restored and reorganized in 1817. Since 1871 the language of instruction has been Polish, and in 1901 the university had no lecturers, and was attended by 2060 students. There are also a polytechnic, gymnasia— for Poles, Ruthenians and Germans respectively — seminaries for priests, training colleges for teachers, and other special and technical schools. In Lemberg is the National Institute founded by Count Ossolinski, which contains a library of books and manuscripts relating chiefly to the history and literature of Poland, valuable anti- quarian and scientific collections, and a printing establishment; also the Dzieduszycki museum with collections of natural history and ethnography relating chiefly to Galicia. Industrially and commercially Lemberg is the most important city in Galicia, its industries including the manufacture of machinery and iron wares, matches, stearin candles and naphtha, arrack and liqueurs, chocolate, chicory, leather and plaster of Paris, as well as brewing, corn-milling and brick and tile making. It has important commerce in linen, flax, hemp, wool and seeds, and a considerable transit trade. Of the well-wooded hills which surround Lemberg, the most important is the Franz- Josef-Berg to the N.E., with an altitude of 1310 ft. Several beautiful parks have been laid out on this hill. Leopolis was founded about 1259 by the Ruthenian prince Leo Danilowicz, who moved here his residence from Halicz in 1270. From Casimir the Great, who captured it in 1340, it received the Magdeburg rights, and for almost two hundred years the public records were kept in German. In 141 2 it became the see of a Roman Catholic archbishopric, and from 1432 until 1772 it was the capital of the Polish province of Reussen (Terra Russia). During the whole period of Polish supremacy it was a most important city, and after the fall of Constantinople it greatly developed its trade with the East. In 1648 and 1655 it was besieged by the Cossacks, and in 1672 by the Turks. Charles XII. of Sweden captured it in 1704. In 1848 it was bombarded. LEMERCIER, LOUIS JEAN NEPOMUCENE (1771-1840), French poet and dramatist, was born in Paris on the 2ist of April 1771. His father had been intendant successively to the due de Penthievre, the comte de Toulouse and the unfortunate princesse de Lamballe, who was the boy's godmother. Lemercier showed great precocity; before he was sixteen his tragedy of Meliagre was produced at the Theatre Franqais. Clarissa Harlowe (1792) provoked the criticism that the author was not assez rout pour peindre les roueries. Le Tartufe revolutionnaire, a parody full of the most audacious political allusions, was suppressed after the fifth representation. In 1795 appeared Lemercier's masterpiece Agamemnon, called by Charles Labitte the last great antique tragedy in French literature. It was a great success, but was violently attacked later by Geoffrey, who stigmatized it as a bad caricature of Crebillon. Quatre metamorphoses (1799) was written to prove that the most indecent subjects might be treated without offence. The Pinto (1800) was the result of a wager that no further dramatic innovations were possible after the comedies of Beaumarchais. It is a historical comedy on the subject of the Portuguese revolution of 1640. This play was construed as casting reflections on the first consul, who had hitherto been a firm friend of Lemercier. His extreme freedom of speech finally offended Napoleon, and the quarrel proved disastrous to Lemercier's fortune for the time. None of his subsequent work fulfilled the expectations raised by Agamemnon, with the exception perhaps of Fredegonde el Brunehaut (1821). In 1810 he was elected to the Academy, where he consistently opposed the romanticists, refusing to give his vote to Victor Hugo. In spite of this, he has some pretensions to be considered the earliest of the romantic school. His Christophe Colomb (1809), advertised on the playbill as a comedie shakespirienne (sic), represented the interior of a ship, and showed no respect for the unities. Its numerous innovations provoked such violent disturbances in the audience that one person was killed and future representations had to be guarded by the police. Lemercier wrote four long and ambitious epic poems: Homere, Alexandre (1801), L' Atlanliade, ou la theogonie newtonienne (1812) and Mo'ise (1823), as well as an extraordinary Panhypocrisiade (1810-1832), a distinctly romantic production in twenty cantos, which has the sub-title Spectacle infernal du XVI' siecle. In it 16th-century history, with Charles V. and Francis I. as principal personages, is played out on an imaginary stage by demons in the intervals of their sufferings. Lemercier died on the 7th of June 1840 in Paris. LEMERY, NICOLAS (1645-1715), French chemist, was born at Rouen on the I7th of November 1645. After learning pharmacy in his native town he became a pupil of C. Glaser's in Paris, and then went to Montpellier, where he began to lecture on chemistry. He ne'xt established a pharmacy in Paris, still continuing his lectures, but in 1683, being a Calvinist, he was obliged to retire to England. In the following year he returned to France, and turning Catholic in 1686 was able to reopen his shop and resume his lectures. He died in Paris on the i9th of June 1715. Lemery did not concern himself much with theoretical speculations, but holding chemistry to be a demonstrative science, confined himself to the straightforward exposition of facts and experiments. In consequence, his lecture-room was thronged with people of all sorts, anxious to hear a man who shunned the barren obscurities of the alchemists, and did not regard the quest of the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life as the sole end of his science. Of his Cours de chymie (1675) he lived to see 13 editions, and for a century it maintained its reputation as a standard work. His other publications included Pharmacopee universelle (1697), Traits universel des drogues simples (1698), Traits de I'antimoine (1707), together with a number of papers contributed to the French Academy, one of which offered a chemical and physical explanation of underground fires, earthquakes, lightning and thunder. He discovered that heat is evolved when iron filings and sulphur are rubbed together to a paste with water, and the artificial volcan de Lemery was produced by burying underground a considerable quantity of this mixture, which he regarded as a potent agent in the causation of volcanic action. His son Louis (1677-1743) was appointed physician at the H6tel Dieu in 1710, and became demonstrator of chemistry at the Jardin du Roi in 1731. He was the author of a Traite des aliments (1702), and of a Dissertation sur la nature des os (1704), as well as of a number of papers on chemical topics. LEMERY, a town of the province of Batangas, Luzon, Philip- pine Islands, on the Gulf of Balayan and the Pansipit river, opposite Taal (with which it is connected by a bridge), and about 50 m. S. of Manila. Pop. of the municipality (1903) 11,150. It has a fine church and convent. Lemery is situated on a plain in a rich agricultural district, which produces rice, Indian corn, sugar and cotton, and in which horses and cattle are bred. It is also a port for coasting vessels, and has an important trade with various parts of the archipelago. The language is Tagalog. LEMGO— LEMMING 411 LEMGO, a town of Germany, in the principality of Lippe, in a broad and fertile plain, 9 m. N. from Detmold and on the railway Hameln-Lage. Pop. (1900) 8840. Its somewhat gloomy aspect, enhanced by the tortuous narrow lanes flanked by gabled houses of the isth century, has gained for it among countryfolk the sobriquet of the " Witches' nest " (Hexen-Nest). It is replete with interest for the antiquarian. It has four Evangelical churches, two with curiously leaning, lead-covered spires; an old town-hall; a gymnasium; and several philan- thropic and religious institutions. Among the latter is the Jungfrauenstift, of which a princess of the reigning house of Lippe-Detmold has always been lady superior since 1306. The chief industry of Lemgo is the manufacture of meerschaum pipes, which has attained here a high pitch of excellence; other industries are weaving, brewing and the manufacture of leather and cigars. The town was a member of the Hanseatic league. LEMIERRE, ANTOINE MARIN (1733-1793), French drama- tist and poet, was born in Paris on the i2th of January 1733. His parents were poor, hut Lemierre found a patron in the collector-general of taxes, Dupin, whose secretary he became. Lemierre gained his first success on the stage with Hypermnestre (1758); Teree (1761) and Idomenee (1764) failed on account of the subjects. Artaxerce, modelled on Metastasio, and Guillaume Tell were produced in 1766; other successful tragedies were La Veuve de Malabar (1770) and Barnavell (1784). Lemierre revived Guillaume Tell in 1786 with enormous success. After the Revolution he professed great remorse for the production of a play inculcating revolutionary principles, and there is no doubt that the horror of the excesses he witnessed hastened his death, which took place on the 4th of July 1793. He had been admitted to the Academy in 1781. Lemierre published La Peinture (1769), based on a Latin poem by the abbe de Marsy, and a poem in six cantos, Les Pastes, ou les usages de I'annee (1779), an unsatisfactory imitation of Ovid's Fasti, His (Euvres (1810) contain a notice of Lemierre by R. Perrin. and his (Euvres choisies (1811) one by F. Fayolle. LEMIRE, JULES AUGUSTE (1853- ), French priest and social reformer, was born at Vieux-Berquin (Nord) on the 23rd of April 1853. He was educated at the college of St Francis of Assisi, Hazebrouck, where he subsequently taught philosophy and rhetoric. In 1897 he was elected deputy for Hazebrouck and was returned unopposed at the elections of 1898, 1902 and 1906. He organized a society called La Ligue du coin de terre et du foyer, the object of which was to secure, at the expense of the state, a piece of land for every French family desirous of possess- ing one. The abbe Lemire sat in the chamber of deputies as a conservative republican and Christian Socialist. He protested in 1893 against the action of the Dupuy cabinet in closing the Bourse du Travail, characterizing it as the expression of " a policy of disdain of the workers." In December 1893 he was seriously injured by the bomb thrown by the anarchist Vaillant from the gallery of the chamber. LEMMING, the native name of a small Scandinavian rodent mammal Lemmus norvegicus (or L. lemmus), belonging to the mouse tribe, or Muridae, and nearly related, especially in the structure of its cheek-teeth, to the voles. Specimens vary considerably in size and colour, but the usual length is about 5 in., and the soft fur yellowish-brown, marked with spots of dark brown and black. It has a short, rounded head, obtuse muzzle, small bead-like eyes, and short rounded ears, nearly concealed by the fur. The tail is very short. The feet are small, each with five claws, those of the fore feet strongest, and fitted for scratching and digging. The usual habitat of lemmings is the high lands or fells of the great central mountain chain of Norway and Sweden, from the southern branches of the Langfjeldene in Christiansand stiff to the North Cape and the Varangerfjord. South of the Arctic circle they are, under ordinary circumstances, confined to the plateaus covered with dwarf birch and juniper above the conifer-region, though in Tromso ami and in Finmarken they occur in all suitable localities down to the level of the sea. The nest, under a tussock of grass or a stone, is constructed of short dry straws, and usually lined with hair. The number of young in each nest is generally five, sometimes only three, occasionally seven or eight, and at least two broods are produced annually. Their food is entirely vegetable, especially grass roots and stalks, shoots of dwarf birch, reindeer lichens and mosses, in search of which they form, in winter, long galleries through the turf or under the snow. They are restless, courageous and pugnacious little animals. When suddenly disturbed, instead of trying to escape they sit upright, with their back against a stone, hissing and showing fight in a determined manner. The circumstance which has given popular interest to the lemming is that certain districts of the cultivated lands of Norway and Sweden, where in ordinary circumstances they are unknown, are, at uncertain intervals varying from five to twenty or more years, overrun by an army of these little creatures, which steadily and slowly advance, always in the same direction, and regardless of all obstacles, swimming streams and even lakes of several miles in breadth, and committing considerable devasta- tion on their line of march by the quantity of food they consume. In their turn they are pursued and harassed by crowds of beasts The Norwegian Lemming (Lemmus Norvegicus). and birds of prey, as bears, wolves, foxes, dogs, wild cats, stoats, weasels, eagles, hawks and owls, and never spared by man; even domestic animals, as cattle, goats and reindeer, join in the destruction, stamping them to the ground with their feet, and even eating their bodies. Numbers also die from diseases produced apparently from overcrowding. None returns, and the onward march of the survivors never ceases until they reach the sea, into which they plunge, and swimming onwards in the same direction perish in the waves. These sudden appearances of vast bodies of lemmings, and their singular habit of persistently pursuing the same onward course of migration, have given rise to various speculations, from the ancient belief of the Norwegian peasants, shared by Olaus Magnus, that they fall down from the clouds, to the hypothesis that they are acting in obedience to an instinct inherited from ancient times, and still seeking the congenial home in the submerged Atlantis, to which their ancestors of the Miocene period were wont to resort when driven from their ordinary dwelling-places by crowding or scarcity of food. The principal facts regarding these migrations seem to be as follows. When any combination of circumstances has occa- sioned an increase of the numbers of the lemmings in their ordinary dwelling-places, impelled by the restless or migratory instinct possessed in a less developed degree by so many of their congeners, a movement takes place at the edge of the elevated plateau, and a migration towards the lower-lying land begins. The whole body moves forward slowly, always advancing in the LEMNISCATE— LEMNOS same general direction in which they originally started, but following more or less the course of the great valleys. They only travel by night; and, staying in congenial places for considerable periods, with unaccustomed abundance of provender, notwith- standing the destructive influences to which they are exposed, they multiply excessively during their journey, having families more numerous and frequent than in their usual homes. The progress may last from one to three years, according to the route taken, and the distance to be traversed until the sea-coast is reached, which in a country so surrounded by water as the Scandinavian peninsula must be the ultimate goal of such a journey. This may be either the Atlantic or the Gulf of Bothnia, according as the migration has commenced from the west or the east side of the central elevated plateau. Those that finally perish in the sea, committing what appears to be a voluntary suicide, are only acting under the same blind impulse which has led them previously to cross shallower pieces of water with safety. In Eastern Europe, Northern Asia and North America the group is represented by the allied L. obensis, and in Alaska, by L. nigripes', while the circumpolar banded lemming, Dicrostonyx torquatus, which turns white in winter, represents a second genus taking its name from the double claws on one of the toes of the forefeet. For habits of lemmings, see R. Collett, Myodes lemmus, its habits and migrations in Norway (Christiania Videnskabs-Selskabs For- handlinger, 1895). (W. H. F.; R. L.*) LEMNISCATE (from Gr. \rnu>i0Kos, ribbon), a quartic curve invented by Jacques Bernoulli (Ada Eniditorum, 1694) and afterwards investigated by Giulio Carlo Fagnano, who gave its principal properties and applied it to effect the division of a quadrant into 2-2m, 3- 2™ and 5-2m equal parts. Following Archimedes, Fagnano desired the curve to be engraved on his tombstone. The complete analytical treatment was first given by Leonhard Euler. The lemniscate of Bernoulli may be defined as the locus of a point which moves so that the product of its distances from two fixed points is constant and is equal to the square of half the distance between these points. It is therefore a particular form of Cassini's oval (see OVAL). Its cartesian equation, when the line joining the two fixed points is the axis of x and the middle point of this line is the origin, is (x2 + :V2)2 = 2, which shows o|o FIG. i. FIG. 2. FIG. 3. that it is the first positive pedal of a rectangular hyperbola with regard to the centre. It is also the inverse of the same curve for the same point. It is the envelope of circles described on the central radii of an ellipse as diameters. The area of the complete curve is 2a2, and the length of any arc may be expressed in the form f(i-x*)~ldx, an elliptic integral sometimes termed the lemniscatic integral. The name lemniscate is sometimes given to any crunodal quartic curve having only one real finite branch which is symmetric about the axis. Such curves are given by the equation xi—y2 = axi + bx'yt+cy*. If a be greater than 6 the curve resembles fig. 2 and is sometimes termed the fishtail-lemniscate ; if a be less than b, the curve resembles fig. 3. The same name is also given to the first positive pedal of any central conic. When the conic is a rectangular hyper- bola, the curve is the lemniscate of FIG. 4. FIG. 5. Bernoulli previously described. The elliptic lemniscate has for its equation (x2+y2)2 = oV-|-62y2 or r2 = o2 cos29+62 sin2* (a>6). The centre is a conjugate point (or acnode) and the curve resembles fig. 4. The hyperbolic lemniscate has for its equation (x:2+y2)2 = o2x2 — Wy* or r2 = a2 cos20 — ft2 sin2 0. In this case the centre is a crunode and the curve resembles fig. 5. These curves are instances of unicursal bicircular quartics. LEMNOS (mod. Limnos), an island in the northern part of the Aegean Sea. The Italian form of the name, Stalimene, i.e. is ryv A.TJ/J.VOV, is not used in the island itself, but is commonly employed in geographical works. The island, which belongs to Turkey, is of considerable size: Pliny says that the coast-line measured 112! Roman miles, and the area has been estimated at 150 sq. m. Great part is mountainous, but some very fertile valleys exist, to cultivate which 2000 yoke of oxen are employed. The hill-sides afford pasture for 20,000 sheep. No forests exist on the island; all wood is brought from the coast of Rumelia or from Thasos. A few mulberry and fruit trees grow, but no olives. The population is estimated by some as high as 27,000, of whom 2000 are Turks and the rest Greeks, but other authorities doubt whether it reaches more than half this number. The chief towns are Kastro on the western coast, with a population of 4000 Greeks and 800 Turks, and Mudros on the southern coast. Kastro possesses an excellent harbour, and is the seat of all the trade carried on with the island. Greek, English and Dutch consuls or consular agents were formerly stationed there; but the whole trade is now in Greek hands. The archbishops of Lemnos and Ai Strati, a small neighbouring island with 2000 inhabitants, resides in Kastro. In ancient times the island was sacred to Hephaestus, who as the legend tells fell on Lemnos when his father Zeus hurled him headlong out of Olympus. This tale, as well as the name Aethaleia, sometimes applied to it, points to its volcanic character. It is said that fire occasionally blazed forth from Mosychlos, one of its mountains; and Pausanias (viii. 33) relates that a small island called Chryse, off the Lemnian coast, was swallowed up by the sea. All volcanic action is now extinct. The most famous product of Lemnos is the medicinal earth, which is still used by the natives. At one time it was popular over western Europe under the name terra sigillata. This name, like the Gr. \-rnivia. payis, is derived from the stamp impressed on each piece of the earth; in ancient times the stamp was the head of Artemis. The Turks now believe that a vase of this earth destroys the effect of any poison drunk from it — a belief which the ancients attached rather to the earth from Cape Kolias in Attica. Galen went to see the digging up of this earth (see Kuhn, Medic. Gr. Opera, xii. 172 sq.) ; on one day in each year a priestess performed the due ceremonies, and a waggon-load of earth was dug out. At the present time the day selected is the 6th of August, the feast of Christ the Saviour. Both the Turkish hodja and the Greek priest are present to perform the necessary ceremonies; the whole process takes place before daybreak. The earth is sold by apothecaries in stamped cubical blocks. The hill from which the earth is dug is a dry mound, void of vegetation, beside the village of Kotschinos, and about two hours from the site of Hephaestia. The earth was considered in ancient times a cure for old festering wounds, and for the bite of poisonous snakes. The name Lemnos is said by Hecataeus (ap. Steph. Byz.) to have been a title of Cybele among the Thracians, and the earliest inhabitants are said to have been a Thracian tribe, called by the Greeks Sinties, i.e. " the robbers." According to a famous legend the women were all deserted by their husbands, and in revenge murdered every man on the island. From this barbarous act, the expression Lemnian deeds, Arifivta. e/rya, became pro- verbial. The Argonauts landing soon after found only women in the island, ruled over by Hypsipyle, daughter of the old king Thoas. From the Argonauts and the Lemnian women were descended the race called Minyae, whose king Euneus, son of Jason and Hypsipyle, sent wine and provisions to the Greeks at Troy. The Minyae were expelled by a Pelasgian tribe who came from Attica. The historical element underlying these traditions is probably that the original Thracian people were gradually brought into communication with the Greeks as navigation began to unite the scattered islands of the Aegean (see JASON); the Thracian inhabitants were barbarians in comparison with the Greek mariners. The worship of Cybele was characteristic of Thrace, whither it spread from Asia Minor at a very early period, and it deserves notice that Hypsipyle and Myrina (the name of one of the chief towns) are Amazon names, which are always connected with Asiatic Cybele-worship. Coming down to a better authenticated period, we find that Lemnos was conquered by Otanes, one of the generals of Darius LEMOINNE— LEMON Hystaspis; but was soon reconquered by Miltiades, the tyrant of the Thracian Chersonese. Miltiades afterwards returned to Athens, and Lemnos continued an Athenian possession till the Macedonian empire absorbed it. On the vicissitudes of its history in the 3rd century B.C. see Kohler in MittheU. Inst. Athen. i. 261 The Romans declared it free in 197 B.C., but gave it over in 166 to Athens, which retained nominal possession of it till the whole of Greece was made a Roman province. A colony of Attic cleruchs was established by Pericles, and many inscriptions on the island relate to Athenians. After the division of the empire, Lemnos passed under the Byzantine emperors; it shared in the vicissitudes of the eastern provinces, being alternately in the power of Greeks, Italians and Turks, till finally the Turkish sultans became supreme in the Aegean. In 1476 the Venetians successfully defended Kotschinos against a Turkish siege; but in 1657 Kastro was captured by the Turks from the Venetians after a siege of sixty-three days. Kastro was again besieged by the Russians in 1770. Homer speaks as if there were one town in the island called Lemnos, but in historical times there was no such place. There were two towns, Myrina, now Kastro, and Hephaestia. The latter was the chief town; its coins are found in considerable number, the types being sometimes the Athenian goddess and her owl, sometimes native religious symbols, the caps of the Dioscuri, Apollo, &c. Few coins of Myrina are known. They belong to the period of Attic occupation, and bear Athenian types. A few coins are also known which bear the name, not of either city, but of the whole island. Conze was the first to discover the site of Hephaestia, at a deserted place named Palaeokastro on the east coast. It had once a splendid harbour, which is now filled up. Its situation on the east explains why Miltiades attacked it first when he came from the Chersonese. It surrendered at once, whereas Myrina, with its very strong citadel built on a perpendicular rock, sustained a siege. It is said that the shadow of Mount Athos fell at sunset on a bronze cow in the agora of Myrina. Pliny says that Athos was 87 m. to the north-west; but the real distance is about 40 English miles. One legend localized in Lemnos still requires notice. Philoctetes was left there by the Greeks on their way to Troy; and there he suffered ten years' agony from his wounded foot, until Ulysses and Neoptolemus induced him to accompany them to Troy. He is said by Sophocles to have lived beside Mount Hermaeus, which Aeschylus (Agam. 262) makes one of the beacon points to flash the news of Troy's downfall home to Argos. See Rhode, Res Lemnicae ; Conze, Reise auf den Inseln des Thrak- ischen Meeres (from which the above-mentioned facts about the present state of the island are taken) ; also Hunt in Walpole's Travels; Belon du Mans, Observations de plusieurs singularitez, &c. ; Finlay, Greece under the Romans; von Hammer, Gesch. des Osman. Reiches; Gott. Gel. Anz. (1837). The chief references in ancient writers are Iliad i. 593, v. 138, xiv. 229, &c. ; Herod, iv. 145; Str. pp. 124, 330; Plin. iv. 23, xxxvi. 13. LEMOINNE, JOHN EMILE (1815-1892), French journalist, was born of French parents, in London, on the i7th of October 1815. He was educated first at an English school and then in France. In 1840 he began writing for the Journal des debats, on English and other foreign questions, and under the empire he held up to admiration the free institutions of England by contrast with imperial methods. After 1871 he supported Thiers, but his sympathies rather tended towards a liberalized monarchy, until the comte de Chambord's policy made such a development an impossibility, and he then ranged himself with the moderate Republicans. In 1875 Lemoinne was elected to the French Academy, and in 1880 he was nominated a life senator. Distinguished though he was for a real knowledge of England among the French journalists who wrote on foreign affairs, his tone towards English policy greatly changed in later days, and though he never shared the extreme French bitterness against England as regards Egypt, he maintained a critical attitude which served to stimulate French Anglophobia. He was a frequent contributor to the Revue des deux mond.es, and published several books, the best known of which is his JLtudes critiques et biographiques (1862). He died in Paris on the I4th of December 1892. LEMON, MARK (1800-1870), editor of Punch, was born in London on the 3oth of November 1809. He had a natural talent for journalism and the stage, and, at twenty-six, retired from less congenial business to devote himself to the writing of plays. More than sixty of his melodramas, operettas and comedies were produced in London. At the same time he contributed to a variety of magazines and newspapers, and founded and edited the Field. In 1841 Lemon and Henry Mayhew conceived the idea of a humorous weekly paper to be called Punch, and when the first number was issued, in July 1841, were joint-editors and, with the printer and engraver, equal owners. The paper was for some time unsuccessful, Lemon keeping it alive out of the profits of his plays. On the sale of Punch Lemon became sole editor for the new proprietors, and it remained under his control until his death, achieving remarkable popularity and influence. Lemon was an actor of ability, a pleasing lecturer and a success- ful impersonator of Shakespearian characters. He also wrote a host of novelettes and lyrics, over a hundred songs, a few three-volume novels, several Christmas fairy tales and a volume of jests. He died at Crawley, Sussex, on the 23rd of May 1870. LEMON, the fruit of Citrus Limonum, which is regarded by some botanists as a variety of Citrus medico,. The wild stock of the lemon tree is said to be a native of the valleys of Kumaon and Sikkim in the North-West provinces of India, ascending to a height of 4000 ft., and occurring under several forms. Sir George Watt (Dictionary of Economic Products of India, ii. 352) regards the wild plants as wild forms of the lime or citron and considers it highly probable that the wild form of the lemon has not yet been discovered. The lemon seems to have been unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans, and to have been introduced by the Arabs FIG. i. — Lemon — Citrus Limonum. 1. Flowering shoot; j nat. size. 2, Flower with two petals and two bundles of stamens re- moved ; slightly enlarged. 3, Fruit; 5 nat. size. 4, Same cut across. 5, Seed; f nat. size. 6, Same cut lengthwise. into Spain between the i2th and I3th centuries. In 1494 the fruit was cultivated in the Azores, and largely shipped to England, but since 1838 the exportation has ceased. As a cultivated plant the lemon is now met with throughout the Mediterranean region, in Spain and Portugal, in California and Florida, and in almost all tropical and subtropical countries. Like the apple and pear, it varies exceedingly under cultivation. Risso and Poiteau enumerate forty-seven varieties of this fruit, although they maintain as distinct the sweet lime, C. Limelta, with eight varieties, and the sweet lemon, C. Lumia, with twelve varieties, which differ only in the fruit possessing an insipid instead of an acid juice. The lemon is more delicate than the orange, although, according to Humboldt, both require an annual mean temperature of 62° Fahr. 414 LEMON Unlike the orange, which presents a fine close head of deep green foliage, it forms a straggling bush, or small tree, 10 to 12 ft. high, with paler, more scattered leaves, and short angular branches with sharp spines in the axils. The flowers, which possess a sweet odour quite distinct from that of the orange, are in part hermaphrodite and in part unisexual, the outside of the corolla having a purplish hue. The fruit, which is usually crowned with a nipple, consists of an outer rind or peel, the surface of which is more or less rough from the convex oil receptacles imbedded in it, and of a white inner rind, which is spongy and nearly tasteless, the whole of the interior of the fruit being filled with soft parenchymatous tissue, divided into about ten to twelve compartments, each generally containing two or three seeds. The white inner rind varies much in thickness in different kinds, but is never so thick as in the citron. As lemons are much more profitable to grow than oranges, on account of their keeping properties, and from their being less liable to injury during voyages, the cultivation of the lemon is preferred in Italy wherever it will succeed. In damp valleys it is liable like the orange (q.v. ) to be attacked by a fungus sooty mould, the stem, leaves, and fruit becoming covered with a blackish dust. This is coincident with or subsequent to the attacks of a small oval brown insect, Chermes hesperidum. Trees not properly exposed to sunlight and air suffer most severely from these pests. Syringing with resin-wash or milk of lime when the young insects are hatched, and before they have fixed themselves to the plant, is a preventive. Since 1 875 this fungoid disease has made great r.avages in Sicily among the lemon and citron trees, especially around Catania and Messina. Heritte attributes the prevalence of the disease to the fact that the growers have induced an unnatural degree of fertility in the trees, permitting them to bear enormous crops year after year. This loss of vitality is in some measure met by grafting healthy scions of the lemon on the bitter orange, but trees so grafted do not bear fruit until they are eight or ten years old. The lemon tree is exceedingly fruitful, a large one in Spain or Sicily ripening as many as three thousand fruits in favourable seasons. In the south of Europe lemons are collected more or less during every month of the year, but in Sicily the chief harvest takes place from the end of October to the end of December, those gathered during the last two months of the year being considered the best for keeping purposes. The fruit is gathered while still green. After collection the finest specimens are picked out and packed in cases, each containing about four hundred and twenty fruits, and also in boxes, three of which are equal to two cases, each lemon being separately packed in paper. The remainder, consisting of ill-shaped or unsound fruits, are reserved for the manufacture of essential oil and juice. The whole of the sound lemons are usually packed in boxes, but those which are not exported immediately are carefully picked over and the unsound ones removed before shipment. The exporta- tion is continued as required until April and May. The large lemons with a rougher rind, which appear in the London market in July and August, are grown at Sorrento near Naples, and are allowed to remain on the trees until ripe. - Candied lemon peel is usually made in England from a larger variety of the lemon cultivated in Sicily on higher ground than the common kind, from which it is distinguished by its thicker rind and larger size. This kind, known as the Spadaforese lemon, is also allowed to remain on the trees until ripe, and when gathered the fruit is cut in half longitudinally and pickled in brine, before being exported in casks. Before candying the lemons are soaked in fresh water to remove the salt. Citrons are also exported from Sicily in the same way, but these are about six times as expensive as lemons, and a comparatively small quantity is shipped. Besides those exported from Messina and Palermo, lemons are also imported into England to a less extent from the Riviera of Genoa, and from Malaga in Spain, the latter being the most esteemed. Of the numerous varieties the wax lemon, the imperial lemon and the Gaeta lemon are considered to be the best. Lemons are also extensively grown in California and Florida. Lemons of ordinary size contain about 2 oz. of juice, of specific gravity 1-039-1 -046, yielding on an average 32-5 to 42-53 grains of citric acid per oz. The amount of this acid, according to Stoddart, varies in different seasons, decreasing in lemons kept from February to July, at first slowly and afterwards rapidly, until at the end of that period it is all split up into glucose and carbonic acid — the specific gravity of the juice being in February 1-046, in May 1-041 and in July 1-027, while the fruit is hardly altered in appearance. It has been stated that lemons may be kept for some months with scarcely perceptible deterioration by varnishing them with an alcoholic solution of shellac — the coating thus formed being easily removed when the 'fruit is required for household use by gently kneading it in the hands. Besides citric acid, lemon juice contains 3 to 4% of gum and sugar^ albuminoid matters, malic acid and % of in 2-28' inorganic salts. Cossa has determined that the ash of dried lemon juice contains 54 % of potash, besides 15 % of phosphoric acid. In the white portion of the peel (in common with other fruits of the genus) a bitter principle called hesperidin has been found. It is very slightly soluble in boiling water, but is soluble in dilute alcohol and in alkaline solutions, which it soon turns of a yellow or reddish colour. It is also darkened by tincture of perchloride of iron. Another substance named lemonin, crystallizing in lustrous plates, was discovered in 1 879 by Palerno and Aglialoro in the seeds, in which it is present in very small quantity, 15,000 grains of seed yielding only 80 grains of it. It differs from hesperidin in dissolving in potash without alteration. It melts at 275° F. The simplest method of preserving lemon juice in small quantities for medicinal or domestic use is to keep it covered with a layer of olive or almond oil in a closed vessel furnished with a glass tap, by which the clear liquid may be drawn off as required. Lemon juice is largely used on shipboard as a preventive of scurvy. By the Merchant Shipping Act 1867 every British ship going to other countries where lemon or lime juice cannot be obtained was required to take sufficient to give I oz. to every member of the crew daily. Of this juice it requires about 13,000 lemons to yield I pipe (108 gallons). Sicilian juice in November yields about 9 oz. of crude citric acid per gallon, but only 6 oz. if the fruit is collected in April. The crude juice was formerly exported to England, and was often adulterated with sea-water, but is now almost entirely replaced by lime juice. A concentrated lemon juice for the manufacture of citric acid is prepared in considerable quantities, chiefly at Messina and Palermo, by boiling down the crude juice in copper vessels over an open fire until its specific gravity is about 1-239, seven to ten pipes of raw making only one of concentrated lemon juice. " Lemon juice " for use on shipboard is prepared also from the fruits of limes and Bergamot oranges. It is said to be sometimes adulterated with sulphuric acid on arrival in England. The lemon used in medicine is described in the British pharma- copoeia as being the fruit of Citrus medico,, var. Limonum. The preparations of lemon peel are of small importance. From the fresh peel is obtained the oleum limonis (dose 5-3 minims), which has the characters of its class. It contains a terpene known as citrene or limonene, which also occurs in orange peel: and citral, the aldehyde of geraniol, which is the chief constituent of oil of roses. Of much importance is the succus limonis or lemon juice, I oz. of which contains about 40 grains of free citric acid, besides the citrate of potassium (-25 %) and malic acid, free and combined. Ten per cent, of alcohol must be added to lemon juice if it is to be kept. From it are prepared the syrupus limonis (dose J-2 drachms), which consists of sugar, lemon juice and an alcoholic extract of lemon peel, and also citric acid itself. Lemon juice is practically impure citric acid (q.v.). Essence or Essential Oil of Lemon. — The essential oil contained in the rind of the lemon occurs in commerce as a distinct article. It is manufactured chiefly in Sicily, at Reggio in Calabria, and at Mentone and Nice in France. The small and irregularly shaped fruits are employed while still green, in which state the yield of oil is greater than when they are quite ripe. In Sicily and Calabria the oil is extracted in November and December as follows. A workman cuts three longitudinal slices off each lemon, leaving a three-cornered central core having a small portion of rind at the apex and base. These pieces are then divided transversely and cast on one side, and the strips of peel are thrown in another place. Next day the pieces of peel are deprived of their oil by pressing four or five times successively the outer surface of the peel (zest or flavedo) bent into a convex shape, against a flat sponge held in the palm of the left hand and wrapped round the forefinger. The oil vesicles in the rind, which are ruptured more easily in the fresh fruit than in the state in which lemons are imported, yield up their oil to the sponge, which when saturated is squeezed into an earthen vessel furnished with a spout and capable of holding about three pints. After a time the oil separates from the watery liquid which accom- panies it, and is then decanted. By this process four hundred fruits yield 9 to 14 oz. of essence. The prisms of pulp are afterwards expressed to obtain lemon juice, and then distilled to obtain the small quantity of volatile oil they contain. At Mentone and Nice a different process is adopted. The lemons are placed in an tcuelle d piquer, a shallow basin of pewter about 8| in. in diameter, having a lip for pouring on one side and a closed tube at the bottom about 5 in. long and I in. in diameter. A number of stout brass pins stand up about half an inch from the bottom of the vessel. The workman rubs a lemon over these pins, which rupture the oil vesicles, and the oil collects in the tube, which when it becomes full is emptied into another vessel that it may separate from the aqueous liquid mixed with it. When filtered it is known as Essence de citron au zeste, or, in the English market, as perfumers' essence of lemon, inferior qualities being distinguished as druggists' essence of lemon. An additional product is obtained by immersing the scarified lemons in warm water and separating the oil which floats off. Essence de citron distillee is obtained by rubbing the surface of fresh lemons LEMONNIER, A. L. C. (or of those which have been submitted to the action of the ecuelle d piquer) on a coarse grater of tinned iron, and distilling the grated peel. The oil so obtained is colourless, and of -.inferior fragrance, and is sold at a lower price, while that obtained by the cold processes has a yellow colour and powerful odour. Essence of lemon is chiefly brought from Messina and Palermo packed in copper bottles holding 25 to 50 kilogrammes or more, and sometimes in tinned bottles of smaller size. It is said to be rarely found in a state of purity in commerce, almost all that comes into the market being diluted with the cheaper distilled oil. This fact may be considered as proved by the price at which the essence of lemon is sold in England, this being less than it costs the manu- facturer to make it. When long kept the essence deposits a white greasy stearoptene, apparently identical with the bergaptene obtained from the essential oil of the Bergamot orange. The chief constituent of oil of lemon is the terpene, CjoHi6, "boiling at 348°-8 Fahr., which, like oil of turpentine, readily yields crystals of terpin, CioHi63OH2, but differs in yielding the crystalline compound, CioHn+2Cl, oil of turpentine forming one having the formula CioHis+HCl. Oil of lemons also contains, according to Tilden, another hydrocarbon, CioHie, boiling at 3-20° Fahr., a small amount of cymene, and a compound acetic ether, CzHaO'CioHnO. The natural essence of lemon not being wholly soluble in rectified spirit of wine, an essence for culinary purposes is sometimes prepared by digesting 6 pz. of lemon peel in one pint of pure alcohol of 95 %, and, when the rind has become brittle, which takes place in about two and a half hours, powdering it and percolating the alcohol through it This article is known as " lemon flavour." The name lemon is also applied to some other fruits. The Java lemon is the fruit of Citrus javanica, the pear lemon of a variety of C. Limetta, and the pearl lemon of C. margarita. The fruit of a passion-flower, Passiflora laurifolia, is sometimes known as the water-lemon, and that of a Berberidaceous plant, Podophyllum peltatum, as the wild, lemon. In France and Germany the lemon is known as the citron, and hence much confusion arises concern- ing the fruits referred to in different works. The essential oil known as oil of cedrat is usually a factitious article instead of being prepared, as its name implies, from the citron (Fr. cedratier). An essential oil is also prepared from C. Lumia, at Squillace in Calabria, and has an odour like that of Bergamot but less powerful. The sour lime is Citrus acida, generally regarded as a var. (acida) of C. medica. It is a native of India, ascending to about 4000 ft. in the mountains, and occurring as a small, much-branched thorny bush. The small flowers are white or tinged with pink FIG. 2. — Lime — Citrus medica, var. acida, f nat. size. 1, Flowering shoot. 5, Seed cut lengthwise. 2, Fruit. 6, Seed cut transversely. 3, Same cut transversely. 7, Superficial view of portion of 4, Seed. rind showing oil glands. on the outside; the fruit is small and generally round, with a thin, light green or lemon-yellow bitter rind, and a very sour, somewhat bitter juicy pulp. It is extensively cultivated throughout the West Indies, especially in Dominica, Montserrat and Jamaica, the approximate annual value of the exports from these islands being respectively £45,000, £6000 and £6000. The plants are grown from seed in nurseries and planted out about 200 to the 4*5 acre. They begin to bear from about the third year, but full crops are not produced until the trees are six or seven years old. The ripe yellow fruit is gathered as it falls. The fruit is bruised by hand in a funnel-shaped vessel known as an ecuelle, with a hollow stem; by rolling the fruit on a number of points on the side of the funnel the oil cells in the rind are broken and the oil collects in the hollow stem — this is the essential oil or essence of limes. The fruits are then taken to the mill, sorted, washed and passed through rollers and exposed to two squeezings. Two-thirds of the juice is expressed by the first squeezing, is strained at once, done up in puncheons and exported as raw juice. The pro- duct of the second squeezing, together with the juice extracted by a subsequent squeezing in a press, is strained and evaporated down to make concentrated juice; ten gallons of the raw juice yield one gallon of the concentrated juice. The raw juice is used for preparations of lime juice cordial, the concentrated for manufactures of citric acid. On some estates citrate of lime is now manufactured in place of concentrated acid. Distilled oil of limes is prepared by distilling the juice, but its value is low in comparison with the expressed oil obtained by hand as described above. Green limes and pickled limes preserved in brine are largely exported to the United States, and more recently green limes have been exported to the United Kingdom. Limalade or preserved limes is an excellent substitute for marmalade. A spineless form of the lime appeared as a sport in Dominica in 1892, and is now grown there and elsewhere on a commercial scale. A form with seedless fruits has also recently been obtained in Dominica and Trinidad independently. The young leaves of the lime are used for perfuming the water in finger-glasses, a few being placed in the water and bruised before use. LEMONNIER, ANTOINE LOUIS CAMILLE (1844- ), Belgian poet, was born at Ixelles, Brussels, on the 24th of March 1844. He studied law, and then took a clerkship in a government office, which he resigned after three years. Lemonnier inherited Flemish blood from both parents, and with it the animal force and pictorial energy of the Flemish temperament. He published a Salon de Bruxelles in 1863, and again in 1866. His early friend- ships were chiefly with artists; and he wrote art criticisms with recognized discernment. Taking a house in the hills near Namur, he devoted himself to sport, and developed the intimate sympathy with nature which informs his best work. Nos Flamands (1869) and Croquis d'automne (1870) date from this time. Paris-Berlin (1870), a pamphlet pleading the cause of France, and full of the author's horror of war, had a great success. His capacity as a novelist, in the fresh, humorous description of peasant life, was revealed in Un Coin de village (1879). In £/n Af and F'2F' = *'2t whence *2x'2=/2/'2. Denoting the distance between the adjacent focal planes F'i, F2 by A, we have A = F'iF2= — F2F'i, so that x't= — /2/'2/A. A similar ray parallel to the axis at a distance y proceeding from the image-side will intersect the axis at the focal point F2; and by finding the image of this point in the first system, we determine the first principal focus of the compound system. Equation (2) gives xi*'i=/i/'i, and since #'1 = F'iF2 = A, we have Xi =/i/'i/A as the distance of the first principal focus F of the compound system from the first principal focus Fi of the first system. To determine the focal lengths/ and/' of the compound system and the principal points H and H', we employ the equations de- fining the focal lengths, viz. /=y'/tan w, and ^' = y/tan w'. From the construction (fig. 6) tan w'\—ylfi. The variation of the angle w'> by the second system is deduced from the equation to the con- vergence, viz. 7 = tan o>'2/tan I02= — *2//'2 = A//'2, and since w^ = w'i, we have tan o/2= (A//'2) tan iv'i. Since w' = w'i in our system of notation, we have ,_\ f- y - yf'i -/V/'g tan w' A tan vj'\ A By taking a ray proceeding from the image-side we obtain for the first principal focal distance of the combination /= -/i/2/A. In the particular case in which A = O, the two focal planes F'i, Fi coincide, and the focal lengths f, f are infinite. Such a system is called a telescopic system, and this condition is realized in a telescope focused for a normal eye. So far we have assumed that all the rays proceeding from an object- point are exactly united in an image-point after transmission through the ideal system. The question now arises so to how far this assumption is justified for spherical lenses. To investigate this it is simplest to trace the path of a ray through one spherical 424 LENS refracting surface. Let such a surface divide media of refractive indices n and n', the former being to the left. The point where the axis intersects the surface is the vertex S (fig. 7). Denote the distance of the axial object-point O from S by s; the distance from FIG. 7. O to the point of incidence P by p; the radius of the spherical surface by r; and the distance OC by c, C being the centre of the sphere. Let u be the angle made by the ray with the axis, and i the angle of incidence, i.e. the angle between the ray and the normal to the sphere at the point of incidence. The corresponding quantities in the image-space are denoted by the same letters with a dash. From the triangle O'PC we have sin u = (r/c) sin i, and from the triangle O'PC we have sin u' = (r/c') sin i'. By Snell's law we have n'/n = sin »/sin i', and also if> = u'+i'. Consequently c' and the position of the image may be found. To determine whether all the rays proceeding from O are re- fracted through O', we investigate the triangle OPO'. We have p/p' = sinu'lsin u. Substituting for sin « and sin u' the values found above, we obtain p'/p = c' sin i/c sin i' = n'c'/nc. Also c = OC = CS + SO=-SCH-SO = s-r, and similarly c' = s'-r. Substituting these values we obtain (6) P'_n'(s'-r) p n(i-r) ' p p' To obtain p and p' we use the triangles OPC and O'PC; we have />» = (j-r)2-t-r2+2r(s-r)cos , p'" = (i'-r)2+r2+2r(s'-r) cos . Hence if s, r, n and n' be constant, s' must vary as varies. The refracted rays therefore do not reunite in a point, and the deflection is termed the spherical aberration (see ABERRATION). Developing cos in powers of , we obtain 2! ' 4! 6! and therefore for such values of for which the second and higher powers may be neglected, we have & = (s-r)*+ta+2r(s-r), i.e. p = s, and similarly p' = s'. Equation (6) then becomes n(s-r)/s = n'(s'-r)/s' or n' _n . n'—n , , This relation shows that in a very small central aperture in which the equation p = s holds, all rays proceeding from an object-point are exactly united in an image-point, and therefore the equations previously deduced are valid for this aperture. K. F. Gauss derived the equations for thin pencils in his Dioptrische Unter- suchungen (1840) by very elegant methods. More recently the laws relating to systems with finite aperture have been approximately realized, as for example, in well -corrected photographic objectives. Position of the Cardinal Points of a Lens. — Taking the case of a single spherical refracting surface, and limiting ourselves to the small central aperture, it is seen that the second principal focus F' is obtained when s is infinitely great. Consequently s' = -/'; the difference of sign is obvious, since s' is measured from S, while /' is measured from F'. The focal lengths are directly deducible from equation (7): — ' By joining this simple refracting system with a similar one, so that the second spherical surface limits the medium of refractive index n', we derive the spherical lens. Generally the two spherical surfaces enclose a glass lens, and are bounded on the outside by air of refractive index i. The deduction of the cardinal points of a spherical glass lens in air from the relations already proved is readily effected if we regard the lens as a combination of two systems each having one refracting surface, the light passing in the first system from air to glass, and in the second from glass to air. If we know the refractive index of the glass n, the radii n, r2 of the spherical surfaces, and the distances of the two lens-vertices (or the thickness of the lens d) we can deter- mine all the properties of the lens. A biconvex lens is shown in fig. 8. Let FI be the first princjpal focus of the first system of radius fi, and FI' the second principal focus; and let Si be its vertex. Denote the distance FI Si (the first principal focal length) by /i, and the corresponding distance F'i Si by j'\. Let the corre- sponding quantities in the second system be denoted by the same letters with the suffix 2. By equations (8) and (9) we have /2 having the opposite sign to /i. Denoting the distance F'i F» by A, we have A = F'I F2 = F',Si +S,S, +S,F, = F'jSi +8,5^282 =/',-fd-/2. Substituting for/'! and/2 we obtain A=— n—i n—i Writing R =A(w - 1), this relation becomes We have already shown that f (the first principal focal length of a compound system) = -fif2/A. Substituting for fi, f2, and A the values found above, we obtain n-i) which is equivalent to * = („-,) )I-I / ( r, rt ) nr2» If the lens be infinitely thin, i.e. if . In formulae involving it is customary to F. denote the reciprocal of the radii by the symbol p; we thus have = i/f, p = i/r. Equation (10) thus becomes The unit of power employed by spectacle-makers is termed the diopter or dioptric (see SPECTACLES). We proceed to determine the distances of the focal points from the vertices of the lens, i.e. the distances FSi and F'S^ Since F is represented by the first system in F2, we have by equation (2) - _/./'. -/-/'. - , nrf ~ VI A (n-i)R' where 3Ci=FiF, and x'i=F'iF3 = A. The distance of the first prin- cipal focus from the vertex S, i.e. SiF, which we denote by JF is given by sF = SiF = SiF,+FiF = -F,Si+F,F. Now FiS, is the dis- tance from the vertex of the first principal focus of the first system, i.e. /i, and FiF =x\. Substituting these values, we obtain The distance F'jF' or x't is similarly determined by considering F'i to be represented by the second system in F'. We have „' i - so that where s,' denotes the distance of the second principal focus from the vertex Sj. The two focal lengths and the distances of the foci from the vertices being known, the positions of the remaining cardinal points, i.e. the principal points H and H', are readily determined. Let oH=SiH, i.e. the distance of the object-side principal point from the vertex of the first surface, and sH' = S»H', i.e. the distance of the image-side principal point from the vertex of the second surface, then /=FH = FS,+SiH = -SiF+S,H = -!„+*„; hence sH=sr+f = — dri/R. Similarly xH; = iF/+_f'= —drs/R. It is readily seen that the distances SH and SH/ are in the ratio of the radii n and rt. The distance between the two principal planes (the interstitium) is deduced very simply. We have SiSj = SiH+HH'+H'Sj, or HH' =S,S» - SiH +S2H'. Substituting, we have The interstitium becomes zero, or the two principal planes coincide, if d = ri — ri. We have now derived all the properties of the lens in terms of its elements, viz. the refractive index, the radii of the surfaces, and the thickness. Forms of Lenses. — By varying the signs and relative magnitude of the radii, lenses may be divided into two groups according to their action, and into four groups according to their form. According to their action, lenses are either collecting, convergent LENS 425 and condensing, or divergent and dispersing; the term positive is sometimes applied to the former, and the term negative to the latter. Convergent lenses transform a parallel pencil into a con- verging one, and increase the convergence, and diminish the diverg- ence of any pencil. Divergent lenses, on the other hand, transform a parallel pencil into a diverging one, and diminish the convergence, and increase the divergence of any pencil. In convergent lenses the first principal focal distance is positive and the second principal focal distance negative; in divergent lenses the converse holds. The four forms of lenses are interpretable by means of equation (10). (l) If fi be positive and r2 negative. This type is called biconvex (fig. 9, i). The first principal focus is in front of the lens, and the second principal focus behind the lens, and the two principal points FIG. 9. are inside the lens. The order of the cardinal points is therefore FSiHH'S2F'. The lens is convergent so long as the thickness is less than n(ri-ri)/(n-i). The special case when one of the radii is infinite, in other words, when one of the bounding surfaces is plane is shown in fig. 9, 2. Such a collective lens is termed plano-convex. As d increases, F and H move to the right and F' and H' to the left. If d = n(rl-ri)l(n-i), the focal length is infinite, i.e. the lens is telescopic. If the thickness be greater than n(ri-r2)/(n-i), the lens is dispersive, and the order of the cardinal points is HFS&F'H'. (2) If TI is negative and r2 positive. This type is called biconcave (fig. 9, 4). Such lenses are dispersive for all thicknesses. If d increases, the radii remaining constant, the focal lengths diminish. It is seen from the equations giving the distances of the cardinal points from the vertices that the first principal focus F is always behind Si, and the second principal focus F' always in front of Sj, and that the principal points are within the lens, H' always follow- ing H. If one of the radii becomes infinite, the lens is plano-concave (fig- 9. 5)- (3) If the radii are both positive."5 These lenses are called convexo- concave. Two cases occur according as f2>n, or ri, we obtain the mensicus (fig. 9, 3). Such lenses are always collective; and the order of the cardinal points is FHH'F'. Since s* and SH are always negative, the object-side cardinal points are always in front of the lens. H' can take up different positions. Since SH'=-dr2/R = -dril\n(r?-rii +d(n-i) I, SH' is greater or less than d, i.e. H' is either in front of or inside the lens, according as d jr2-n(rz-ri)!/(M-i). (b) If r2n(ri-ri)/(n-i), f is positive and the lens is collective. The cardinal points are in the same order as in the mensicus, viz. FHH'F'; and the relation of the principal points to the vertices is also the same as in the mensicus. (4) If ri and r^ are both negative. This case is reduced to (3) above, by assuming a change in the direction of the light, or, in other words, by interchanging the object- and image-spaces. The six forms shown in fig. 9 are all used in optical constructions. It may be stated fairly generally that lenses which are thicker at the middle are collective, while those which are thinnest at the middle are dispersive. Different, Positions of Object and Image. — The principal points are always near the surfaces limiting the lens, and consequently the lens divides the direct pencil containing the axis into two parts. The object can be either in front of or behind the lens as in fig. 10. If the object point be in front of the FIG. 10. lens, and if it be realized by rays passing from it, it is called real. If, on the other hand, the object be behind the lens, it is called virtual; it does not actually exist, and can only be realized as an image. When we speak of " object-points," it is always understood that the rays from the object traverse the first surface of the lens before meeting the second. In the same way, images may be either real or virtual. If the image be behind the second surface, it is real, and can be intercepted on a screen. If, however, it be in front of the lens, it is visible to an eye placed behind the lens, although the rays do not actually inter- sect, but only appear to do so, but the image cannot be in- tercepted on a screen behind the lens. FIG. II. Such an image is said to be virtual. These relations'are shown in fig. ii. By referring" to the equations given above, it is seen that a thin convergent lens produces both real and virtual images of real objects, but only a real image of a virtual object, whilst a divergent lens produces a virtual image of a real object and both real and virtual images of a virtual object. The construction of a real image of a FIG. 12. real object by a convergent lens is shown in fig. 3; and that of a virtual image of a real object by a divergent lens in fig. 12. The optical centre of a lens is a point such that, for any ray which passes through it, the incident and emergent rays are parallel. The idea of the optical centre was originally due to J. Harris (Treatise on Optics, 1775) ; it is not properly a cardinal point, although it has several interesting properties. In fig. 13, let CiPi and CjPi be two parallel radii of a biconvex lens. . Join PiP2 and let OiPi and OjPj FIG. 13. be incident and emergent rays which have Pi?2 for the path through the lens. Then if M be the intersection of PiP8 with the axis, we have angle CiPiM= angle C2P2M; these two angles are — for a ray travelling in the direction OiPiPjOj — the angles of emergence and of incidence respectively. From the similar triangles CjPjM and CiPiM we have C,M:C2M=C1P,:CjP2=ri;>j. (") Such rays as PiP2 therefore divide the distance CiCj in the ratio of the radii, i.e. at the fixed point M, the optical centre. Calling SiM=j,, SM=s2, thenCiSi = CiM+MS, = C:M-SiM, i.e. since C,S, = ri, CiM =ri+si, and similarly C2M =ri+Si. Also SiS2 = SiM+MS2 = SiM-S2M, i.e. d = Si-st. Then by using equation (n) we have Si=rid/(r-r2) and st = rid/(ri-rt), and hence ii/*j = ri/rj.. The vertex distances of the optical centre are therefore in the ratio of the radii. The values of Si and s^ show that the optical centre of a biconvex or biconcave lens is in the interior of the lens, that in a plano-convex or plano-concave lens it is at the vertex of the curved surface, and in a concavo-convex lens outside the lens. The Wave-theory Derivation of the Focal Length. — The formulae above have been derived by means of geometrical rays. We here give an account of Lord Rayleigh's wave-theory derivation of the focal length of a convex lens in terms of the aperture, thickness and refractive index (Phil. Mag. 1879 (5) 8, p. 480; 1885, 20, 4-26 LENS P- 354) : the argument is based on the principle that the optical distance from object to image is constant. " Taking the case of a convex lens of glass, let us suppose that parallel rays DA, EC, GB (fig. 14) fall upon the lens ACB, and are collected by it to a focus at F. The points D, E, G, equally distant from ACB, lie upon a front of the wave before it impinges upon the lens. The focus is a point at which the different parts of the wave arrive at the same time, and that such a point can exist depends upon the fact that the propagation is slower in glass than in air. The ray ECF is re- D -^ tarded from having to pass through the thickness (d) of glass by the amount (n — i)d. The ray DAK, which tra- verses only the ex- treme edge of the lens, is retarded merely on account pIG of the crookedness of its path, and the amount of the retardation is measured by AF-CF. If F is a focus these retardations must be equal, or AF-CF = (n — i)d. Now if y be the semi-aperture AC of the lens, and / be the focal length CF, AF — CF = V (f2 +y) — / = iyV/ approximately, whence f=WI(n-i)d. (12) In the case of plate-glass (n — i) = J (nearly), and then the rule (12) may be thus stated : the semi-aperture is a mean proportional between the focal length and the thickness. The form (12) is in general the more significant, as well as the more practically useful, but we may, of course, express the thickness in terms of the curvatures and semi- aperture by means of d = tyfa-t-rt-1) . In the preceding statement it has been supposed for simplicity that the lens comes to a sharp edge. If this be not the case we must take as the thickness of the lens the difference of the thicknesses at the centre and at the circum- ference. In this form the statement is applicable to concave lenses, and we see that the focal length is positive when the lens is thickest at the centre, but negative when the lens is thickest at the edge." Regulation of the Rays. The geometrical theory of optical instruments can be con- veniently divided into four parts: (i) The relations of the positions and sizes of objects and their images (see above); (2) the different aberrations from an ideal image (see ABERRA- TION) ; (3) the intensity of radiation in the object- and image- spaces, in other words, the alteration of brightness caused by physical or geometrical influences; and (4) the regulation of the rays (Strahlenbegrenzung). The regulation of rays will here be treated only in systems free from aberration. E. Abbe first gave a connected theory; and M von Rohr has done a great deal towards the elaboration. The Gauss cardinal points make it simple to construct the image of a given object. No account is taken of the size of the system, or whether the rays used for the construction really assist in the reproduction of the image or not. The diverging cones of rays coming from the object-points can only take a certain small part in the production of the image in consequence of the apertures of the lenses, or of diaphragms. It often happens that the rays used for the construction of the image do not pass through the system ; the image being formed by quite different rays. If we take a' luminous point of the object lying on the axis of the system then an eye introduced at the image-point sees in the instrument several concentric rings, which are either the fittings of the lenses or their images, or the real diaphragms or their images. The innermost FIG. and smallest ring is completely lighted, and forms the origin of the cone of rays entering the image-space. Abbe called it the exit pupil. Similarly there is a corresponding smallest ring in the object- space which limits the entering cone of rays. This is called the entrance pupil. The real diaphragm acting as a limit at any part of the system is called the aperture-diaphragm. These diaphragms remain for all practical purposes the same for all points lying on the axis. It sometimes happens that one and the same diaphragm fulfils the functions of the entrance pupil and the aperture-diaphragm or the exit pupil and the aperture-diaphragm. Fig. 15 shows the general but simplified case of the different diaphragms which are of importance for the regulation of the rays. Si, 82 are two centred systems. A' is a real diaphragm lying between them. BI and B'2 are the fittings of the systems. Then Si produces the virtual image A of the diaphragm A' and the image Bz of the fitting B'2, whilst the system Sj makes the virtual image A" of the diaphragm A' and the virtual image B'j of the fitting BI. The object-point O is reproduced really through the whole system in the point O'. From the object-point O three diaphragms can be seen in the object-space, viz. the fitting BI, the image of the fitting B2 and the image A of the diaphragm A' formed by the system Si. The cone of rays nearest to B2 is not received to its total extent by the fitting BI, and the cone which has entered through BI is again diminished in its further course, when passing through the diaphragm A', so that the cone of rays really used for producing the image is limited by A, the diaphragm which seen from O appears to be the smallest. A is therefore the entrance pupil. The real diaphragm A' which limits the rays in the centre of the system is the aperture diaphragm. Similarly three diaphragms lying in the image-space are to be seen from the image-point O' — namely B', A", and B'2. A" limits the rays in the image-space, and is therefore the exit pupil. As A is conjugate to the diaphragm A' in the system Si, and A" to the same diaphragm A' in the system 82, the entrance pupil A is conjugate to the exit pupil A" throughout the instrument. This relation between entrance and exit pupils is general. The apices of the cones of rays producing the image of points near the axis thus lie in the object-points, and their common base is the entrance pupil. The axis of such a cone, which connects the object point with the centre of the entrance pupil, is called the principal ray. Similarly, the principal rays in the image-space join the centre of the exit pupil with the image-points. The centres of the entrance and exit pupils are thus the intersections of the principal rays. For points lying farther from the axis, the entrance pupil no longer alone limits the rays, the other diaphragms taking part. In fig. 16 only one diaphragm L is present besides the entrance pupil A, and the object- space is divided to a certain extent into four parts. The section M contains all points rendered by a system with a complete aperture; N con- tains all points rendered by a system with a gradually diminishing aperture; but this diminution does not attain the principal ray passing through the centre C. In the section O are those points rendered by a system with an aperture which gradually decreases to zero. No rays pass from the points of the section P through the system and no p image can arise from them. i'IG- '"• The second diaphragm L therefore limits the three-dimensional object-space containing the points which can be rendered by the optical system. From C through this diaphragm L this three- dimensional object-space can be seen as through a window. L is called by M von Rohr the entrance luke. If several diaphragms can be seen from C, then the entrance luke is the diaphragm which seen from C appears the smallest. In the sections N and O the entrance' luke also takes part in limiting the cones of rays. This restriction is known as the " vignetting " action of the entrance luke. The base of the cone of rays for the points of this section of the object-space is no longer a circle but a two-cornered curve which arises from the object -point by the projection of the entrance luke on the entrance pupil. Fig. 170 shows the base of such a cone of rays. It often hap- pens that besides the entrance luke, another diaphragm acts in a vignetting manner, then the operating aperture of the cone of rays is a curve made up of circular arcs formed put of the entrance pupil and the two projections of the two acting diaphragms (fig. 176). If the entrance pupil is narrow, then the section NO, in which the vignetting is increasing, is diminished, and there is really only one division of the section M which can be reproduced, and of the section P which cannot be reproduced. The angle w+w = 2w, comprising the section which can be reproduced, is called the angle of the field of view on the object-side. The field of view 2w retains its importance FIG. 170. FIG. 176. LENT 427 if the entrance pupil is increased. It then comprises all points reached by principal rays. The same relations apply to the image- space, in which there is an exit luke, which, seen from the middle of the exit pupil, appears under the smallest angle. It is the image of the entrance luke produced by the whole system. The image- side field of view 2w' is the angle comprised by the principal rays reaching the edge of the exit luke. Most optical instruments are used to observe object-reliefs (three- dimensional objects), and generally an image-relief (a three-dimen- sional image) is conjugate to this object-relief. It is sometimes required, however, to represent by means of an optical instrument the object-relief on a plane or on a ground-glass as in the photo- graphic camera. For simplicity we shall assume the intercepting plane as perpendicular to the axis and shall call it, after von Rohr, the " ground glass plane." All points of the image not lying in this plane produce circular spots (corresponding to the form of the pupils) on it, which are called " circles of confusion." The ground- glass plane (fig. 18) is conjugate ,to the object-plane E in the object-space, perpendicular to the axis, and called the " plane focused for." All points lying in this plane are reproduced exactly on the ground-glass plane as the points OO. The circle of confusion Z on the plane focused for corresponds to the circle of confusion Z' on the ground-glass plane. The figure formed on the plane focused for by the cones of rays from all of the object-points of the total object-space directed to the entrance pupil, was called " object- side representation " (imago) by M von Rohr. This representation is a central projection. If, for instance, the entrance pupil is imagined so small that only the principal rays pass through, then they project directly, and the intersections of the principal rays represent the projections of the points of the object lying off the plane focused for. The centre of the projection or the per- spective centre is the middle point of the entrance pupil C. If the entrance pupil is opened, in place of points, circles of confusion ap- pear, whose size depends upon the size of the entrance pupil and the position of the object-points and the plane focused for. The inter- section of the principal ray is the centre of the circle of confusion. The clearness of the representation on the plane focused for is of course diminished by the circles of confusion. This central pro- jection does not at all depend upon the instrument, but is entirely geometrical, arising when the position and the size of the entrance pupil, and the position of the plane focused for have been fixed. The instrument then produces an image on the ground-glass plane of this perspective representation on the plane focused for, and on account of the exact likeness which this image has to the object- side representation it is called the " representation copy." By moving it round an angle of 180°, this representation can be brought into a perspective position to the objects, so that all rays coming from the middle of the entrance pupil and aiming at the object-points, would always meet the corresponding image- points. This representation is accessible to the observer in different ways in different instruments. If the observer desires a perfectly correct perspective impression of the object-relief the distance of the pivot of the eye from the representation copy must be equal to the nth part of the distance of the plane focused for from the entrance pupil, if the instrument has produced a rath diminution of the object-side representation. The pivot of the eye must coincide with the centre of the perspective, because all images are observed in direct vision. It is known that the pivot of the eye is the point of intersection of all the directions in which one can look. Thus all these points represented by circles of confusion which are less than the angular sharpness of vision appear clear to the eye; the space containing all these object-points, which appear clear to the eye, is called the depth. The depth of definition, therefore, is not a special property of the instrument, but depends on the size of the entrance pupil, the position of the plane focused for and on the conditions under which the representation can be observed. If the distance of the representation from the pivot of the eye be altered from the correct distance already mentioned, the angles of vision under which various objects appear are changed; perspective errors arise, causing an incorrect idea to be given of the depth. A simple case is shown in fig. 19. A cube is the object, and if it is observed as in fig. iga with the representation copy at the correct distance, a correct idea of a cube 'will be obtained. If, as in figs. 196 and igc, the distance is too great, there can be two results. If it is known that the farthest section is just as high as the nearer one then the cube appears exceptionally deepened, like a long parallelepipedon. But if it is known to be as deep as it is high then the eye will see it low at the back and high at the front. The reverse occurs when the distance of observation is too short, the body then appears either too flat, or the nearer sections seem too low in relation to those farther off. These perspective errors can be seen in any telescope. In the After von Rohr. FIG. 19. telescope ocular the representation copy has to be observed under too large an angle or at too short a distance: all objects therefore appear flattened, or the more distant objects appear too large in comparison with those nearer at hand. From the above the importance of experience will be inferred. But it is not only necessary that the objects themselves be known to the observer but also that they are presented to his eye in the customary manner. This depends upon the way in which the principal rays pass through the system — in other words, upon the special kind of " transmission " of the principal rays. In ordinary vision the pivot of the eye is the centre of the perspective representa- tion which arises on the very distant plane standing perpendicular to the mean direction of sight. In this kind of central projection all objects lying in front of the plane focused for are diminished when projected on this plane, and those lying behind it are magnified. (The distances are always given in the direction of light.) Thus the objects near to the eye appear large and those farther from it appear small. This perspective has been called by M von Rohr1 "ento- centric transmission " (fig. 20). If the entrance pupil of the instru- ment lies at infinity, then all the principal rays are parallel and the FB C After von Rohr. After von Rohr. FIG. 20. FIG. 21. projections of all objects on the plane focused for are exactly as large as the objects themselves. After E. Abbe, this course of rays is called " telecentric transmission " (fig. 21). The exit pupil then lies in the image-side focus of the system. If the perspective centre lies in front of the plane focused for, then the objects lying in front of this plane are magnified and those behind it are diminished. This is just the FIG. 22. After von I obr reverse of perspective repre- sentation in ordinary sight, so that the relations of size and the arrangements for space must be quite incorrectly indicated (fig. 22) ; this representation is called by M von Rohr a " hypercentric transmission." (O. HR.) LENT (O. Eng. lencten, " spring," M. Eng. lenten, lente, lent; cf. Dut. lente, Ger. Lenz, " spring," O. H. Ger. lenzin, lengizin, lenzo, probably from the same root as " long " and referring to " the lengthening days "), in the Christian Church, the period of fasting preparatory to the festival of Easter. As this fast falls in the early part of the year, it became confused with the season, and gradually the word Lent, which originally meant spring, was confined to this use. The Latin name for the fast, Quadragesima (whence Ital. quaresima, Span, cuaresma and Fr. careme), and its Gr. equivalent Tee mns quibusdam illustribus apud Arabes; see J. A. Fabricius, Bibltotheca Graeca, Hamburg, 1726, xiii. 259-298); a Spanish- Arabic vocabulary, now lost, but noticed by Ramusio as having been consulted by the famous Hebrew physician, Jacob Mantino- i collection of Arabic epitaphs in and near Fez (the MS. of this Leo presented, it is said, to the brother of the king); and poems, also 441 lost. It is stated, moreover, that Leo intended writing a history of the Mahommedan religion, an epitome of Mahommedan chronicles, and an account of his travels in Asia and Egypt. (C. R. B.) LEO, LEONARDO (1694-1744), more correctly LIONARDO ORONZO SALVATORE DE LEO, Italian musical composer, was born on the 5th of August 1694 at S. Vito dei Normanni, near Brindisi. He became a student at the Conservatorio della Pieta dei Turchini at Naples in 1703, and was a pupil first of Provenzale and later of Nicola Fago. It has been supposed that he was a pupil of Pitoni and Alessandro Scarlatti, but he could not possibly have studied with either of these composers, although he was un- doubtedly influenced by their compositions. His earliest known work was a sacred drama, L'Infedeltd abbattuta, performed by his fellow-students in 1712. In 1714 he produced, at the court theatre, an opera, Pisistrato, which was much admired. He held various posts at the royal chapel, and continued to write for the stage, besides teaching at the Conservatorio. After adding comic scenes to Gasparini's Bajazetle in 1722 for performance at Naples, he composed a comic opera, La Mpeca scoperta, in Neapolitan dialect, in 1723. His most famous comic opera was Amor vuol soferenze (1739), better known as La Finta Frascatana, highly praised by Des Brosses. He was equally distinguished as a composer of serious opera, Demofoonte (1735), Farnace (1737) and L'Olimpiade (1737) being his most famous works in this branch, and is still better known as a composer of sacred music. He died of apoplexy on the 3ist of October 1744 while engaged in the composition of new airs for a revival of La Finta Frascatana. Leo was the first of the Neapolitan school to obtain a complete mastery over modern harmonic counterpoint. His sacred music is masterly and dignified, logical rather than passionate, and free from the sentimentality which disfigures the work of F. Durante and G. B. Pergolesi. His serious operas suffer from a coldness and severity of style, but in his comic operas he shows a keen sense of humour. His ensemble movements are spirited, but never worked up to a strong climax. A fine and characteristic example of his sacred music is the Dixit Dormnus in C, edited by C. V. Stanford and published by Novello. A number of songs from operas are accessible in modern editions. (E.J.D.) LEO (THE LION), in astronomy, the fifth sign of the zodiac (?.».), denoted by the symbol i2. It is also a constellation, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.). According to Greek mythology this constellation s the Nemean lion, which, after being killed by Hercules, was raised to the heavens by Jupiter in honour of Hercules. A part of Ptolemy's Leo is now known as Coma Berenices (q.v.). a ^eonis, also known as Cor Leonis or the Lion's Heart, Regulus, Basilicus, &c., is a very bright star of magnitude 1-23, and parallax 0-02", and proper motion 0-27" per annum. 7 Leonis is a very fine orange-yellow binary star, of magnitudes 2 and 4, and >eriod 400 years, t Leonis is a binary, composed of a 4th magni- .ude pale yellow star, and a 7th magnitude blue star. The -.EONIDS are a meteoric swarm, appearing in November and radiating from this constellation (see METEOR). LEOBEN, a town in Styria, Austria, 44 m. N.W. of Graz by •ail. Pop. (1900) 10,204. It is situated on the Mur, and part )f its old walls and towers still remain. It has a well-known academy of mining and a number of technical schools. Its •"xtensive iron-works and trade in iron are a consequence of its aosition on the verge of the important lignite deposits of Upper Ityria and in the neighbourhood of the iron mines and furnaces if Vordernberg and Eisenerz. On the i8th of April 1797 a sreliminary peace was concluded here between Austria and ""ranee, which led to the treaty of Campo-Formio. LEOBSCHUTZ (Bohemian Lubczyce), a town of Germany, in he Prussian province of Silesia, on the Zinna, about 20 m. o the N.W. of Ratibor by rail. Pop. (1905) 12,700. It has large trade in wool, flax and grain, its markets for these ommodities being very numerously attended. The principal ndustries are malting, carriage-building, wool-spinning and lass-making. The town contains three Roman Catholic 442 churches, a Protestant church, a synagogue, a new town-hall and a gymnasium. Leobschiitz existed in the loth century, and from 1524 to 1623 was the capital of the principality of Jagerndorf. See F. Troska, Geschichte der Stadt Leobschiitz (Leobschiitz, 1892). LEOCHARES, a Greek sculptor who worked with Scopas on the Mausoleum about 350 B.C. He executed statues of the family of Philip of Macedon, in gold and ivory, which were set up by that king in the Philippeum at Olympia. He also with Lysippus made a group in bronze at Delphi representing a lion-hunt of Alexander. Of this the base with an inscription was recently found. We hear of other statues by Leochares of Zeus, Apollo and Ares. The statuette in the Vatican, repre- senting Ganymede being carried away by an eagle, though considerably restored and poor in execution, so closely corre- sponds with Pliny's description of a group by Leochares that we are justified in considering it a copy of that group, especially as the Vatican statue shows all the characteristics of Attic 4th-century art. Pliny (N.H. 34. 79) writes: "Leochares made a group of an eagle aware whom it is carrying off in Gany- mede and to whom it is bearing him; holding the boy delicately in its claws, with his garment between." (For engraving see GREEK ART, Plate I. fig. 53.) The tree stem is skilfully used as a support; and the upward strain of the group is ably rendered. The close likeness both in head and pose between the Ganymede and the well-known Apollo Belvidere has caused some modern archaeologists to assign the latter also to Leochares. With somewhat more confidence we may regard the fine statue of Alexander the Great at Munich as a copy of his gold and ivory portrait at Olympia. (P. G.) LEOFRIC (d. 1057), earl of Mercia, was a son of Leofwine, earl of Mercia, and became earl at some date previous to 1032. Henceforth, being one of the three great earls of the realm, he took a leading part in public affairs. On the death of King Canute in 1035 he supported the claim of his son Harold to the throne against that of Hardicanute; and during the quarrel between Edward the Confessor and Earl Godwine in 1051 he played the part of a mediator. Through his efforts civil war was averted, and in accordance with his advice the settlement of the dispute was referred to the Witan. When he became earl of Mercia his direct rule seems to have been confined to Cheshire, Staffordshire, Shropshire and the borders of north Wales, but afterwards he extended the area of his earldom. As Chester was his principal residence and the seat of his government, he is sometimes called earl of Chester. Leofric died at Bromley in Staffordshire on the 3131 of August 1057. His wife was Godgifu, famous in legend as Lady Godiva. Both husband and wife were noted as liberal benefactors to the church, among their foundations being the famous Benedictine monastery at Coventry. Leofric's son, iElfgar, succeeded him as earl of Mercia. See E. A. Freeman, The Norman Conquest, vols. i. and ii. (1877). LEOMINSTER, a market-town and municipal borough in the Leominster parliamentary division of Herefordshire, England, in a rich agricultural country on the Lugg, 157 m. W.N.W. of London and 125 N. of Hereford on the Great Western and London & North-Western railways. Pop. (1901) 5826. Area, 8728 acres. Some fine old timber houses lend picturesqueness to the wide streets. The parish church, of mixed architecture, including the Norman nave of the old priory church, and con- taining some of the most beautiful examples of window tracery in England, was restored in 1866, and enlarged by the addition of a south nave in 1879. The Butter Cross, a beautiful example of timber work of the date 1633, was removed when the town- hall was building, and re-erected in the pleasure ground of the Grange. Trade is chiefly in agricultural produce, wool and cider, as the district is rich in orchards. Brewing (from the produce of local hop-gardens) and the manufacture of agricultural implements are also carried on. The town is under a mayor, four aldermen and twelve councillors. Merewald, king of Mercia, is said to have founded a religious house in Leominster (Llanlieni, Leofminstre, Lempster) in 660, LEOCHARES— LEON, L. P. DE and a nunnery existed here until the Conquest, when the place became a royal demesne. It was granted by Henry I. to the monks of Reading, who built in it a cell of their abbey, and under whose protection the town grew up and was exempted from the sphere of the county and hundred courts. In 1539 it reverted to the crown; and in 1554 was incorporated, by a charter renewed in 1562, 1563, 1605, 1666, 1685 and 1786. The borough returned two members to the parliament of 1295 and to other parliaments, until by the Representation Act 1867 it lost one representative, and by the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 separate representation. A fair was granted in the time of Henry II., and fairs in the seasons of Michaelmas and the feasts of St Philip and St James and of Edward the Confessor, in 1265, 1281 and 1290 respectively. Charters to the burghers authorized fairs on the days of St Peter and of St Simon and St Jude in 1554, on St Bartholomew's day in 1605, in Mid-lent week in 1665, and on the feast of the Purification and on the 2nd of May in 1685; these fairs have modern representatives. A market was held by the abbey by a grant of Henry I.; Friday is now market day. Leominster was famous for wool from the i3th to the i8th century. There were gilds of mercers, tailors, drapers, dyers and glovers in the i6th century. In 1835 the wool trade was said to be dead; and that of glove-making, which had been important, was diminishing. Hops and apples were grown in 1715. See G. Townsend, The Town and Borough of Leominster (1863), and John Price, An Historical and Topographical Account of Leominster and its Vicinity (Ludlow, 1715). LEOMINSTER, a township of Worcester county, Massa- chusetts, U.S.A., about 45 m. N.W. of Boston and about 20 m. N. by E. of Worcester. Pop. (1890) 7269; (1900) 12,392, of whom 2827 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 17,580. It is a broken, hilly district, 26-48 sq. m. in area, traversed by the Nashua river, crossed by the Northern Division of the New York, New Haven & Hartford railroad, and by the Fitchburg Division of the Boston & Maine, and connected with Boston, Worcester and other cities by interurban electric lines. Along the N.E. border and mostly in the township of Lunenburg are Whalom Lake and Whalom Park, popular pleasure resorts. The principal villages are Leominster, 5 m. S.E. of Fitchburg. and North Leominster; the two adjoin and are virtually one. According to the Special U.S. Census of Manufactures of 1905 the township had in that year a greater diversity of important manufacturing industries than any place of its size in the state, or, probably, in the United States; its 65 manufactories, with a capital of $4,572,726 and with a product for the year valued at $7,501,720 (39% more than in 1900), produced celluloid and horn work (the manufacture of which is a more important industry here than elsewhere in the United States), celluloid combs, furniture, paper, buttons, pianos and piano-cases, children's carriages and sleds, stationery, leatherboard, worsted, woollen and cotton goods, shirts, paper boxes, &c. Leominster owns and operates its water-works. The township was formed from a part of Lancaster township in 1740. LE6N, LUIS PONCE DE (1527-1591), Spanish poet and mystic, was born at Belmonte de Cuenca, entered the university of Salamanca at the age of fourteen, and in 1544 joined the Augustinian order. In 1561 he obtained a theological chair at Salamanca, to which in 1571 was added that of sacred literature. He was denounced to the Inquisition for translating the book of Canticles, and for criticizing the text of the Vulgate. He was consequently imprisoned at Valladolid from March 1572 till December 1576; the charges against him were then abandoned, and he was released with an admonition. He, returned to Salamanca as professor of Biblical exegesis, and was again reported to the Inquisition in 1582, but without result. In 1583-1585 he published the three books of a celebrated mystic treatise, Los Nombres de Crislo, which he had written in prison. In 1583 also appeared the most popular of his prose works, a treatise entitled La Perfecla Casada, for the use of a lady newly married. Ten days before his death, which occurred at Madrigal on the 23rd of August 1591, he was elected vicar LEON, M. DE— LEON 443 general of the Augustinian order. Luis de Leon is not only the greatest of Spanish mystics; he is among the greatest of Spanish lyrical poets. His translations of Euripides, Pindar, Virgil and Horace are singularly happy; his original pieces, whether devout like the ode De la vida del cielo, or secular like the ode A Salinas, are instinct with a serene sublimity unsurpassed in any literature, and their form is impeccable. Absorbed by less worldly interests, Fray Luis de Leon refrained from printing his poems, which were not issued till 1631, when Quevedo published them as a counterblast to culteranismo. The best edition of Luis de Leon's works is that of Merino (6 vols., Madrid, 1816); the reprint (Madrid, 1885) by C. Munoz Saenz is incorrect. The text of La Perfecta Casada has been well edited by Miss Elizabeth Wallace (Chicago, 1903). See Coleccion de documentos ineditos para la historic, de Espana, vols. x.-xi. ; F. H. Reusch, Luis de Leon und die spanische Inquisition (Bonn, 1873); M. Gutierrez, Fray Luisde Leon y la filosofia espanola '(Madrid, 1885); M. Menendez y Pelayo, Estudios de critica literaria (Madrid, 1893), Primera seYie, pp. 1-72. LEON, MOSES [BEN SHEM-TOB] DE (d. 1305), Jewish scholar, was born in Leon (Spain) in the middle of the I3th century and died at Arevalo. His fame is due to his authorship of the most influential Kabbalist work, the Zohar (see KABBALA), which was attributed to Simon b. Yohai, a Rabbi of the and century. In modern times the discovery of the modernity of the Zohar has led to injustice to the author. Moses de Leon undoubtedly used old materials and out of them constructed a work of genius. The discredit into which he fell was due partly to the unedifying incidents of his personal career. He led a wandering life, and was more or less of an adventurer. But as to the greatness of his work, the profundity of his philosophy and the brilliance of his religious idealism, there can be no question. See Graetz, History of the Jews, vol. iv. ch. i. ; Geiger, Leon de Modena. (I. A.) LEON OF MODENA (1571-1648), Jewish scholar, was born in Venice, of a notable French family which had migrated to Italy after the expulsion of the Jews from France. He was a precocious child, but, as Graetz points out, his lack of stable character prevented his gifts from maturing. " He pursued all sorts of occupations to support himself, viz. those of preacher, teacher of Jews and Christians, reader of prayers, interpreter, writer, proof-reader, bookseller, broker, merchant, rabbi, musician, matchmaker and manufacturer of amulets." Though he failed to rise to real distinction he earned a place by his criticism of the Talmud among those who prepared the way for the new learning in Judaism. One of Leon's most effective works was his attack on the Kabbala ('Art Nohem, first published in 1840), for in it he demonstrated that the " Bible of the Kabbalists" (the Zohar) was a modern composition. He became best known, however, as the interpreter of Judaism to the Christian world. At the instance of an English nobleman he prepared an account of the religious customs of the Synagogue, Riti Ebraici (1637). This book was widely read by Christians; it was rendered into various languages, and in 1650 was translated into English by Edward Chilmead. At the time the Jewish question was coming to the fore in London, and Leon of Modena's book did much to stimulate popular interest. He died at Venice. See Graetz, History of the Jews (Eng. trans.), vol. v. ch. iii. ; Jewish Encyclopedia, viii. 6; Geiger, Leon de Modena. (I. A.) LEON, or LEON DE LAS ALDAMAS, a city of the state of Guana- juato, Mexico, 209 m. N.W. of the federal capital and 30 m. W. by N. of the city of Guanajuato. Pop. (1895) 90,978; (1900) 62,623, Leon ranking fourth in the latter year among the cities of Mexico. The Mexican Central gives it railway connexion with the national capital and other prominent cities of the Republic. Leon stands in a fertile plain on the banks of the Turbio, a tributary of the Rio Grande de Lerma, at an elevation of 5862 ft. above sea-level and in the midst of very attractive surroundings. The country about Leon is considered to be one of the richest cereal-producing districts of Mexico. The city itself is subject to disastrous floods, sometimes leading to loss of life as well as damage to property, as in the great flood of 1889. Leon is essentially a manufacturing and commercial city; it has a cathedral and a theatre, the latter one of the largest and finest in the republic. The city is regularly built, with wide streets and numerous shady parks and gardens. It manufactures saddlery and other leather work, gold and silver embroideries, cotton and woollen goods, especially rebozos (long shawls), soap and cutlery. There are also tanneries and flour mills. The city has a considerable trade in wheat and flour. The first settlement of Leon occurred in 1552, but its formal foundation was in 1576, and it did not reach the dignity of a city until 1836. LEON, the capital of the department of Leon, Nicaragua, an episcopal see, and the largest city in the republic, situated midway between Lake Managua and the Pacific Ocean, 50 m. N.W. of Managua, on the railway from that city to the Pacific port of Corinto. Pop. (1905) about 45,000, including the Indian town of Subtiaba. Leon covers a very wide area, owing to its gardens and plantations. Its houses are usually one-storeyed, built of adobe and roofed with red tiles; its public buildings are among the finest in Central America. The massive and elaborately ornamented cathedral was built in the Renaissance style between 1746 and 1774; a Dominican church in Subtiaba is little less striking. The old (1678) and new (1873) episcopal palaces, the hospital, the university and the barracks (formerly a Franciscan monastery) are noteworthy examples of Spanish colonial archi- tecture. Leon has a large general trade, and manufactures cotton and woollen fabrics, ice, cigars, boots, shoes and saddlery; its tanneries supply large quantities of cheap leather for export. But its population (about 60,000 in 1850) tends to decrease. At the time of the Spanish conquest Subtiaba was the residence of the great cacique of Nagrando, and contained an important Indian temple. The city of Leon, founded by Francisco Hernan- dez de Cordova in 1523, was originally situated at the head of the western bay of Lake Managua, and was not removed to its present position till 1610. Thomas Gage, who visited it in 1665, describes it as a splendid city; and in 1685 it yielded rich booty to William Dampier (q.v.). Until 1855 Leon was the capital of Nicaragua, although its great commercial rival Granada contested its claim to that position, and the jealousy between the two cities often resulted in bloodshed. Leon was identified with the interests of the democracy of Nicaragua, Granada with the clerical and aristocratic parties. See NICARAGUA; E. G. Squier, Central America, vol. i. (1856); and T. Gage, Through Mexico, &c. (1665). LEON, the name of a modern province and of an ancient kingdom, captaincy-general and province in north-western Spain. The modern province, founded in 1833, is bounded on the N. by Oviedo, N.E. by Santander, E. by Palencia, S. by Valladolid and Zamora. and W. by Orense and Lugo. Pop. (1900) 386,083. Area, 5986 sq. m. The boundaries of the province on the north and west, formed respectively by the central ridge and southerly offshoots of the Cantabrian Mountains (q.v.), are strongly marked; towards the south-east the surface merges imper- ceptibly into the Castilian plateau, the line of demarcation being for the most part merely conventional. Leon belongs partly to the river system of the Mino (see SPAIN), partly to that of the Duero or Douro (q.v.), these being separated by the Montaflas de Leon, which extend in a continuous wall (with passes at Manzanal and Poncebadon) from north to south-west. To the north-west of the Montanas de Leon is the richly wooded pastoral and highland district known as the Vierzo, which in its lower valleys produces grain, fruit, and wine in abundance. The Tierra del Campo in the west of the province is fairly productive, but in need of irrigation. The whole province is sparsely peopled. Apart from agriculture, stock-raising and mining, its commerce and industries are unimportant. Cattle, mules, butter, leather, coal and iron are exported. The hills of Leon were worked for gold in the time of the Romans; iron is still obtained, and coal- mining developed considerably towards the close of the igth century. The only towns with more than 5000 inhabitants in 1900 were Leon (15,580) and Astorga (5573) (q.v.). The main railway from Madrid to Corunna passes through the province, and there are branches from the city of Leon to Vierzo, Oviedo, and the Biscayan port of Gijon. 444 LEON— LEONARDO DA VINCI At the time of the Roman conquest, the province was inhabited by the Vettones and Callaici; it afterwards formed part of Hispania Tarraconensis. Among the Christian kingdoms which arose in Spain as the Moorish invasion of the 8th century receded, Leon was one of the oldest. The title of king of Leon was first assumed by Ordofio in 913. Ferdinand I. (the Great) of Castile united the crowns of Castile and Leon in the nth century; the two were again separated in the I2th, until a final union took place (1230) in the person of St Ferdinand. The limits of the kingdom varied with the vicissitudes of war, but roughly speaking it may be said to have embraced what are now the provinces of Leon, Palencia, Valladolid, Zamora and Salamanca. For a detailed account of this kingdom, see SPAIN: History. The captaincy-general of the province of Leon before 1833 included Leon, Zamora and Salamanca. The Leonese, or inhabitants of these three provinces, have less individuality, in character and physique, than the people of Galicia, Catalonia or Andalusia, who are quite distinct from what is usually regarded as the central or national Spanish type, i.e. the Castilian. The Leonese belong partly to the Castilian section of the Spaniards, partly to the north-western section which includes the Galicians and Asturians. They have comparatively few of the Moorish traits which are so marked in the south and east of Spain. Near Astorga there dwells a curious tribe, the Maragatos, sometimes considered to be a remnant of the original Celtiberian inhabitants. As a rule the Maragatos earn their living as muleteers or carriers; they wear a distinctive costume, mix as little as possible with their neighbours and do not marry outside their own tribe. LEON, an episcopal see and the capital of the Spanish province of Leon, situated on a hill 2631 ft. above sea-level, in the angle made by the Torio and Bernesga, streams which unite on the south, and form the river Leon, a tributary of the Esla. Pop. (1900) 15,580. Leon is on the main railway from Madrid to Oviedo, and is connected with Astorga by a branch line. The older quarters of the city, which contain the cathedral and other medieval buildings, are surrounded by walls, and have lost little of their beauty and interest from the restoration carried out in the second half of the igth century. During the same period new suburbs grew up outside the walls to house the industrial popula- tion which was attracted by the development of iron-founding and the manufacture of machinery, railway-plant, chemicals and leather. Leon thus comprises two towns — the old, which is mainly ecclesiastical in its character, and the new, which is industrial. The cathedral, founded in 1199 and only finished at the close of the i4th century, is built of a warm cream-coloured stone, and is remarkable for simplicity, lightness and strength. It is one of the finest examples of Spanish Gothic, smaller, indeed, than the cathedrals of Burgos and Toledo, but exquisite in design and workmanship. The chapter library contains some valuable manuscripts. The collegiate church of San Isidore was founded by Ferdinand I. of Castile in 1063 and consecrated in 1149. Its architecture is Romanesque. The church contains some fine plate, including the silver reliquary in which the bones of St Isidore of Seville are preserved, and a silver processional cross dating from the i6th century, which is one of the most beautiful in the country. The convent and church of San Marcos, planned in 1514 by Ferdinand the Catholic, founded by Charles V. in 1 537, and consecrated in 1541, are Renaissance in style. They are built on the site of a hostel used by pilgrims on their way to Santiago de Compostela. The provincial museum occupies the chapterhouse and contains some interesting Roman monuments. The lower part of the city walls consists of Roman masonry dating from the 3rd century. Other buildings are the high school, ecclesiastical seminaries, hospital, episcopal palace and municipal and provincial halls. Leon (Arab. Liyun) owes its name to the Legio Septima Gemina of Galba, which, under the later emperors, had its head- quarters here. About 540 Leon fell into the hands of the Gothic king Leovigild, and in 717 it capitulated to the Moors. Retaken about 742, it ultimately, in the beginning of the loth century, became the capital of the kingdom of Leon (see SPAIN: History). About 996 it was taken by Almansur, but on his death soon afterwards it reverted to the Spaniards. It was the seat of several ecclesiastical councils, the first of which was held under Alphonso V. in 1012 and the last in 1288. LEONARDO DA VINCI (1452-1519), the great Italian painter, sculptor, architect, musician, mechanician, engineer and natural philosopher, was the son of a Florentine lawyer, born out of wedlock by a mother in a humble station, variously described as a peasant and as of gentle birth. The place of his birth was Vinci, a castello or fortified hill village in the Florentine territory near Empoli, from which his father's family derived its name. The Christian name of the father was Piero (the son of Antonio the son of Piero the son of Guido, all of whom had been men of law like their descendant). Leonardo's mother was called Catarina. Her relations with Ser Piero da Vinci seem to have come to an end almost immediately upon the birth of their son. She was soon afterwards married to one Accatta- briga di Piero del Vacca, of Vinci. Ser Piero on his part was four times married, and had by his last two wives nine sons and two daughters; but he had from the first acknowledged the boy Leonardo and brought him up in his own house, principally, no doubt, at Florence. In that city Ser Piero followed his profession with success, as notary to many of the chief families in the city, including the Medici, and afterwards to the signory or governing council of the state. The son born to him before marriage grew up into a youth of shining promise. To splendid beauty and activity of person he joined a winning charm of temper and manners, a tact for all societies, and an aptitude for all accomplishments. An inexhaustible intellectual energy and curiosity lay beneath this amiable surface. Among the multi- farious pursuits to which the young Leonardo set his hand, the favourites at first were music, drawing and modelling. His father showed some of his drawings to an acquaintance, Andrea del Verrocchio, who at once recognized the boy's artistic vocation, and was selected by Ser Piero to be his master.- Verrocchio, although hardly one of the great creative or in- ventive forces in the art of his age at Florence, was a first-rate craftsman alike as goldsmith, sculptor and painter, and particu- larly distinguished as a teacher. In his studio Leonardo worked for several years (about 1470-1477) in the company of Lorenzo di Credi and other less celebrated pupils. Among his contem- poraries he formed special ties of friendship with the painters Sandro Botticelli and Pietro Perugino. He had soon learnt all that Verrocchio had to teach — more than all, if we are to believe the oft-told tale of the figure, or figures, executed by the pupil in the picture of Christ's Baptism designed by the master for the monks of Vallombrosa. The work in question is now in the Academy at Florence. According to Vasari the angel kneeling on the left, with a drapery over the right arm, was put in by Leonardo, and when Verrocchio saw it his sense of its superiority to his own work caused him to forswear painting for ever after. The latter part of the story is certainly false. The picture, originally painted in tempera, has suffered much from later repaints in oil, rendering exact judgment difficult. The most competent opinion inclines to acknowledge the hand of Leonardo, not only in the face of the angel, but also in parts of the drapery and of the landscape background. The work was probably done in or about 1470, when Leonardo was eighteen years old. By T472 we find him enrolled in the lists of the painters' gild at Florence. Here he continued to live and work for ten or eleven years longer. Up till 1477 he is still spoken of as a pupil or apprentice of Verrocchio; but in that year he seems to have been taken into special favour by Lorenzo the Magnificent, and to have worked as an independent artist under his patronage until 1482-1483. In 1478 we find him receiving an important com- mission from the signory, and in 1480 another from the monks of San Donate in Scopeto. Leonardo was not one of those artists of the Renaissance who sought the means of reviving the ancient glories of art mainly in the imitation of ancient models. The antiques of the Medici gardens seem to have had little influence on him beyond that of generally stimulating his passion for perfection. By his own instincts he was an exclusive student of nature. LEONARDO DA VINCI 445 From his earliest days he had flung himself upon that study with an unprecedented ardour of delight and curiosity. In drawing from life he had early found the way to unite precision with freedom and fire — the subtlest accuracy of expressive definition with vital movement and rhythm of line — as no draughtsman had been able to unite them before. He was the first painter to recognize the play of light and shade as among the most significant and attractive of the world's appearances, the earlier schools having with one consent subordinated light and shade to colour and outline. Nor was he a student of the broad, usual, patent appearances only of the world; its fugitive, fantastic, unaccustomed appearances attracted him most of all. Strange shapes of hills and rocks, rare plants and animals, unusual faces and figures of men, questionable smiles and ex- pressions, whether beautiful or grotesque, far-fetched objects and curiosities, were things he loved to pore upon and keep in memory. Neither did he stop at mere appearances of any kind, but, having stamped the image of things upon his brain, went on indelatigably to probe their hidden laws and causes. He soon satisfied himself that the artist who was content to repro- duce the external aspects of things without searching into the hidden workings of nature behind them, was one but half equipped for his calling. Every fresh artistic problem immedi- ately became for him a far-reaching scientific problem as well. The laws of light and shade, the laws of " perspective," including optics and the physiology of the eye, the laws of human and animal anatomy and muscular movement, those of the growth and structure of plants and of the powers and properties of water, all these and much more furnished food almost from the beginning to his insatiable spirit of inquiry. The evidence of the young man's predilections and curiosities is contained in the legends which tell of lost works produced by him in youth. One of these was a cartoon or monochrome painting of Adam and Eve in tempera, and in this, besides the beauty of the figures, the infinite truth and elaboration of the foliage and animals in the background are celebrated in terms which bring to mind the treatment of the subject by Albrecht Durer in his famous engraving done thirty years later. Again, a peasant of Vinci having in his simplicity asked Ser Piero to get a picture painted for him on a wooden shield, the father is said to have laughingly handed on the commission to his son, who thereupon shut himself up with all the noxious insects and grotesque reptiles he could find, observed and drew and dissected them assiduously, and produced at last a picture of a dragon compounded of their various shapes and aspects, which was so fierce and so life-like as to terrify all who saw it. With equal research and no less effect he painted on another occasion the head of a snaky-haired Medusa. (A picture of this subject which long did duty at the Uffizi for Leonardo's work is in all likelihood merely the production of some later artist to whom the descrip- tions of that work have given the cue.) Lastly, Leonardo is related to have begun work in sculpture about this time by modelling several heads of smiling women and children. Of certified and accepted paintings produced by the young genius, whether during his apprentice or his independent years at Florence (about 1470-1482), very few are extant, and the two most important are incomplete. A small and charming strip of an oblong " Annunciation " at the Louvre is generally accepted as his work, done soon after 1470; a very highly wrought drawing at the Uffizi, corresponding on a larger scale to the head of the Virgin in the same picture, seems rather to be a copy by a later hand. This little Louvre " Annunciation " is not very compatible in style with another and larger, much- debated " Annunciation " at the Uffizi, which manifestly came from the workshop of Verrocchio about 1473-1474, and which many critics claim confidently for the young Leonardo. It may have been joint studio-work of Verrocchio and his pupils including Leonardo, who certainly was concerned in it, since a study for the sleeve of the angel, preserved at Christ Church, Oxford, is un- questionably by his hand. The landscape, with its mysterious spiry mountains and winding waters, is very Leonardesque both in this picture and in another contemporary product of the workshop, or as some think of Leonardo's hand, namely a very highly and coldly finished small " Madonna with a Pink " at Munich. The likeness he is recorded to have painted of Ginevra de' Benci used to be traditionally identified with the fine portrait of a matron at the Pitti absurdly known as La Monaca: more lately it has been recognized in a rather dull, expressionless Verrocchiesque portrait of a young woman with a fanciful background of pine-sprays in the Liechtenstein gallery at Vienna. Neither attribution can be counted convincing. Several works of sculpture, including a bas-relief at Pistoia and a small terra-cotta model of a St John at the Victoria and Albert Museum, have also been claimed, but without general consent, as the young master's handiwork. Of many brilliant early drawings by him, the first that can be dated is a study of landscape done in 1473. A magnificent silver-point head of a Roman warrior at the British Museum was clearly done, from or for a bas- relief, under the immediate influence of Verrocchio. A number of studies of heads in pen or silver point, with some sketches for Madonnas, including a charming series in the British Museum for a " Madonna with the Cat," may belong to the same years or the first years of his independence. A sheet with two studies of heads bears a MS. note of 1478, saying that in one of the last months of that year he began painting the " Two Maries." One of the two may have been a picture of the Virgin appearing to St Bernard, which we know he was commissioned to paint in that year for a chapel in the Palace of the Signory, but never finished : the commission was afterwards transferred to Filippino Lippi, whose performance is now in the Badia. One of the two heads on this dated sheet may probably have been a study for the same St Bernard; it was used afterwards by some follower for a St Leonard in a stiff and vapid " Ascension of Christ," wrongly attributed to the master himself in the Berlin Museum. A pen-drawing representing a ringleader of the Pazzi conspiracy, Bernardo Baroncelli, hung out of a window of the Bargello after his surrender by the sultan at Constantinople to the emissaries of Florence, can be dated from its subject as done in December 1479. A number of his best drawings of the next following years are preparatory pen-studies for an altarpiece of the " Adoration of the Magi," undertaken early in 1481 on the com- mission of the monks of S. Donate at Scopeto. The preparation in monochrome for this picture, a work of extraordinary power both of design and physiognomical expression, is preserved at the Uffizi, but the painting itself was never carried out, and after Leonardo's failure to fulfil his contract Filippino Lippi had once more to be employed in his place. Of equal or even more intense power, though of narrower scope, is an unfinished monochrome preparation for a St Jerome, found accidentally at Rome by Cardinal Fesch and now in the Vatican gallery; this also seems to belong to the first Florentine period, but is not mentioned in documents. The tale of completed work for these twelve or fourteen years (1470-1483 or thereabouts) is thus very scanty. But it must be remembered that Leonardo was already full of projects in mechanics, hydraulics, architecture, and military and civil engineering, ardently feeling his way in the work of experimental study and observation in every branch of theoretical or applied science in which any beginning had been made in his age, as well as in some in which he was himself the first pioneer. He was full of new ideas concerning both the laws and the applications of mechanical forces. His architectural and engineering projects were of a daring which amazed even the fellow-citizens of Alberti and Brunelleschi. History presents few figures more attractive to the mind's eye than that of Leonardo during this period of his all-capable and dazzling youth. He did not indeed escape calumny, and was even denounced on a charge of immoral practices, but fully and honourably acquitted. There was nothing about him, as there was afterwards about Michelangelo, dark-tempered, secret or morose; he was open and genial with all men. He has indeed praised " the self-sufficing power of solitude " in almost the same phrase as Wordsworth, and from time to time would even in youth seclude himself for a season in complete intellectual absorption, as when he toiled among his 446 LEONARDO DA VINCI bats and wasps and lizards, forgetful of rest and food, and in- sensible to the noisomeness of their corruption. But we have to picture him as anon coming out and gathering about him a tatterdemalion company, and jesting with them until they were in fits of laughter, for the sake of observing their burlesque physiognomies; anon as eagerly frequenting the society of men of science and learning of an older generation like the mathe- matician Benedetto Aritmetico, the physician, geographer and astronomer Paolo Toscanelli, the famous Greek Aristotelian Giovanni Argiropoulo; or as out-rivalling all the youth of the city now by charm of recitation, now by skill in music and now by feats of strength and horsemanship; or as stopping to buy caged birds in the market that he might set them free and watch them rejoicing in their flight; or again as standing radiant in his rose-coloured cloak and his rich gold hair among the throng of young and old on the piazza, and holding them spell- bound while he expatiated on the great projects in art and mechanics that were teeming in his mind. Unluckily it is to written records and to imagination that we have to trust ex- clusively for our picture. No portrait of Leonardo as he appeared during this period of his life has come down to us. But his far-reaching schemes and studies brought him no immediate gain, and diverted him from the tasks by which he should have supported himself. For all his shining power and promise he remained poor. Probably also his exclusive belief in experimental methods, and slight regard for mere authority whether in science or art made the intellectual atmosphere of the Medicean circle, with its passionate mixed cult of the classic past and of a Christianity mystically blended and recon- ciled with Platonism, uncongenial to him. At any rate he was ready to leave Florence when the chance was offered him of fixed service at the court of Ludovico Sforza (il Moro) at Milan. Soon after that prince had firmly established his power as nominal guardian and protector of his nephew Gian Galeazzo but really as usurping ruler of the state, he revived a project previously mooted for the erection of an equestrian monument in honour of the founder of his house's greatness, Francesco Sforza, and consulted Lorenzo dei Medici on the choice of an artist. Lorenzo recommended the young Leonardo, who went to Milan accord- ingly (at some uncertain date in or about 1483), taking as a gift from Lorenzo and a token of his own skill a silver lute of wondrous sweetness fashioned in the likeness of a horse's head. Hostilities were at the moment imminent between Milan and Venice; it was doubtless on that account that in the letter commending him- self to the duke, and setting forth his own capacities, Leonardo rests his title to patronage chiefly on his attainments and in- ventions in military engineering. After asserting these in detail under nine different heads, he speaks under a tenth of his pro- ficiency as a civil engineer and architect, and adds lastly a brief paragraph with reference to what he can do in painting and sculpture, undertaking in particular to carry out in a fitting manner the monument to Francesco Sforza. The first definite documentary evidence of Leonardo's em- ployments at Milan dates from 1487. Some biographers have supposed that the interval, or part of it, between 1483 and that date was occupied by travels in the East. The grounds of the supposition are some drafts occurring among his MSS. of a letter addressed to the diodario or diwddar of Syria, lieutenant of the sultan of Babylon (Babylon meaning according to a usage of that time Cairo). In these drafts Leonardo describes in the first person, with sketches, a traveller's strange experiences in Egypt, Cyprus, Constantinople, the Cilician coasts about Mount Taurus and Armenia. He relates the rise and persecution of a prophet and preacher, the catastrophe of a falling mountain and submergence of a great city, followed by a general inunda- tion, and the claim of the prophet to have foretold these dis- asters; adding physical descriptions of the Euphrates river and the marvellous effects of sunset light on the Taurus range. No contemporary gives the least hint of Leonardo's having travelled in the East; to the places he mentions he gives their classical and not their current Oriental names; the catastrophes he describes are unattested from any other source; he confuses the Taurus and the Caucasus; some of the phenomena he mentions are repeated from Aristotle and Ptolemy; and there seems little reason to doubt that these passages in his MSS. are merely his drafts of a projected geographical treatise or perhaps romance. He had a passion for geography and travellers' tales, for descriptions of natural wonders and ruined cities, and was himself a practised fictitious narrator and fabulist, as other passages in his MSS. prove. Neither is the gap in the account of his doings after he first went to the court of Milan really so complete as has been represented. Ludovico was vehemently denounced and attacked during the earlier years of his usurpa- tion, especially by the partisans of his sister-in-law Bona of Savoy, the mother of the rightful duke, young Gian Galeazzo. To repel these attacks he employed the talents of a number of court poets and artists, who in public recitation and pageant, in emblematic picture and banner and device, proclaimed the wisdom and kindness of his guardianship and the wickedness of his assailants. That Leonardo was among the artists thus employed is proved both by notes and projects among his MSS. and by allegoric sketches still extant. Several such sketches are at Christ Church, Oxford: one shows a horned hag or she- fiend urging her hounds to an attack on the state of Milan, and baffled by the Prudence and Justice of II Moro (all this made clear by easily recognizable emblems). The allusion must almost certainly be to the attempted assassination of Ludovico by agents of the duchess Bona in 1484. Again, it must have been the pestilence decimating Milan in 1484-1485 which gave occasion to the projects submitted by Leonardo to Ludovico for breaking up the city and reconstructing it on improved sanitary prin- ciples. To 1483-1486 also appears to belong the inception of his elaborate though unfulfilled architectural plans for beautifying and strengthening the Castello, the great stronghold of the ruling power in the state. Very soon afterwards he must have begun work upon his plans and models, undertaken during an acute phase of the competition which the task had called forth be- tween German and Italian architects, for another momentous enterprise, the completion of Milan cathedral. Extant records of payments made to him in connexion with these architectural plans extend from August 1487 to May 1490: in the. upshot none of them was carried out. From the beginning of his residence with Ludovico his combination of unprecedented mechanical ingenuity with apt allegoric invention and courtly charm and eloquence had made him the directing spirit in all court ceremonies and festivities. On the occasion of the marriage of the young duke Gian Galeazzo with Isabella of Aragon in 1487, we find Leonardo devising all the mechanical and spectacular part of a masque of Paradise; and presently afterwards designing a bathing pavilion of unheard-of beauty and ingenuity for the young duchess. Meanwhile he was filling his note-books as busily as ever with the results of his studies in statics and dynamics, in human anatomy, geometry and the phenomena of light and shade. It is probable that from the first he had not forgotten his great task of the Sforza monu- ment, with its attendant researches in equine movement and anatomy, and in the science and art of bronze casting on a great scale. The many existing sketches for the work (of which the chief collection is at Windsor) cannot be distinctly dated. In 1490, the seventh year of his residence at Milan, after some expressions of impatience on the part of his patron, he had all but got his model ready for display on the occasion of the marriage of Ludovico with Beatrice d'Este, but at the last moment was dissatisfied with what he had done and determined to begin all over again. In the same year, 1490, Leonardo enjoyed some months of uninterrupted mathematical and physical research in the libraries and among the learned men of Pavia, whither he had been called to advise on some architectural difficulties concerning the cathedral. Here also the study of an ancient equestrian monu- ment (the so-called Regisole, destroyed in 1796) gave him fresh ideas for his Francesco Sforza. In January 1491 a double Sforza-Este marriage (Ludovico Sforza himself with Beatrice d'Este, Alfonso d'Este with Anna Sforza the sister of Gian LEONARDO DA VINCI 447 Galeazzo) again called forth his powers as a masque and pageant- master. For the next following years the ever-increasing gaiety and splendour of the Milanese court gave him continual employment in similar kinds, including the composition and recitation of jests, tales, fables and " prophecies " (i.e. moral and social satires and allegories cast in the future tense); among his MSS. occur the drafts of many such, some of them both profound and pungent. Meanwhile he was again at work upon the monument to Francesco Sforza, and this time to practical purpose. When ambassadors from Austria came to Milan towards the close of 1493 to escort the betrothed bride of their emperor Maximilian, Bianca Maria Sforza, away on her nuptial journey, the finished colossal model, 26 ft. high, was at last in its place for all to see in the courtyard of the Castello. Con- temporary accounts attest the magnificence of the work and the enthusiasm it excited, but are not precise enough to enable us to judge to which of the two main groups of extant sketches its design corresponded. One of these groups shows the horse and rider in relatively tranquil march, in the manner of the Gattemalata monument put up fifty years before by Donatello at Padua and the Colleoni monument on which Verocchio was now engaged at Venice. Another group of sketches shows the horse galloping or rearing in violent action, in some instances in the act of trampling a fallen enemy. Neither is it possible to discriminate with certainty the sketches intended for the Sforza monument from others which Leonardo may have done in view of another and later commission for an equestrian statue, namely, that in honour of Ludovico's great enemy, Gian Giacomo Trivulzio. The year 1494 is a momentous one in the history of Italian politics. In that year the long ousted and secluded prince, Gian Galeazzo, died under circumstances more than suspicious. In that year Ludovico, now duke of Milan in his own right, for the strengthening of his power against Naples, first entered into those intrigues with Charles VIII. of France which later brought upon Italy successive floods of invasion, revolution and calamity. The same year was one of special importance in the prodigiously versatile activities of Leonardo da Vinci. Documents show him, among other things, planning during an absence of several months from the city vast new engineering works for improving the irrigation and water-ways of the Lomellina and adjacent regions of the Lombard plain; ardently studying phenomena of storm and lightning, of river action and of mountain struc- ture; co-operating with his friend, Donato Bramante, the great architect, in fresh designs for the improvement and embellish- ment of the Castello at Milan; and petitioning the duke to secure him proper payment for a Madonna lately executed with the help of his pupil, Ambrogio de Predis, for the brotherhood of the Conception of St Francis at Milan. (This is almost certainly the fine, slightly altered second version of the " Virgin of the Rocks," now in the National Gallery, London. The original and earlier version is one of the glories of the Louvre, and shows far more of a Florentine and less of a Milanese character than the London picture.) In the same year, 1494, or early in the next, Leonardo, if Vasari is to be trusted, paid a visit to Florence to take part in deliberations concerning the projected new council-hall to be constructed in the palace of the Signory. Lastly, recent research has proved that it was in 1494 that Leonardo got to work in earnest on what was .to prove not only by far his greatest but by far his most expeditiously and steadily executed work in painting. This was the " Last Supper " undertaken for the refectory of the convent church of Sta Maria delle Grazie at Milan on the joint commission (as it would appear) of Ludovico and of the monks themselves. This picture, the world-famous " Cenacolo " of Leonardo, has been the subject of much erroneous legend and much misdirected experiment. Having through centuries undergone cruel injury, from technical imperfections at the outset, from disastrous atmospheric conditions, from vandalism and neglect, and most of all from unskilled repair, its remains have at last (1904-1908) been treated with a mastery of scientific resource and a tenderness of conscientious skill that have revived for ourselves and for posterity a great part of its power. At the same time its true history has been investigated and re-established. The intensity of intellectual and manual application which Leonardo threw into the work is proved by the fact that he finished it within four years, in spite of all his other avocations and of those prolonged pauses of concentrated imaginative effort and intense self-critical brooding to which we have direct contemporary witness. He painted the picture on the wall in tempera, not, according to the legend which sprung up within twenty years of its completion, in oil. The tempera vehicle, perhaps including new experimental ingredients, did not long hold firmly to its plaster ground, nor that to the wall. Flaking and scaling set in; hard crusts of mildew formed, dissolved and re-formed with changes of weather over both the loosened parts and those that remained firm. Decade after decade these processes went on, a rain of minute scales and grains falling, according to one witness, continually from the surface, till the picture seemed to be perishing altogether. In the i8th century attempts were first made at restoration. They all proceeded on the false assump- tion, dating from the early years of the i6th century, that the work had been executed in oil. With oil it was accordingly at one time saturated in hopes of reviving the colours. Other experimenters tried various " secrets," which for the most part meant deleterious glues and varnishes. Fortunately not very much of actual repainting was accomplished except on some parts of the garments. The chief operations were carried on by Bellotti in 1726, by Mazza in 1770, and by Barezzi in 1819 and the following years. None of them arrested, some actually accelerated, the natural agencies of damp and disintegration, decay and mildew. Yet this mere ghost of a picture, this evocation, half vanished as it was, by a great world-genius of a mighty spiritual world-event, remained a thing indescribably impressive. The ghost has now been brought back to much of true life again by the skill of the most scrupulous of all restorers, Cavaliere Cavenaghi, who, acting under the authority of a competent commission, and after long and patient experiment, found it possible to secure to the wall the innumerable blistered, mildewed and half-detached flakes and scales of the original work that yet remained, to clear the surface thus obtained of much of the obliterating accretions due to decay and mishandling, and to bring the whole to unity by touching tenderly in with tempera the spots and spaces actually left bare. A further gain obtained through these operations has been the uncovering, immediately above the main subject, of a beautiful scheme of painted lunettes and vaultings, the lunettes filled by Leonardo's hand with inscribed scutcheons and interlaced plait or knot ornaments (intrecciamenti) , the vaultings with stars on a blue ground. The total result, if adequate steps can be taken to counteract the effects of atmospheric change in future, will remain a splendid gain for posterity and a happy refutation of D'Annunzio's despairing poem, the Death of a Masterpiece. Leonardo's " Last Supper," for all its injuries, became from the first, and has ever since remained, for all Christendom the typical representation of the scene. Goethe in his famous criticism has said all that needs to be said of it. The painter has departed from precedent in grouping the disciples, with their Master in the midst, along the far side and the two ends of a long, narrow table, and in leaving the near or service side of the table towards the spectator free. The chamber is seen in a perfectly symmetrical perspective, its rear wall pierced by three plain openings which admit the sense of quiet distance and mystery from the open landscape beyond; by the central of these openings, which is the widest of the three, the head and shoulders of the Saviour are framed in. On His right and left are ranged the disciples in equal numbers. The furniture and accessories of the chamber, very simply conceived, have been rendered with scrupulous exactness and distinctness; yet they leave to the human and dramatic elements the absolute mastery of the scene. The serenity of the holy company has within a moment been broken by the words of their Master, " One of you shall betray Me." In the agitation of their con- sciences and affections, the disciples have started into groups LEONARDO DA VINCI or clusters along the table, some standing, some still remaining seated. There are four of these groups, of three disciples each, and each group is harmoniously interlinked by some natural connecting action with the next. Leonardo, though no special student of the Greeks, has perfectly carried out the Greek principle of expressive variety in particulars subordinated to general symmetry. He has used all his acquired science of linear and aerial perspective to create an almost complete illusion to the eye, but an illusion that has in it nothing trivial, and in heightening our sense of the material reality of the scene only heightens its profound spiritual impressiveness and gravity. The results of his intensest meditations on the psychology and the human and divine significance of the event (on which he has left some pregnant hints in written words of his own) are perfectly fused with those of his subtlest technical calculations on the rhythmical balancing of groups and arrangement of figures in space. Of authentic preparatory studies for this work there remain but few. There is a sheet at the Louvre of much earlier date than the first idea or commission for this particular picture, containing some nude sketches for the arrangement of the subject ; another later and farther advanced, but still probably anterior to the practical commission, at Venice, and a MS. sheet of great interest at the Victoria and Albert Museum, on which the painter has noted in writing the dramatic motives appropriate to the several disciples. At Windsor and Milan are a few finished studies in red chalk for the heads. A highly- reputed series of life-sized chalk drawings of the same heads, of which the greater portion is at Weimar, consists of early copies, and is interesting though having no just claim to origin- ality. Scarcely less doubtful is the celebrated unfinished and injured study of the head of Christ at the Brera, Milan. Leonardo's triumph with his " Last Supper " encouraged him in the hope of proceeding now to the casting of the Sforza monument or " Great Horse," the model of which had stood for the last three years the admiration of all beholders, in the Corte Vecchio of the Castello. He had formed a new and close friend- ship with Luca Pacioli of Borgo San Sepolcro, the great mathe- matician, whose Summa de aritmetica, geometrica, &c., he had eagerly bought at Pavia on its first appearance, and who arrived at the Court of Milan about the moment of the completion of the " Cenacolo." Pacioli was equally amazed and delighted at Leonardo's two great achievements in sculpture and painting, and still more at the genius for mathematical, physical and anatomical research shown in the collections of MS. notes which the master laid before him. The two began working together on the materials for Pacioli's next book, De divina proportions. Leonardo obtained Pacioli's help in calculations and measure- ments for the great task of casting the bronze horse and man. But he was soon called away by Ludovico to a different under- taking, the completion of the interior decorations, already begun by another hand and interrupted, of certain chambers of the Castello called the Saletta Negra and the Sola Grande dell' Asse, or Sola delta Torre. When, in the last decade of the 1 9th century, works of thorough architectural investigation and repair were undertaken in that building under the superintend- ence of Professor Luca Beltrami, a devoted foreign student, Dr Paul Muller-Walde, obtained leave to scrape for traces of Leonardo's handiwork beneath the replastered and white- washed walls and ceilings of chambers that might be identified with these. In one small chamber there was cleared a frieze of cupids intermingled with foliage; but in this, after the first moments of illusion, it was only possible to acknowledge the hand of some unknown late and lax decorator of the school, influenced as much by Raphael as by Leonardo. In another room (Sola del Tesoro) was recovered a gigantic headless figure, in all probability of Mercury, also wrongly claimed at first for Leonardo, and afterwards, to all appearance rightly, for Bramante. But in the great Sola dell' Asse (or della Torre} abundant traces of Leonardo's own hand were found, in the shape of a decoration of intricate geometrical knot or plait work combined with natural leafage; the abstract puzzle-pattern, of a kind in which Leonardo took peculiar pleasure, intermingling in cunning play and contrast with a pattern of living boughs and leaves exquisitely drawn in free and vital growth. Sufficient portions of this design were found in good preservation to enable the whole to be accurately restored — a process as legitimate in such a case as censurable in the case of a figure-painting. For these and other artistic labours Leonardo was rewarded in 1498 (ready money being with difficulty forthcoming and his salary being long in arrears) by the gift of a suburban garden outside the Porta Vercelli. But again he could not get leave to complete the task in hand. He was called away on duty as chief military engineer (ingegnere camerale) with the special charge of inspecting and maintaining all the canals and waterways of the duchy. Dangers were accumu- lating upon Ludovico and the state of Milan. France had become Ludovico's enemy; and Louis XII., the pope and Venice had formed a league to divide his principality among them. He counted on baffling them by forming a counter league of the principalities of northern Italy, and by raising the Turks against Venice, and the Germans and Swiss against France. Germans and Swiss, however, inopportunely fell to war against each other. Ludovico travelled to Innsbruck, the better to push his interests (September 1499). In his absence Louis XII. invaded the Milanese, and the officers left in charge of the city surrendered it without striking a blow. The invading sovereign, going to Sta Maria delle Grazie with his retinue to admire the renowned painting of the " Last Supper," asked if it could not be detached from the wall and transported to France. The French b'eutenant in Milan, Gian Giacomo Trivulzio, the embittered enemy of Ludovico, began exercising a vindictive tyranny over the city which had so long accepted the sway of the usurper. Great artists were usually exempt from the consequences of political revolutions, and Trivulzio, now or later, commissioned Leonardo to design an equestrian monument to himself. Leonardo, having remained unmolested at Milan for two months under the new regime, but knowing that Ludovico was preparing a great stroke for the re-establishment of his power, and that fresh convulsions must ensue, thought it best to provide for his own security. In December he left Milan with his friend Luca Pacioli, having first sent some of his modest savings to Florence for investment. His intention was to watch events. They took a turn which made him a stranger to Milan for the next seven years. Ludovico, at the head of an army of Swiss mercenaries, returned victoriously in February 1500, and was welcomed by a population disgusted with the oppression of the invaders. But in April he was once more overthrown by the French in a battle fought at Novara, his Swiss clamouring at the last moment for their overdue pay, and treacherously refusing to fight against a force of their own countrymen led by La Tremouille. Ludovico was taken prisoner and carried to France; the city, which had been strictly spared on the first entry of Louis XII., was entered and sacked; and the model of Leonardo's great statue made a butt (as eye witnesses tell) for Gascon archers. Two years later we find the duke Ercole of Ferrara begging the French king's lieutenant in Milan to let him have the model, injured as it was, for the adornment of his own city; but nothing came of the petition, and within a short time it seems to have been totally broken up. Thus, of Leonardo's sixteen years' work at Milan (1483-1499) the results actually remaining are as follows: The Louvre " Virgin of the Rocks " possibly, i.e. as to its execution; the conception and style are essentially Florentine, carried out by Leonardo to a point of intense and almost glittering finish, of quintessential, almost overstrained, refinement in design and expression, and invested with a new element of romance by the landscape in which the scene is set — a strange watered country of basaltic caves and arches, with the lights and shadows striking sharply and yet mysteriously among rocks, some upright, some jutting, some pendent, all tufted here and there with exquisite growths of shrub and flower. The National Gallery " Virgin of the Rocks " certainly, with help from Ambrogio de Predis; in this the Florentine character of the original is modified by an admixture of Milanese elements, the tendency to harshness and LEONARDO DA VINCI 449 over-elaboration of detail softened, the strained action of the angel's pointing hand altogether dropped, while in many places pupils' work seems recognizable beside that of the master. The " Last Supper" of Sta Maria delle Grazie, his masterpiece; as to its history and present condition enough has been said. The decorations of the ceiling of the Sala della Torre in the CasteOo. Other paintings done by him at Milan are mentioned, and attempts have been made to identify them with works still existing. He is known to have painted portraits of two of the king's mistresses, Cecilia Gallerani and LucreziaCrivelli. Cecilia Gallerani used to be identified as a lady with ringlets and a lute, depicted in a portrait at Milan, now rightly assigned to Barto- lommeo Veneto. More lately she has by some been conjecturally recognized in a doubtful, though Leonardesque, portrait of a lady with a weasel in the Czartoryski collection at Prague. Lucrezia Crivelli has, with no better reason, been identified with the famous " Belle Ferronniere " (a mere misnomer, caught from the true name of another portrait which used to hang near it) at the Louvre; this last is either a genuine Milanese portrait by Leonardo himself or an extraordinarily fine work of his pupil Boltraffio. Strong claims have also been made on behalf of a fine profile portrait resembling Beatrice d'Este in the Ambrosiana; but this the best judges are agreed in regarding as a work, done in a lucky hour, of Ambrogio de Predis. A portrait of a musician in the same gallery is in like manner contested between the master and the pupil. Mention is made of a " Nativity " painted for and sent to the emperor Maximilian, and also apparently of some picture painted for Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary; both are lost or at least unidentified. The painters especially recorded as Leonardo's immediate pupils during this part of his life at Milan are the two before mentioned, Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio and Ambrogio Preda or de Predis, with Marco d'Oggionno and Andrea Salai, the last apparently less a fully-trained painter than a studio assistant and personal attendant, devotedly attached and faithful in both capacities. Leonardo's own native Florentine manner had at first been not a little modified by that of the Milanese school as he found it represented in the works of such men as Bramantino, Borgognone and Zenale; but his genius had in its turn reacted far more strongly upon the younger members of the school, and exercised, now or later, a transforming and dominating influence not only upon his immediate pupils, but upon men like Luini, Giam- petrino, Bazzi, Cesare da Sesto and indeed the whole Lombard school in the early isth century. Of sculpture done by him during this period we have no remains, only the tragically tantalizing history of the Sforza monument. Of drawings there are very many, including few only for the " Last Supper," many for the Sforza monument, as well as the multitude of sketches, scientific and other, which we find intermingled among the vast body of his miscellaneous MSS., notes and records. Inmechanical, scientific and theoretical studies of all kinds it was a period, as these MSS. attest, of extraordinary activity and self-develop- ment. At Pavia in 1494 we find him taking up literary and grammatical studies, both in Latin and the vernacular; the former, no doubt, in order the more easily to read those among the ancients who had laboured in the fields that were his own, as Euclid, Galen, Celsus, Ptolemy, Pliny, Vitruvius and, above all, Archimedes; the latter with a growing hope of some day getting into proper form and order the mass of materials he was daily accumulating for treatises on all his manifold subjects of enquiry. He had been much helped by his opportunities of intercourse with the great architects, engineers and mathematicians who frequented the court of Milan — Bramante, Alberghetti, Andrea di Ferrara, Pietro Monti, Fazio Cardano and, above all, Luca Pacioli. The knowledge of Leonardo's position among and familiarity with such men early helped to spread the idea that' he had been at the head of a regularly constituted academy of arts and sciences at Milan. The occurrence of the words "Acha- demia Leonard! Vinci " on certain engravings, done after his drawings, of geometric " knots " or puzzle-patterns (things for which we have already learned his partiality), helped to give currency to this impression not only in Italy but in the North, xvi. 15 where the same engravings were copied by Albrecht Durer. The whole notion has been proved mistaken. There existed no such academy at Milan, with Leonardo as president. The academies of the day represented the prevailing intellectual tendency of Renaissance humanism, namely, an absorbing enthusiasm for classic letters and for the transcendental specula- tions of Platonic and neo-Platonic mysticism, not unmixed with the traditions and practice of medieval alchemy, astrology and necromantics. For these last pursuits Leonardo had nothing but contempt. His many-sided and far-reaching studies in experimental science were mainly his own, conceived and carried out long in advance of his time, and in communion with only such more or less isolated spirits as were advancing along one or another of the same paths of knowledge. He learnt indeed on these lines eagerly wherever he could, and in learning imparted knowledge to others. But he had no school in any proper sense except his studio, and his only scholars were those who painted there. Of these one or two, as we have evidence, tried their hands at engraving; among their engravings were these " knots," which, being things of use for decorative craftsmen to copy, were inscribed for identification, and perhaps for protection, as coming from the Achademia Leonard! Vinci; a trifling matter altogether, and quite unfit to sustain the elaborate structure of conjecture which has been built on it. To return to the master: when he and Luca Pacioli left Milan in December 1499, their destination was Venice. They made a brief stay at Mantua, where Leonardo was graciously received by the duchess Isabella Gonzaga, the most cultured of the many cultured great ladies of her time, whose portrait he promised to paint on a future day; meantime he made the fine chalk drawing of her now at the Louvre. Arrived at Venice, he seems to have occupied himself chiefly with studies in mathe- matics and cosmography. In April the friends heard of the second and final overthrow of Ludovico il Moro, and at that news, giving up all idea of a return to Milan, moved on to Florence, which they found depressed both by internal troubles and by the protraction of the indecisive and inglorious war with Pisa. Here Leonardo undertook to paint an altar-piece for the Church of the Annunziata, Filippino Lippi, who had already received the commission, courteously retiring from it in his favour. A year passed by, and no progress had been made with the painting. Questions of physical geography and engineering engrossed him as much as ever. He writes to correspondents making enquiries about the tides in the Euxine and Caspian Seas. He reports for the information of the Arte de' Mercanti on the precautions to be taken against a threatening landslip on the hill of S. Salvatore dell' Osservanza. He submits drawings and models for the canalization and control of the waters of the Arno, and propounds, with compulsive eloquence and conviction, a scheme for transporting the Baptistery of St John, the " bel San Giovanni " of Dante, to another part of the city, and elevat- ing it on a stately basement of marble. Meantime the Servile brothers of the Annunziata were growing impatient for the completion of their altar-piece. In April 1501 Leonardo had only finished the cartoon, and this all Florence flocked to see and admire. Isabella Gonzaga, who cherished the hope that he might be induced permanently to attach himself to the court of Mantua, wrote about this time to ask news of him, and to beg for a paint- ing from him for her study, already adorned with masterpieces by the first hands of Italy, or at least for a " small Madonna, devout and sweet as is natural to him." In reply her corre- spondent says that the master is wholly taken up with geometry and very impatient of the brush, but at the same time tells her all about his just completed cartoon for the Annunziata. The subject was the Virgin seated in the lap of St Anne, bending forward to hold her child who had half escaped from her embrace to play with a lamb upon the ground. The description answers exactly to the composition of the celebrated picture of the Virgin and St Anne at the Louvre. A cartoon of this composition in the Esterhazy collection at Vienna is held to be only a copy, and the original cartoon must be regarded as lost. But another of kindred though not identical motive has come down to us 45° LEONARDO DA VINCI and is preserved in the Diploma Gallery at the Royal Academy. In this incomparable work St Anne, pointing upward with her left hand, smiles with an intense look of wondering, questioning, inward sweetness into the face of the Virgin, who in her turn smiles down upon her child as He leans from her lap to give the blessing to the little St John standing beside her. Evidently two different though nearly related designs had been maturing in Leonardo's mind. A rough first sketch for the motive of the Academy cartoon is in the British Museum; one for the motive of the lost cartoon and of the Louvre picture is at Venice. Nc painting by Leonardo from the Academy cartoon exists, but in the Ambrosiana at Milan there is one by Luini, with the figure of St Joseph added. It remains a matter of debate whether the Academy cartoon or that shown by Leonardo at the Annun- ziata in 1501 was the earlier. The probabilities seem in favour of the Academy cartoon. This, whether done at Milan or at Florence, is in any case a typically perfect and harmonious example of the master's Milanese manner; while in the other composition with the lamb the action and attitude of the Virgin are somewhat strained, and the original relation between her head and her mother's, lovely both in design and expression, is lost. In spite of the universal praise of his cartoon, Leonardo did not persevere with the picture, and the monks of the Annunziata had to give back the commission to Filippino Lippi, at whose death the task was completed by Perugino. It remains un- certain whether a small Madonna with distaff and spindle, which the correspondent of Isabella Gonzaga reports Leonardo as having begun for one Robertet, a favourite of the king of France, was ever finished. He painted one portrait, it is said, at this time, that of Ginevra Benci, a kinswoman, perhaps sister, of a youth Giovanni di Amerigo Benci, who shared his passion for cosmographical studies; and probably began another, the famous " La Gioconda," which was only finished four years afterwards. The gonfalionere Soderini offered him in vain, to do with it what he would, the huge half-spoiled block of marble out of which Michelangelo three years later wrought his " David." Isabella Gonzaga again begged, in an autograph letter, that she might have a painting by his hand, but her request was put off; he did her, however, one small service by examining and reporting on some jewelled vases, formerly the property of Lorenzo de' Medici, which had been offered her. The impor- tunate expectations of a masterpiece or masterpieces in painting or sculpture, which beset him on all hands in Florence, inclined him to take service again with some princely patron, if possible of a genius commensurate with his own, who would give him scope to carry out engineering schemes on a vast scale. Ac- cordingly he suddenly took service, in the spring of 1502, with Cesare Borgia, duke of Valentinois, then almost within sight of the realization of his huge ambitions, and meanwhile occupied in consolidating his recent conquests in the Romagna. Between May 1 502 and March 1 503 Leonardo travelled as chief engineer to Duke Caesar over a great part of central Italy. Starting with a visit to Piombino, on the coast opposite Elba, he went by way of Siena to Urbino, where he made drawings and began works; was thence hastily summoned by way of Pesaro and Rimini to Cesena; spent two months between there and Cesenatico, projecting and directing canal and harbour works, and planning the restoration of the palace of Frederic II.; thence hurriedly joined his master, momentarily besieged by enemies at Imola; followed him probably to Sinigaglia and Perugia, through the whirl of storms and surprises, vengeances and treasons, which marked his course that winter, and finally, by way of Chiusi and Acquapendente, as far as Orvieto and probably to Rome, where Caesar arrived on the I4th of February 1503. The pope's death and Caesar's own downfall were not destined to be long delayed. But Leonardo apparently had already had enough of that service, and was back at Florence in March. He has left dated notes and drawings made at most of the stations we have named, besides a set of six large-scale maps drawn minutely with his own hand, and including nearly the whole territory of the Maremma, Tuscany and Umbria between the Apennines and the Tyrrhene Sea. At Florence he was at last persuaded, on the initiative of Piero Soderini, to undertake for his native city a work of painting as great as that with which he had adorned Milan. This was a battle-piece to decorate one of the walls of the new council- hall in the palace of the signory. He chose an episode in the victory won by the generals of the republic in 1440 over Niccolo Piccinino near a bridge at Anghiari, in the upper valley of the Tiber. To the young Michelangelo was presently entrusted a rival battle-piece to be painted on another wall of the same apartment; he chose, as is well known, a surprise of the Floren- tine forces in the act of bathing near Pisa. About the same time Leonardo took part in the debate on the proper site for Michelangelo's newly finished colossal " David," and voted in favour of the Loggia dei Lanzi, against a majority which included Michelangelo himself. Neither Leonardo's genius nor his noble manners could soften the rude and taunting temper of the younger man, whose style as an artist, nevertheless, in subjects both of tenderness and terror, underwent at this time a profound modification from Leonardo's example. In one of the sections of his projected Treatise on Painting, Leonardo has detailed at length, and obviously from his own observation, the pictorial aspects of a battle. His choice of subject in this instance was certainly not made from any love of warfare or indifference to its horrors. In his MSS. there occur almost as many trenchant sayings on life and human affairs as on art and natural law; and of war he has disposed in two words as a " bestial frenzy " (pazzia bestialissima). In his design for the Hall of Council he set himself to depict this frenzy at its fiercest. He chose the moment of a terrific struggle for the colours between the opposing sides; hence the work became commonly known as the " Battle of the Standard." Judging by the accounts of those who saw it, and the fragmentary evidences which remain, the tumultuous medley of men and horses, and the expressions of martial fury and despair, must have been conceived and rendered with a mastery not less commanding than had been the looks and gestures of bodeful sorrow and soul's perplexity among the quiet company on the convent wall at Milan. The place assigned to Leonardo for the preparation of his cartoon was the Sala del Papa at Santa Maria Novella. He for once worked steadily and unremittingly at his task. His accounts with the signory enable us to follow its progress step by step. He had finished the cartoon in less than two years (1504-1505), and when it was exhibited along with that of Michelangelo, the two rival works seemed to all men a new revelation of the powers of art, and served as a model and example of the students of that generation, as the frescoes of Masaccio in the Carmine had served to those of two generations earlier. The young Raphael, whose incomparable instinct for rhythmical design had been trained hitherto on subjects of holy quietude and rapt contemplation according to the traditions of Umbrian art, learnt from Leonardo's example to apply the same instinct to themes of violent action and strife. From the same example Fra Bartolommeo and a crowd of other Florentine painters of the rising or risen generation took in like manner a new impulse. The master lost no time in proceeding to the execution of his design upon the mural surface; this time he had devised a technical method of which, after a pre- liminary trial in the Sala del Papa, he regarded the success as certain; the colours, whether tempera or other remains in doubt, were to be laid on a specially prepared ground, and then both colours and ground made secure upon the wall by the application of heat. When the central group was done the heat was applied, but it was found to take effect unequally; the colours in the upper part ran or scaled from the wall, and the result was a failure more or less complete. The unfinished and decayed painting remained for some fifty years on the wall, but after 1560 was covered over with new frescoes by Vasari. The cartoon did not last so long. After doing its work as the most inspiring of all examples for students it seems to have been cut up. When Leonardo left Italy for good in 1516 he is recorded to have left " the greater part of it " in deposit at the hospital of S. Maria Nuova, where he was accustomed also to deposit his LEONARDO DA VINCI moneys, and whence it seems before long to have disappeared. Our only existing memorials of the great work are a number of small pen-studies of fighting men and horses, three splendid studies in red chalk at Budapest for heads in the principal group, one head at Oxford copied by a contemporary of the size of the original cartoon (above life); a tiny sketch, also at Oxford, by Raphael after the principal group; an engraving done by Zacchia of Lucca in 1558 not after the original but after a copy; a 16th-century Flemish drawing of the principal group, and another, splendidly spirited, by Rubens, both copies of copies; with Edelinck's fine engraving after the Rubens drawing. During these years, 1503-1506, Leonardo also resumed (if it is true that he had already begun it before his travels with Cesare Borgia) the portrait of Madonna Lisa, the Neapolitan wife of Zanobi del Giocondo, and finished it to the last pitch of his powers. In this lady he had found a sitter whose face and smile possessed in a singular degree the haunting, enigmatic charm in which he delighted. He worked, it is said, at her portrait during some portion of four successive years, causing music to be played during the sittings that the rapt expression might not fade from off her countenance. The picture was bought afterwards by Francis I. for four thousand gold florins, and is now one of the glories of the Louvre. The richness of colouring on which Vasari expatiates has indeed flown, partly from injury, partly because in striving for effects of light and shade the painter was accustomed to model his figures on a dark ground, and in this as in his other oil-pictures the ground has to a large extent come through. Nevertheless, in its dimmed and blackened state, the portrait casts an irresistible spell alike by subtlety of expression, by refinement and precision of drawing, and by the romantic invention of its background. It has been the theme of endless critical rhapsodies, among which that of Pater is perhaps the most imaginative as it is the best known. In the spring of 1506 Leonardo, moved perhaps by chagrin at the failure of his work in the Hall of Council, accepted a pressing invitation to Milan, from Charles d'Amboise, Marechal de Chaumont, the lieutenant of the French king in Lombardy. The leave of absence granted to him by the signory on the request of the French viceroy was for three months only. The period was several times extended, at first grudgingly, Soderini complaining that Leonardo had treated the republic ill in the matter of the battle picture; whereupon the painter honourably offered to refund the money paid, an offer which the signory as honourably refused. Louis XII. sent messages urgently desiring that Leonardo should await his own arrival in Milan, having seen a small Madonna by him in France (probably that painted for Robertet) and hoping to obtain from him works of the same class and perhaps a portrait. The king arrived in May 1507, and soon afterwards Leonardo's services were formally and amicably transferred from the signory of Florence to Louis, who gave him the title of painter and engineer in ordinary. In September of the same year troublesome private affairs called him to Florence. His father had died in 1504, apparently intestate. After his death Leonardo experienced unkindness from his seven half-brothers, Ser Piero's legitimate sons. They were all much younger than himself. One of them, who followed his father's profession, made himself the champion of the others in disputing Leonardo's claim to his share, first in the paternal inheritance, and then in that which had been left to be divided between the brothers and sisters by an uncle. The litigation that ensued dragged on for several years, and forced upon Leonardo frequent visits to Florence and interrup- tions of his work at Milan, in spite of pressing letters to the authorities of the republic from Charles d'Amboise, from the French king himself, and from others of his powerful friends and patrons, begging that the proceedings might be accelerated. There are traces of work done during these intervals of com- pulsory residence at Florence. A sheet of sketches drawn there in 1508 shows the beginning of a Madonna now lost except in the form of copies, one of which (known, as the " Madonna Litta") is at St Petersburg, another in the Poldi-Pezzoli Museum at Milan. A letter from Leonardo to Charles d'Amboise in 1511, announcing the end of his law troubles, speaks of two Madonnas of different sizes that he means to bring with him to Milan. One was no doubt that just mentioned; can the other have been the Louvre " Virgin with St Anne and St John," now at last completed from the cartoon exhibited in 1501? Meantime the master's main home and business were at Milan. Few works of painting and none of sculpture (unless the unfulfilled commis' sion for the Trivulzio monument belongs to this time) are recorded as occupying him during the seven years of his second residence in that city (1506-1513). He had attached to himself a new and devoted young friend and pupil of noble birth, Francesco Melzi. At the villa of the Melzi family at Vaprio, where Leonardo was a frequent visitor, a colossal Madonna on one of the walls is traditionally ascribed to him, but is rather the work of Sodoma or of Melzi himself working under the master's eye. Another painter in the service of the French king, Jehan Perreal or Jehan de Paris, visited Milan, and consultations on technical points were held between him and Leonardo. But Leonardo's chief practical employments were evidently on the continuation of his great hydraulic and irrigation works in Lombardy. His old trivial office of pageant-master and inventor of scientific toys was revived on the occasion of Louis XII. 's triumphal entry after the victory of Agnadello in 1509, and gave intense delight to the French retinue of the king. He was consulted on the construction of new choir-stalls for the cathedral. He laboured in the natural sciences as ardently as ever, especially at anatomy in company with the famous professor of Pavia, Marcantonio della Torre. To about this time, when he was approaching his sixtieth year, may belong the noble portrait- drawing of himself in red chalk at Turin. He looks too old for his years, but quite unbroken; the character of a veteran sage has fully imprinted itself on his countenance; the features are grand, clear and deeply lined, the mouth firmly set and almost stern, the eyes strong and intent beneath their bushy eyebrows, the hair flows untrimmed over his shoulders and commingles with a majestic beard. Returning to Milan with his law-suits ended in 1511, Leonardo might have looked forward to an old age of contented labour, the chief task of which, had he had his will, would undoubtedly have been to put in order the vast mass of observations and speculations accumulated in his note-books, and to prepare some of them for publication. But as his star seemed rising that of his royal protector declined. The hold of the French on Lombardy was rudely shaken by hostile political powers, then confirmed again for a while by the victories of Gaston de Foix, and finally destroyed by the battle in which that hero fell under the walls of Ravenna. In June 1512 a coalition between Spain, Venice and the pope re-established the Sforza dynasty in power at Milan in the person of Ludovico's son Massimiliano. This prince must have been familiar with Leonardo as a child, but perhaps resented the ready transfer of his allegiance to the French, and at any rate gave him no employment. Within a few months the ageing master uprooted himself from Milan, and moved with his chattels and retinue of pupils to Rome, into the service of the house that first befriended him, the Medici. The vast enterprises of Pope Julius II. had already made Rome the chief seat and centre of Italian art. The acces- sion of Giulio de' Medici in 1513 under the title of Leo X. raised on all hands hopes of still ampler and more sympathetic patron- age. Leonardo's special friend at the papal court was the pope's youngest brother, Giuliano de' Medici, a youth who combined dissipated habits with thoughtful culture and a genuine interest in arts and sciences. By his influence Leonardo and his train were accommodated with apartments in the Belvedere of the Vatican. But the conditions of the time and place proved adverse. The young generation held the field. Michelangelo and Raphael, who had both, as we have seen, risen to greatness partly on Leonardo's shoulders, were fresh from the glory of their great achievements in the Sistine Chapel and the Stanze. Their rival factions hated each other, but both, 'especially the faction of Michelangelo, turned bitterly against the veteran 452 LEONARDO DA VINCI newcomer. The pope, indeed, is said to have been delighted with Leonardo's minor experiments and ingenuities in science, and especially by a kind of zoological toys which he had invented by way of pastime, as well as mechanical tricks played upon living animals. But for the master's graver researches and projects he cared little, and was far more interested in the dreams of astrologers and alchemists. When Leonardo, having received a commission for a picture, was found distilling for himself a new medium of oils and herbs before he had begun the design, the pope was convinced, not quite unreasonably, that nothing serious would come of it. The only paintings positively recorded as done by him at Rome are two small panels for an official of the papal court, one of a child, the other of a Madonna, both now lost or unrecognized. To this time may also belong a lost Leda, standing upright with the god in swan's guise at her side and the four children near their feet. This picture was at Fontainebleau in the i6th century and is known from several copies, the finest of them at the Borghese gallery, as well as from one or two preliminary sketches by the master himself and a small sketch copy by Raphael. A portrait of a Florentine lady, said to have been painted for Giuliano de' Medici and seen afterwards in France, may also have been done at Rome; or may what we learn of this be only a confused account of the Monna Lisa? Tradition ascribes to Leonardo an attractive fresco of a Madonna with a donor in the convent of St Onofrio, but this seems to be clearly the work of Boltraffio. The only engineering works we hear of at this time are some on the harbour and defences of Civita Vecchia. On the whole the master in these Roman days found himself slighted for the first and only time in his life. He was, moreover, plagued by insubordination and malignity on the part of two German assistant craftsmen lodged in his apartments. Charges of impiety and body-snatching laid by these men in connexion with his anatomical studies caused the favour of the pope to be for a time withdrawn. After a stay of less than two years, Leonardo left Rome under the follow- ing circumstances. Louis XII. of France had died in the last days of 1514. His young and brilliant successor, Francis I., surprised Europe by making a sudden dash at the head of an army across the Alps to vindicate his rights in Italy. After much hesitation Leo X. in the summer of 1515 ordered Giuliano de' Medici, as gonfalonier of the Church, to lead a papal force into the Emilia and watch the movements of the invader. Leonardo accompanied his protector on the march, and remained with the headquarters of the papal army at Piacenza when Giuliano fell ill and retired to Florence. After the battle of Marignano it was arranged that Francis and the pope should meet in December at Bologna. The pope, travelling by way of Florence and discussing there the great new scheme of the Laurentian library, entertained the idea of giving the com- mission to Leonardo; but Michelangelo came in hot haste from Rome and succeeded in securing it for himself. As the time for the meeting of the potentates at Bologna drew near, Leonardo proceeded thither from Piacenza, and in due course was pre- sented to the king. Between the brilliant young sovereign and the grand old sage an immediate and strong sympathy sprang up; Leonardo accompanied Francis on his homeward march as far as Milan, and there determined to accept the royal invitation to France, where a new home was offered him with every assurance of honour and regard. The remaining two and a half years of Leonardo's life were spent at the Castle of Cloux near Amboise, which was assigned, with a handsome pension, to his use. The court came often to Amboise, and the king delighted in his company, declaring his knowledge both of the fine arts and of philosophy to be beyond those of all mortal men. In the spring of 1518 Leonardo had occasion to exercise his old talents as a festival-master when the dauphin was christened and a Medici-Bourbon marriage celebrated. He drew the designs for a new palace at Amboise, and was much engaged with the project of a great canal to connect the Loire and Sa6ne. An ingenious attempt has been made to prove, in the absence of records, that the famous spiral staircase at Blois was also of his designing. Among his visitors was a fellow-countryman, Cardinal Louis of Aragon, whose secretary has left an account of the day. Leonardo, it seems, was suffering from some form of slight paralysis which impaired his power of hand. But he showed the cardinal three pictures, the portrait of a Florentine lady done for Giuliano de' Medici (the Gioconda ?), the Virgin in the lap of St Anne (the Louvre picture; finished at Florence or Milan 1507-1513?), and a youthful John the Baptist. The last, which may have been done since he settled in France, is the darkened and partly repainted, but still powerful and haunting half-length figure in the Louvre, with the smile of inward ravishment and the prophetic finger beckoning skyward like that of St Anne in the Academy cartoon. Of the " Pomona " mentioned by Lomazzo as a work of the Amboise time his visitor says nothing, nor yet of the Louvre " Bacchus," which tradition ascribes to Leonardo but which is clearly pupil's work. Besides pictures, the master seems also to have shown and explained to his visitors some of his vast store of notes and observations on anatomy and physics. He kept hoping to get some order among his papers, the accumulation of more than forty years, and perhaps to give the world some portion of the studies they contained. But his strength was nearly exhausted. On Easter Eve 1519, feeling that the end was near, he made his will. It made provision, as became a great servant of the most Christian king, for masses to be said and candles to be offered in three different churches of Amboise, first among them that of St Florentin, where he desired to be buried, as well as for sixty poor men to serve as torch-bearers at his funeral. Vasari babbles of a death-bed conversion and repentance. But Leonardo had never been either a friend or an enemy of the Church. Sometimes, indeed, he denounces fiercely enough the arts and pretensions of priests; but no one has embodied with such profound spiritual insight some of the most vital moments of the Christian story. His insatiable researches into natural fact brought upon him among the vulgar some suspicion of practising those magic arts which of all things he scouted and despised. The bent of his mind was all towards the teachings of experience and against those of authority, and laws of nature certainly occupied far more of his thoughts than dogmas of religion; but when he mentions these it is with respect as throwing light on the truth of things from a side which was not his own. His conformity at the end had in it nothing contradictory of his past. He received the sacraments of the Church and died on the and of May 1519. King Francis, then at his court of St Germain-en-Laye, is said to have wept for the loss of such a servant; that he was present beside the death-bed and held the dying painter in his arms is a familiar but an untrue tale. After a temporary sepulture elsewhere his remains were trans- ported on the 1 2th of August to the cloister of St Florentin according to his wish. He left all his MSS. and apparently all the contents of his studio, with other gifts, to the devoted Melzi, whom he named executor; to Salai and to his servant Battista Villanis a half each of his vineyard outside Milan; gifts of money and clothes to his maid Maturina; one of money to the poor of the hospital in Amboise; and to his unbrotherly half- brothers a sum of four hundred ducats lying to his credit at Florence. History tells of no man gifted in the same degree as Leonardo was at once for art and science. In art he was an inheritor and perfecter, born in a day of great and many-sided endeavours on which he put the crown, surpassing both predecessors and contemporaries. In science, on the other hand, he was a pioneer, working wholly for the future, and in great part alone. That the two stupendous gifts should in some degree neutralize each other was inevitable. No imaginable strength of any single man would have sufficed to carry out a hundredth part of what Leonardo essayed. The mere attempt to conquer the kingdom of light and shade for the art of painting was destined to tax the skill of generations, and is perhaps not wholly and finally accomplished yet. Leonardo sought to achieve that conquest and at the same time to carry the old Florentine excellences of linear drawing and psychological expression to a perfection of which other men LEONARDO DA VINCI 453 had not dreamed. The result, though marvellous in quality, is in quantity lamentably meagre. Knowing and doing allured him equally, and in art, which consists in doing, his efforts were often paralysed by his strained desire to know. The thirst for know- ledge had first been aroused in him by .the desire of perfecting the images of beauty and power which it was his business to create. Thence there grew upon him the passion of knowledge for its own sake. In the splendid balance of his nature the Virgilian longing, rerum cognoscere causas, could never indeed wholly silence the call to exercise his active powers. But the powers he cared most to exercise ceased by degree to be those of imaginative creation, and came to be those of turning to practical human use the mastery which his studies had taught him over the forces of nature. In science he was the first among modern men to set himself most of those problems which unnumbered searchers of later generations have laboured severally or in concert to solve. Florence had had other sons of comprehensive genius, artistic and mechanical, Leon Battista Alberti perhaps the chief. But the more the range and character of Leonardo's studies becomes ascertained the more his greatness dwarfs them all. A hundred years before Bacon, say those who can judge best, he showed a firmer grasp of the principles of experimental science than Bacon showed, fortified by a far wider range of actual experiment and observation. Not in his actual conclusions, though many of these point with surprising accuracy in the direction of truths established by later generations, but in the soundness, the wisdom, the tenacity of his methods lies his great title to glory. Had the Catholic reaction not fatally discouraged the pursuit of the natural sciences in Italy, had Leonardo even left behind him any one with zeal and knowledge enough to extract from the mass of his MSS. some portion of his labours in those sciences and give them to the world, an incalculable impulse would have been given to all those enquiries by which mankind has since been striving to understand the laws of its being and control the conditions of its environment, — to mathematics and astronomy, to mechanics, hydraulics, and physics generally, to geology, geography, and cosmology, to anatomy and the sciences of life. As it was, these studies of Leonardo — " studies intense of strong and stern delight " — seemed to his trivial followers and biographers merely his whims and fancies, ghiribizzi, things to be spoken of slightingly and with apology. The MSS., with the single exception of some of those relating to painting, lay unheeded and undivulged until the present generation; and it is only now that the true range of Leonardo's powers is beginning to be fully discerned. So much for the intellectual side of Leonardo's character and career. As a moral being we are less able to discern what he was like. The man who carried in his brain so many images of subtle beauty, as well as so much of the hidden science of the future, must have lived spiritually, in the main, alone. Of things communicable he was at the same time, as we have said, communicative — a genial companion, a generous and loyal friend, ready and eloquent of discourse, impressing all with whom he was brought in contact by the power and the charm of genius, and inspiring fervent devotion and attachment in friends and pupils. We see him living on terms of constant affection with his father, and in disputes with his brothers not the aggressor but the sufferer from aggression. We see him full of tenderness to animals, a virtue not common in Italy in spite of the example of St Francis; open-handed in giving, not eager in getting — " poor," he says, " is the man of many wants "; not prone to resentment — " the best shield against injustice is to double the cloak of long-suffering "; zealous in labour above all men — " as a day well spent gives joyful sleep, so does a life well spent give joyful death." With these instincts and maxims, and with his strength, granting it almost more than human, spent ever tunnel- ling in abstruse mines of knowledge, his moral experience is not likely to have been deeply troubled. In religion, he regarded the faith of his age and country at least with imaginative sym- pathy and intellectual acquiescence, if no more. On the political storms which shook his country and drove him from one employ- ment to another, he seems to have looked not with the passionate participation of a Dante or a Michelangelo but rather with the serene detachment of a Goethe. In matters of the heart, if any consoling or any disturbing passion played a great part in his life, we do not know it; we know only (apart from a few passing shadows cast by calumny and envy) of affectionate and dignified relations with friends, patrons and pupils, of public and private regard mixed in the days of his youth with dazzled admiration, and in those of his age with something of reverential awe. The Drawings of Leonardo. — These are among the greatest treasures ever given to the world by the human spirit expressing itself in pen and pencil. Apart from the many hundreds of illustrative pen- sketches scattered through his autobiographic and scientific MSS., the principal collection is at Windsor Castle (partly derived from the Arundel collection); others of importance are in the British Museum; at Christ Church, Oxford; in the Louvre, at Chantilly, in the Uffizi, the Venice Academy, the Royal Library at Turin, the M useum of Budapest, and in the collections of M . Bonnat, Mrs Mond, and Captain Holford. Leonardo's chief implements were pen, silver- point, and red and black chalk (red chalk especially). In silver- point there are many beautiful drawings of his earlier time, and some of his later; but of the charming heads of women and young men in this material attributed to him in various collections, compara- tively few are his own work, the majority being drawings in his spirit by his pupils Ambrogio Preda or Boltraffio. Leonardo appears to have been left-handed. There is some doubt on the point; but a contemporary and intimate friend, Luca Pacioli, speaks of his "ineffable left hand"; all the best of his drawings are shaded downward from left to right, which would be the readiest way for a left-handed man; and his habitual eccentric practice of writing from right to left is much more likely to have been due to natural left-handedness than to any desire of mystery or concealment. A full critical discussion and catalogue of the extant drawings of Leonardo are to be found in Berenson's Drawings of the Florentine Painters. The Writings of Leonardo. — The only printed book bearing Leonardo's name until the recent issues of transcripts from his MSS. was the celebrated Treatise on Painting (Trattato delta pittura, Traite de la peinture). This consists of brief didactic chapters, or more properly paragraphs, of practical direction or critical remark on all the branches and conditions of a painter's practice. The original MS. draft of Leonardo has been lost, though a great number of notes for it are scattered through the various extant volumes of his MSS. The work has been printed in two different forms; one of these is an abridged version consisting of 365 sections; the first edition of it was published in Paris in 1551, by Raphael Dufresne, from a MS. which he found in theBarberini library; the last, translated into English by J. F. Rigaud, in London, 1877. The other is a more extended version, in 912 sections, divided into eight books; this was printed in 1817 by Guglielmo Manzi at Rome, from two MSS. which he had discovered in the Vatican library; a German transla- tion from the same MS. has been edited by G. H. Ludwig in Eitcl- berger's series of Quellenschriften fur Kunstgeschichte (Vienna, 1882; Stuttgart, 1885). On the history of the book in general see Max Jordan, Das Malerbuch des Leonardo da Vinci (Leipzig, 1873). The unknown compilers of the Vatican MSS. must have had before them much more of Leonardo's original text than is now extant. Only about a quarter of the total number of paragraphs are identical with passages to be found in the master's existing autograph note- books. It is indeed doubtful whether Leonardo himself ever com- pleted the MS. treatise (or treatises) on painting and kindred subjects mentioned by Fra Luca Pacioli and by Vasari, and probable that , the form and order, and perhaps some of the substance, of the Trattato as we have it was due to compilers and not to the master himself. In recent years a whole body of scholars and editors have been engaged in giving to the world the texts of Leonardo's existing MSS. The history of these is too complicated to be told here in any detail. Francesco Melzi (d. 1570) kept the greater part of his master's bequest together as a sacred trust as long as he lived, though even in his time some MSS. on the art of painting seem to have passed into other hands. But his descendants suffered the treasure to be recklessly dispersed. The chief agents in their dispersal were the Doctor Orazio Melzi who possessed them in the last quarter of the i6th century; the members of a Milanese family called Mazzenta, into whose hands they passed in Orazio Melzi's lifetime; and the sculptor Pompeo Leoni, who at one time entertained the design of procuring their presentation to Philip II. of Spain, and who cut up a number of the note-books to form the great miscellane- ous single volume called the Codice Atlantico, now at Milan. This volume, with a large proportion of the total number of other Leonardo MSS. then existing, passed into the hands of a Count Arconati, who presented them to the Ambrosian library at Milan in 1636. In the meantime the earl of Arundel had made a vain attempt to purchase one of these volumes (the Codice Atlanticof) at a great price for the king of England. Some stray parts of the collection, including the MSS. now at Windsor, did evidently come into Lord Arundel s possession, and the history of some other parts can be 454 LEONARDO OF PISA followed; while much, it is evident, was lost for good. In 1796 Napoleon swept away to Paris, along with the other art treasures of Italy, the whole of the Leonardo MSS. at the Ambrosiana: only the Codice Atlantico was afterwards restored, the other volumes remaining the property of the Institut de France. These also have had their adventures, two of them having been stolen by Count Libri and passed temporarily into the collection of Lord Ashburnham, whence they were in recent years made over again to the Institute. The first important step towards a better knowledge of the MSS. was made by the beginning, in 1880, of the great series of publications from the MSS. of the Institut de France undertaken by C. Rayaisson- Mollien; the next by the publication in 1883 of Dr J. P. Richter's Literary Works of Leonardo da Vinci (see Bibliography) : this work included, besides a history and analytical index of the MSS., fac- similes of a number of selected pages containing matter of auto- biographical, artistic, or literary interest, with transcripts and translations of their MS. contexts. Since then much progress has been made in the publication of the complete MSS., scientific and other, whether with adequate critical apparatus or in the form of mere facsimile without transliteration or comment. A brief statement follows of the present distribution of the several MSS. and of the form in which they are severally published : — England. — Windsor: Nine MSS., chiefly on anatomy, published entire in simple facsimile by Rouveyre (Paris, 1901); partially, with transliterations and introduction by Piumati and Sabachni- koff (Paris, 1898, foil.); British Museum: one MS., miscellaneous, unpublished; Victoria and Albert Museum: ten note-books bound in 3 vols. ; facsimile by Rouveyre, Holkham (collection of Lord Leicester), I vol., on hydraulics and the action of water; published in facsimile with transliteration and notes by Gerolamo Calvi. France. — Institut de France: seventeen MSS., all published with transliteration and notes by C. Ravaisson-Mollien (6 vols., Paris, 1880-1891). Italy. — Milan, Ambrosiana: the Codice Atlantico, the huge miscellany, of vital importance for the study of the master, put together by Pompeo Leoni; published in facsimile, with trans- literation, by the Accademia dei Lincei (1894, foil.) ; Milan : collection of Count Trivulzio; i vol., miscellaneous; published and edited by L. Beltrami (1892); Rome: collection of Count Marszolini; Treatise on the Flight of Birds, published and edited by Piumati and Sabach- nikoff (Paris, 1492). BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The principal authorities are: — " II libro di Antonio Billi," edited from MS. by G. de Fabriazy in Archivio Storico Ital. ser. v. vol. 7; " Breve vita di Leonardo da Vinci, scritto da un ad noni mo del 1 500 ' ' (known as the Anonimo Gaddiano) , printed by G. Milanesi in Archivio Slorico Ital. t. xvi. (1872), trans- lated with notes by H. P. Horne in series published by the Unicorn Library (1903) ; Paolo Giovio, " Leonardi Vincii vita," in his Elogia, printed in Tiraboschi, Sloria delta Lett. Ital. t. vii. pt. 4, and in Classici Italiani, vol. 314; Vasari, in his celebrated Lives of the Painters (ist ed., Florence, 1550; 2nd ed. ibid. 1568; ed. Milanesi, with notes and supplements, 1878-1885); Sabba da Castiglione, Ricordi (Venice, 1565); G. P. Lomazzo, Trattato dell' arte della pittura, &c. (Milan, 1584-1585); Id., Idea del tempio della pitlura (Milan, 1591); Le Pere Dan, Le Tresor . . . de Fontaine- bleau (1642); J. B. Venturi, Essai sur les ouvrages physico-mathe- matiques de L. da V. (Paris, 1797); C. Amoretti, Memorie storiche sulla vita, &c. di L. da V. (Milan, 1804), a work which laid the foundation of all future researches; Giuseppe Bossi, Del Cenacolo di L. da V. (Milan, 1810); C. Fumagalli, Scuola di Leonardo da Vinci (1811); Gave, Carteggio d'artisti (1839-1841); G. Uzielli, Ricerche intorno a L. da V., series I, 2 (Florence, 1872; Rome, 1884; series I revised, Turin, 1896), documentary researches of the first importance for the study ; C. L. Calvi, Notizie dei principali professori di belle arti (Milan, 1869); Arsene Hpussaye, Histoire de L. de V. (Paris, 1869 and 1876, an agreeable literary biography of the pre- critical kind); Mrs Heaton, Life of L. da V. (London, 1872), a work also made obsolete by recent research; Hermann Grothe, L. da V. als Ingenieur und Philosoph (Berlin, 1874); A. Marks, the 5. Anne of L. da V. (London, 1882); J. P. Richter, The Literary Works of L. da V. (2 vols., London, 1883), this is the very important and valuable history of and selection from the texts mentioned above under MSS. ; Ch. Ravaisson-Mollien, Les Merits de L. da V. (Paris, 1881); Paul Mtiller Walde, L. da V., Lebensskizze und Forschungen (Munich, 1889-1890) ; Id., " Beitrage zur Kenntniss des L. da V., in Jahrbuch der k. Preussischen Kunstsammlungen (1897-1899), the first immature and incomplete, the second of high value: the whole life of this writer has been devoted to the study of L. da V., but it is uncertain whether the vast mass of material collected by him will ever take shape or see the light ; G. Gronau, L. da V. (London, 1902) ; Bernhard Berenson, The Drawings of the Florentine Painters (London, 1903); Edmondo Solmi, Studi sulla filosofia naturale di L. da V. (Modena, 1898); Id., Leonardo (Florence, 1st ed. 1900, 2nd ed. 1907; this last edition of Solmi's work is by far the most complete and satisfactory critical biography of the master which yet exists) ; A. Rosenberg, L. da V., in Knackfuss's series of art biographies (Leipzig, 1898); Gabriel Seailles, L. da V., I' artiste el le savant (ist ed. 1892, 2nd ed. 1906), a lucid and careful general estimate of great value, especially in reference to Leonardo's relations to modern science; Edward McCurdy, L. da V., in Bell's " Great Masters " series (1904 and 1907), a very sound and trustworthy summary of the master's career as an artist; Id., L. da V.'s Note- Books (1908), a selection from the passages of chief general interest in the master's MSS., very well chosen, arranged, and translated, with a useful history of the MSS. prefixed ; Le Vicende del Cenacolo di L. da V. nel secolo XIX. (Milan, 1906), an official account of the later history and vicissitudes of the " Last Supper " previous to its final repair; Luca Beltrami, // Castello di Milano (1894); Id., L. da V. el la Sola dell' Asse (1902) ; Id., " II Cenacolo di Leonardo," in Raccolta Vinciana (Milan, 1908), the official account of the suc- cessful work of repair carried out by Signor Cavenaghi in the pre- ceding years; Woldemar von Seidlitz, Leonardo da Vinci, der Wenaepunkt der Renaissance (2 vols., 1909), a comprehensive and careful work by an accomplished and veteran critic, inclined to give perhaps an excessive share in the reputed works of Leonardo to a single pupil, Ambrogio Preda. It seems needless to give references to the voluminous discussion in newspapers and periodicals con- cerning the authenticity of a wax bust of Flora acquired in 1909 for the Berlin Museum and unfortunately ascribed to Leonardo da Vinci, its real author having been proved by external and internal evidence to be the Englishman Richard Cockle Lucas, and its date 1846. (S.C.) LEONARDO OF PISA (LEONARDUS PISANUS or FIBONACCI), Italian mathematician of the I3th century. Of his personal history few particulars are known. His father was called Bonaccio, most probably a nickname with the ironical meaning of " a good, stupid fellow," while to Leonardo himself another nickname, Bigollone (dunce, blockhead), seems to have been given. The father was secretary in one of the numerous factories erected on the southern and eastern coasts of the Mediterranean by the warlike and enterprising merchants of Pisa. Leonardo was educated at Bugia, and afterwards toured the Mediterranean. In 1202 he was again in Italy and published his great work, Liber abaci, which probably procured him access to the learned and refined court of the emperor Frederick II. Leonardo certainly was in relation with some persons belonging to that circle when he published in 1220 another more extensive work, De practica geometriae, which he dedicated to the imperial astronomer Dominicus Hispanus. Some years afterwards (perhaps in 1228) Leonardo dedicated to the well-known astro- loger Michael Scott the second edition of his Liber abaci, which was printed with Leonardo's other works by Prince Bald. Boncompagni (Rome, 1857-1862, 2 vols.). The other works consist of the Practica geometriae and some most striking papers of the greatest scientific importance, amongst which the Liber quadratorum may be specially signalized. It bears the notice that the author wrote it in 1225, and in the introduction Leonardo tells us the occasion of its being written. Dominicus had presented Leonardo to Frederick II. The presentation was accompanied by a kind of mathematical performance, in which Leonardo solved several hard problems proposed to him by John of Palermo, an imperial notary, whose name is met with in several documents dated between 1221 and 1240. The methods which Leonardo made use of in solving those problems fill the Liber quadratorum, the Flos, and a Letter to Magister Theodore. All these treatises seem to have been written nearly at the same period, and certainly before the publication of the second edition of the Liber abaci, in which the Liber quadratorum is expressly mentioned. We know nothing of Leonardo's fate after he issued that second edition. Leonardo's works are mainly developments of the results obtained by his predecessors; the influences of Greek, Arabian, and Indian mathematicians may be clearly discerned in his methods. In his Practica geometriae plain traces of the use of the Roman agrimensores are met with; in his Liber abaci old Egyptian problems reveal their origin by the reappearance of the very numbers in which the problem is given, though one cannot guess through what channel they came to Leonardo's knowledge. Leonardo cannot be regarded as the inventor of that very great variety of truths for which he mentions no earlier source. The Liber abaci, which fills 459 printed pages, contains the most perfect methods of calculating with whole numbers and with frac- tions, practice, extraction of the square and cube roots, proportion, chain rule, finding of proportional parts, averages, progressions, even compound interest, just as in the completes! mercantile arithmetics of our days. They teach further the solution of problems leading to equations of the first and second degree, to determinate and inde- terminate equations, not by single and double position only, but by real algebra, proved by means of geometric constructions, and including the use of letters as symbols for known numbers, the unknown quantity being called res and its square census. LEONCAVALLO— LEONTINI 455 The second work of Leonardo, his Practica geometriae (1220) requires readers already acquainted with Euclid's planimetry, who are able to follow rigorous demonstrations and feel the necessity for them. Among the contents of this book we simply mention a trigono- metrical chapter, in which the words sinus versus arcus occur, the approximate extraction of cube roots shown more at large than in the Liber abaci, and a very curious problem, which nobody would search for in a geometrical work, viz. — To find a square number remaining so after the addition of 5. This problem evidently suggested the first question, viz. — To find a square number which remains a square after the addition and subtraction of 5, put to our mathematician in presence of the emperor by John of Palermo, who, perhaps, was quite enough Leonardo's friend to set him such problems only as he had himself asked for. Leonardo gave as solu- tion the numbers 1 1 ,%, 16^ and 6ffi, — the squares of 3,^, 4.^ and 2,^; and the method of finding them is given in the Liber quadra- torum. We observe, however, that this kind of problem was not new. Arabian authors already had, found three square numbers of equal difference, but the difference itself had not been assigned in proposing the question. Leonardo's method, therefore, when the difference was a fixed condition of the problem, was necessarily very different from the Arabian, and, in all probability, was his own discovery. The Flos of Leonardo turns on the second question set by John of Palermo, which required the solution of the cubic equation x*+2x* -\-iox = 20. Leonardo, making use of fractions of the sexagesimal scale, gives * = l° 22'' 7" 42'" 33" 4° 40", after having demonstrated, by a discussion founded on the loth book of Euclid, that a solution by square roots is impossible. It is much to be deplored that Leonardo does not give the least intimation how he found his approximative value, outrunning by this result more than three centuries. Genocchi believes Leonardo to have been in pos- session of a certain method called regula aurea by H. Cardan in the i6th century, but this is a mere hypothesis without solid foundation. In the Flos equations with negative values of the unknown quantity are also to be met with, and Leonardo perfectly understands the meaning of these negative solutions. In the Letter to Magister Theodore indeterminate problems are chiefly worked, and Leonardo hints at his being able to solve by a general method any problem of this kind not exceeding the first degree. As for the influence he exercised on posterity, it is enough to say that Luca Pacioli, about 1500, in his celebrated Summa, leans so exclusively to Leonardo's works (at that time known in manuscript only) that he frankly acknowledges his dependence on them, and states that wherever no other author is quoted all belongs to Leonardus Pisanus. Fibonacci's series is a sequence of numbers such that any term is the sum of the two preceding terms; also known as Lame's series. (M. CA.) LEONCAVALLO, RUGGIERO (1858- ), Italian operatic composer, was born at Naples and educated for music at the conservatoire. After some years spent in teaching and in ineffectual attempts to obtain the production of more than one opera, his Pagliacci was performed at Milan in 1892 with im- mediate success; and next year his Medici was also produced there. But neither the latter nor Chatlerton (1896) — both early works — obtained any favour; and it was not till La Boheme was performed in 1897 at Venice that his talent obtained public confirmation. Subsequent operas by Leoncavallo were Zaza (1900), and Der Rolatid (1904). In all these operas he was his own librettist. LEONIDAS, king of Sparta, the seventeenth of the Agiad line. He succeeded, probably in 489 or 488 B.C., his half-brother Cleomenes, whose daughter Gorgo he married. In 480 he was sent with about 7000 men to hold the pass of Thermopylae against the army of Xerxes. The smallness of the force was, according to a current story, due to the fact that he was deliber- ately going to his doom, an oracle having foretold that Sparta could be saved only by the death of one of its kings: in reality it seems rather that the ephors supported the scheme half- heartedly, their policy being to concentrate the Greek forces at the Isthmus. Leonidas repulsed the frontal attacks of the Persians, but when the Malian Ephialtes led the Persian general Hydarnes by a mountain track to the rear of the Greeks he divided his army, himself remaining in the pass with 300 Spartiates, 700 Thespians and 400 Thebans. Perhaps he hoped to surround Hydarnes' force: if so, the movement failed, and the little Greek army, attacked from both sides, was cut down to a man save the Thebans, who are said to have surrendered. Leonidas fell in the thickest of the fight; his head was afterwards cut off by Xerxes' order and his body crucified. Our knowledge of the circumstances it too slight to enable us to judge of Leonidas's cut the strategy, but his heroism and devotion secured him an almost unique place in the imagination not only of his own but also of succeeding times. See Herodotus v. 39-41, vii. 202-225, 238, >x. 10; Diodorus xi. 4-11; Plutarch, Apophthegm. Lacon.; de malignitate Herodoti, 28-33; Pausanias i. 13, lii. 3, 4; Isocrates, Paneg. 92; Lycurgus, c. Leocr. no, in; Strabo i. 10, ix. 429; Aelian, Var hist. iii. 25; Cicero, Tusc. disput. i. 42, 49; de Finibus, ii. 30; Cornelius Nepos, Themistocles, 3; Valerius Maximus iii. 2; Justin ii. n. For modern criticism on the battle of Thermopylae see G. B. Grundy, The Great Persian War (1901); G. Grote, History of Greece, part ii., c. 40; E. Meyer, Geschichte des A'tertums, iii., §§ 219, 220; G. Busolt, Gnechische Geschichte, 2nd ed., ii. 666-688; J. B. Bury, " The Cam- paign of Artemisium and Thermopylae," in British School Annual, ii. 83 seq. ; J. A. R. Munro, " Some Observations on the Persian Wars, II.," in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxii. 294-332. (M. N. T.) LEONTIASIS OSSEA, a rare disease characterized by an overgrowth of the facial and cranial bones. The common form is that in which one or other maxilla is affected, its size progres- sively increasing both regularly and irregularly, and thus en- croaching on the cavities of the orbit, the mouth, the nose and its accessory sinuses. Exophthalmos gradually develops, going on later to a complete loss of sight due to compression of the optic nerve by the overgrowth of bone. There may also be interference with the nasal respiration and with the taking of food. In the somewhat less common form of this rare disease the overgrowth of bone affects all the cranial bones as well as those of the face, the senses being lost one by one and death finally resulting from cerebral pressure. There is no treatment other than exposing the overgrown bone, and chipping away pieces, or excising entirely) where possible. LEONTINI (mod. Lentini), an ancient town in the south-east of Sicily, 22m. N.N.W. of Syracuse direct, founded by Chalcidians from Naxos in 729 B.C. It is almost the only Greek settlement not on the coast, from which it is 6 m. distant. The site, origin- ally held by the Sicels, was seized by the Greeks owing to its command of the fertile plain on the north. It was reduced to subjection in 498 B.C. by Hippocrates of Gela, and in 476 Hieron of Syracuse established here the inhabitants of Catana and Naxos. Later on Leontini regained its independence, but in its efforts to retain it, the intervention of Athens was more than once invoked. It was mainly the eloquence of Gorgias (q.v.) of Leontini which led to the abortive Athenian expedition of 427. In 422 Syracuse supported the oligarchs against the people and received them as citizens, Leontini itself being forsaken. This led to renewed Athenian intervention, at first mainly diplomatic; but the exiles of Leontini joined the envoys of Segesta in per- suading Athens to undertake the great expedition of 415. After its failure, Leontini became subject to Syracuse once more (see Strabo vi. 272). Its independence was guaranteed by the treaty of 405 between Dionysius and the Carthaginians, but it very soon lost it again. It was finally stormed by M. Claudius Marcellus in 214 B.C. In Roman times it seems to have been of small importance. It was destroyed by the Saracens A.D. 848, and almost totally ruined by the earthquake of 1698. The ancient city is described by Polybius (vii. 6) as lying in a bottom between two hills, and facing north. On the western side of this bottom ran a river with a row of houses on its western bank under the hill. At each end was a gate, the northern leading to the plain, the southern, at the upper end, to Syracuse. There was an acropolis on each side of the valley, which lies between precipitous hills with flat tops, over which buildings had extended. The eastern hill1 still has considerable remains of a strongly fortified medieval castle, in which some writers are inclined(though wrongly) to recognize portions of Greek masonry. See G. M. Columba, in Archeologia di Leontinoi (Palermo, 1891), reprinted from Archivio Storico Siciliano, xi.; P. Orsi in Romische Mitteilungen (1900), 61 seq. Excavations were made in 1899 in one of the ravines in a Sicel necropolis of the third perio'd; explorations in the various Greek cemeteries resulted in the discovery of some fine bronzes, notably a fine bronze lebes, now in the Berlin museum. (T. As.) 1 As a fact there are two flat valleys, up both of which the modern Lentini extends; and hence there is difficulty in fitting Polybius's account to the site. LEONTIUS— LEOPARDI LEONTIUS, theological writer, born at Byzantium, flourished during the 6th century. He is variously styled BYZANTINUS, HIEROSOLYMITANUS (as an inmate of the monastery of St Saba near Jerusalem) and SCHOLASTICUS (the first " schoolman," as the introducer of the Aristotelian definitions into theology; according to others, he had been an advocate, a special meaning of the word scholasticus) . He himself states that in his early years he belonged to a Nestorian community. Nothing else is known of his life; he is frequently confused with others of the same name, and it is uncertain which of the works bearing the name Leontius are really by him. Most scholars regard as genuine the polemical treatises Contra Nestorianos et Eutychianos , Contra Nestorianos, Contra Monophysitas, Contra Severum (patriarch of Antioch); and the 2x6Xia, generally called De Sectis. An essay Adversus fraudes Apollinaristarum and two homilies are referred to other hands, the homilies to a Leontius, presbyter of Constantinople. Collected works in J. P. Migne, Patrologia Graeca, Ixxxvi.; for the various questions connected with Leontius see F. Loops, Das Leben und die polemischen Werke des Leontios von Byzanz (Leipzig, 1887); W. Rugamer, Leontius von Byzanz (1894); V. Ermoni, De Leontio Byzantine (Paris, 1895); C. Krumbacher, Geschichle der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897); J. P. Junglas, Leontius von Byzanz (1908). For other persons of the name see Fabricius, Biblio- theca Graeca (ed. Harles), viii. 323. LEOPARD,1 PARD or PANTHER (Felis pardus), the largest spotted true cat of the Old World, with the exception of the snow- leopard, which is, however, inferior in point of size to the largest leopard. (See CARNIVORA and SNOW-LEOPARD.) Leopards, known in India as cheeta (chita), are characterized by the rosette- like form of the black spots on the greater part of the body, and the absence of a central spot from each rosette. Towards the head and on the limbs the spots tend to become solid, but there is great local variation in regard to their form and arrangement. In the Indian leopard, the true Felis pardus, the spots are large and rosette-like, and the same is the case with the long-haired Persian leopard (F. pardus lulliana). On the other hand the heavily built and thick-haired Manchurian F. p. villosa has more consolidated spots. African leopards, again, to one of which the name F. p. leopardus is applicable, show a decided tendency to a breaking-up of the spots; West African animals being much darker-coloured than those from the east side of the con- tinent. Both as regards structure and habits, the leopard may be reckoned as one of the more typical representatives of the genus Felis, belonging to that section in which the hyoid bone is loosely connected with the skull, owing to imperfect ossification of its anterior arch, and the pupil of the eye when contracted under the influence of light is circular, not linear as in the smaller cats. The size of leopards varies greatly, the head and body usually measuring from 3^ to 4^ ft. in length, and the tail from 2\ to 3 ft., but some specimens exceed these limits, while the Somali leopard (F. p. nanopardus) falls considerably short of them. The ground- colour of the fur varies from a pale fawn to a rufous buff, graduat- ing in the Indian race into pure white on the under-parts and inside of the limbs. Generally speaking, the spots on the under parts and limbs are simple and blacker than those on the other parts of the body. The bases of the ears behind are black, the tips buff. The upper side of the tail is buff, spotted with broken rings like the back, its under surface white with simple spots.. The hair of the cubs is longer than that of the adults, its ground- colour less bright, and its spots less distinct. Perfectly black leopards, which in certain lights show the characteristic markings on the fur, are not uncommon, and are examples of melanism, occurring as individual variations, sometimes in one cub out of a litter of which the rest are normally coloured, and therefore not indicating a distinct race, much less a species. These are met with chiefly in southern Asia; melanism among African leopards 1 The name (Late Lat. leopardus, Late Gr. XeAirapSos) was given by the ancients to an animal supposed to have been a cross between a lion (Lat. leo, Gr. \iwv) and a pard (Gr. irdpSos, Pers. pan) or panther. Medieval heralds made no distinction in shape between a lion and a leopard, but marked the difference by drawing the leopard showing the full face (see HERALDRY: § Beasts and Birds). taking the form of an excessive breaking-up of the spots, which finally show a tendency to coalesce. In habits the leopard resembles the other large cat-like animals, yielding to none in the ferocity of its disposition. It is exceed- ingly quick in its movements, but seizes its prey by waiting in ambush or stealthily approaching to within springing distance, when it suddenly rushes upon it and tears it to ground with its The Leopard (Felis pardus). powerful claws and teeth. It preys upon almost any animal it can overcome, such as antelopes, deer, sheep, goats, monkeys, peafowl, and has a special liking for dogs. It not unfrequently attacks human beings in India, chiefly children and old women, but instances have been known of a leopard becoming a regular " man-eater." When favourable opportunities occur, it often kills many more victims than it can devour at once, either to gratify its propensity for killing or for the sake of their fresh • blood. It generally inhabits woody districts, and can climb trees with facility when hunted, but usually lives on or near the ground, among rocks, bushes and roots and low branches of large trees. The geographical range of the leopard embraces practically all Africa, and Asia from Palestine to China and Manchuria, inclusive of Ceylon and the great Malay Islands as far as Java. Fossil bones and teeth, indistinguishable from those of existing leopards, have been found in cave-deposits of Pleistocene age in Spain, France, Germany and England. (R. L.*; W. H. F.) LEOPARDI, GIACOMO, COUNT (1798-1837), Italian poet, was born at Recanati in the March of Ancona, tm the agth of June 1708. All the circumstances of his parentage and education conspired to foster his precocious and sensitive genius at the expense of his physical and mental health. His family was ancient and patrician, but so deeply embarrassed as to be only rescued from ruin by the energy of his mother, who had taken the control of business matters entirely into her own hands, and whose engrossing devotion to her undertaking seems to have almost dried up the springs of maternal tenderness. Count Monaldo Leopardi, the father, a mere nullity in his own house- hold, secluded himself in his extensive library, to which his nervous, sickly and deformed son had free access, and which absorbed him exclusively in the absence of any intelligent sympathy from his parents, any companionship except that of his brothers and sister, or any recreation in the dullest of Italian towns. The lad spent his days over grammars and dictionaries, learning Latin with little assistance, and Greek and the principal modern languages with none at all. Any ordinarily clever boy would have emerged from this discipline a mere pedant and LEOPARDI 457 bookworm. Leopard! came forth a Hellene, not merely a con- summate Greek scholar, but penetrated with the classical con- ception of life, and a master of antique form and style. At sixteen he composed a Latin treatise on the Roman rhetoricians of the 2nd century, a commentary on Porphyry's life of Plotinus and a history of astronomy; at seventeen he wrote on the popular errors of the ancients, citing more than four hundred authors. A little later he imposed upon the first scholars of Italy by two odes in the manner of Anacreon. At eighteen he produced a poem of considerable length, the Appressamento alia Morle, which, after being lost for many years, was discovered and published by Zanino Volta. It is a vision of the omnipotence of death, modelled upon Petrarch, but more truly inspired by Dante, and in its conception, machinery and general tone offering a remarkable resemblance to Shelley's Triumph of Life (1822), of which Leopardi probably never heard. This juvenile work was succeeded (1819) by two lyrical compositions which at once placed the author upon the height which he maintained ever afterwards. The ode to Italy, and that on the monument to Dante erected at Florence, gave voice to the dismay and affliction with which Italy, aroused by the French Revolution from the torpor of the ryth and i8th centuries, contemplated her forlorn and degraded condition, her political impotence, her degeneracy in arts and arms and the frivolity or stagnation of her intellectual life. They were the outcry of a student who had found an ideal of national existence in his books, and to whose disappointment everything in his own circumstances lent additional poignancy. But there is nothing unmanly or morbid in the expression of these sentiments, and the odes are surprisingly exempt from the failings characteristic of young poets. They are remarkably chaste in diction, close and nervous in style, sparing in fancy and almost destitute of simile and metaphor, antique in spirit, yet pervaded by modern ideas, combining Lander's dignity with a considerable infusion of the passion of Byron. These qualities continued to characterize Leopardi's poetical writings throughout his life. A third ode, on Cardinal Mai's discoveries of ancient MSS., lamented in the same spirit of indignant sorrow the decadence of Italian literature. The publication of these pieces widened the breach between Leopardi and his father, a well-mean- ing but apparently dull and apathetic man, who had lived into the ipth century without imbibing any of its spirit, and who provoked his son's contempt by a superstition unpardonable in a scholar of real learning. Very probably from a mistaken idea of duty to his son, very probably, too, from his own entire dependence in pecuniary matters upon his wife, he for a long time obstinately refused Leopardi funds, recreation, change of scene, everything that could have contributed to combat the growing pessimism which eventually became nothing less than monomaniacal. The affection of his brothers and sister afforded him some con- solation, and he found intellectual sympathy in the eminent scholar and patriot Pietro Giordani, with whom he assiduously corresponded at this period, partly on the ways and means of escaping from " this hermitage, or rather seraglio, where the delights of civil society and the advantages of solitary life are alike wanting." This forms the keynote of numerous letters of complaint and lamentation, as touching but as effeminate in their pathos as those of the banished Ovid. It must be remem- bered in fairness that the weakness of Leopardi's eyesight frequently deprived him for months together of the resource of study. At length (1822) his father allowed him to repair to Rome, where, though cheered by the encouragement of C. C. J. Bunsen and Niebuhr, he found little satisfaction in the trifling pedantry that passed for philology and archaeology, while his sceptical opinions prevented his taking orders, the indispensable condition of public employment in the Papal States. Dispirited and with exhausted means, he returned to Recanati, where he spent three miserable years, brightened only by the production of several lyrical masterpieces, which appeared in 1824. The most remarkable is perhaps the Bruto Minore, the condensation of his philosophy of despair. In 1825 he accepted an engagement to edit Cicero and Petrarch for the publisher Stella at Milan, and took up his residence at Bologna, where his life was for a time made almost cheerful by the friendship of the countess Malvezzi. In 1827 appeared the Operelte Morali, consisting principally of dialogues and his imaginary biography of Filippo Ottonieri, which have given Leopardi a fame as a prose writer hardly inferior to his celebrity as a poet. Modern literature has few productions so eminently classical in form and spirit, so symmetrical in construction and faultless in style. Lucian is evidently the model; but the wit and irony which were play- things to Lucian are terribly earnest with Leopardi. Leopardi's invention is equal to Lucian's and his only drawback in com- parison with his exemplar is that, while the latter's campaign against pretence and imposture commands hearty sympathy, Leopardi's philosophical creed is a repulsive hedonism in the disguise of austere stoicism. The chief interlocutors in his dialogues all profess the same unmitigated pessimism, claim emancipation from every illusion that renders life tolerable to the vulgar, and assert or imply a vast moral and intellectual superiority over unenlightened mankind. When, however, we come to inquire what renders them miserable, we find it is nothing but the privation of pleasurable sensation, fame, fortune or some other external thing which a lofty code of ethics would deny to be either indefeasibly due to man or essential to his felicity. A page of Sartor Resartus scatters Leopardi's sophistry to the winds, and leaves nothing of his dialogues but the con- summate literary skill that would render the least fragment precious. As works of art they are a possession for ever, as contributions to moral philosophy they are worthless, and apart from their literary qualities can only escape condemnation if regarded as lyrical expressions of emotion, the wail extorted from a diseased mind by a diseased body. Filippo Ottonieri is a portrait of an imaginary philosopher, imitated from the biography of a real sage in Lucian's Demonax. Lucian has shown us the philosopher he wished to copy, Leopardi has truly depicted the philosopher he was. Nothing can be more striking or more tragical than the picture of the man superior to his fellows in every quality of head and heart, and yet condemned to sterility and impotence because he has, as he imagines, gone a step too far on the road to truth, and illusions exist for him no more. The little tract is full of remarks on life and character of surprising depth and justice, manifesting what powers of observation as well as reflection were possessed by the sickly youth who had seen so little of the world. Want of means soon drove Leopardi back to Recanati, where, deaf, half-blind, sleepless, tortured by incessant pain, at war with himself and every one around him except his sister, he spent the two most unhappy years of his unhappy life. In May 1831 he escaped to Florence, where he formed the acquaintance of a young Swiss philologist, M. de Sinner. To him he confided his unpublished philological writings, with a view to their appearance in Germany. A selection appeared under the title Excerpta ex schedis criticis J. Leopardi (Bonn, 1834). The remaining MSS. were purchased after Sinner's death by the Italian government, and, together with Leopardi's correspond- ence with the Swiss philologist, were partially edited by Aulard. In 1831 appeared a new edition of Leopardi's poems, comprising several new pieces of the highest merit. These are in general less austerely classical than his earlier compositions, and evince a greater tendency to description, and a keener interest in the works and ways of ordinary mankind. The Resurrection, com- posed on occasion of his unexpected recovery, is a model of concentrated energy of diction, and The Song of the Wandering Shepherd in Asia is one of the highest flights of modern lyric poetry. The range of the author's ideas is still restricted, but his style and melody are unsurpassable. Shortly after the publication of these pieces (October 1831) Leopardi was driven from Florence to Rome by an unhappy attachment. His feelings are powerfully expressed in two poems, To Himself and Aspasia, which seem to breathe wounded pride at least as much as wounded love. In 1832 Leopardi returned to Florence, and there formed acquaintance with a young Neapolitan, Antonio Ranieri, himself an author of merit, and destined to enact towards him the part performed by Severn towards Keats, an enviable title to renown 458 LEOPARDO— LEOPOLD I. if Ranieri had not in his old age tarnished it by assuming the relation of Trelawny to the dead Byron. Leopardi accompanied Ranieri and his sister to Naples, and under their care enjoyed four years of comparative tranquillity. He made the acquaint- ance of the German poet Platen, his sole modern rival in the classical perfection of form, and composed La Ginestra, the most consummate of all his lyrical masterpieces, strongly resembling Shelley's Mont Blanc, but more perfect in expression. He also wrote at Naples The Sequel to the Battle of the Frogs and Mice, a satire in ottava rima on the abortive Neapolitan revolution of 1820, clever and humorous, but obscure from the local character of the allusions. The more painful details of his Neapolitan residence may be found by those who care to seek for them in the deplorable publication of Ranieri's peevish old age (Selte anni di sodalizio). The decay of Leopardi's constitution con- tinued; he became dropsical; and a sudden crisis of his malady, unanticipated by himself alone, put an end to his life-long sufferings on the isth of June 1837. The poems which constitute Leopardi's principal title to immor- tality are only forty-one in number, and some of these are merely fragmentary. They may for the most part be described as odes, meditative soliloquies, or impassioned addresses, generally couched in a lyrical form, although a few are in magnificent blank verse. Some idea of the style and spirit of the former might be obtained by imagining the thoughts of the last book of Spenser's Faerie Queene in the metre of his Epithalamium. They were first edited complete by Ranieri at Florence in 1845, forming, along with the Operette Morali, the first volume of an edition of Leopardi's works, which does not, however, include The Sequel to the Battle of the Frogs and Mice, first printed at Paris in 1842, nor the afterwards discovered writings. Vols. ii.-iv. contain the philological essays and translations, with some letters, and vols. v. and vi. the remainder of the corre- spondence. Later editions are those of G. Chiarini and G. Mestica. The juvenile essays preserved in his father's library at Recanati were edited by Cugnoni (Opere inedite) in 1879, with the consent of the family. See Cappelleti, Bibliografia Leopardiana (Parma, 1882). Leopardi's biography is mainly in his letters (Epistolario, ist ed., 1849, 5th ed., 1892), to which his later biographers (Brandes, Bouchii-Leclercq, Rosa) have merely added criticisms, excellent in their way, more particularly Brandes's, but generally over-rating Leopardi's significance in the history of human thought. W. E. Gladstone's essay (Quart. Rev., 1850), reprinted in vol. ii. of the author's Gleanings, is too much pervaded by the theological spirit, but is in the main a pattern of gerierous and discriminating eulogy. There are excellent German translations of the poems by Heyse and Brandes. An English translation of the essays and dialogues by C. Edwards appeared in 1882, and most of the dialogues were trans- lated with extraordinary felicity by James Thomson, author of The City of Dreadful Night, and originally published in the National Reformer. (R. G.) LEOPARDO, ALESSANDRO (d. c. 1512), Italian sculptor, was born and died at Venice. His first known work is the imposing mausoleum of the -doge Andrea Vendramini, now in the church of San Giovanni e Paolo; in this he had the co- operation of Tulh'o Lombardo, but the finest parts are Leopardo's. Some of the figures have been taken away, and two in the Berlin museum are considered to be certainly his work. He was exiled on a charge of fraud in 1487, and recalled in 1490 by the senate to finish Verrocchio's colossal statue of Bartolommeo Colleoni. He worked between 1503 and 1505 on the tomb of Cardinal Zeno at St Mark's, which was finished in 1515 by Pietro Lombardo; and in 1505 he designed and cast the bronze sockets for the three flagstaffs in the square of St Mark's, the antique character of the decorations suggesting some Greek model. (See VENICE.) LEOPOLD (M.H. Ger. Liupolt; O.H. Ger. Liupald, from Hut, Mod. Ger. Leute, " people," and paid, " bold," i.e. " bold for the people "), the name which has been that of several European sovereigns. LEOPOLD I. (1640-1705), Roman emperor, the second son of the emperor Ferdinand III. and his first wife Maria Anna, daughter of Philip III. of Spain, was born on the gth of June 1640. Intended for the Church, he received a good education, but his prospects were changed by the death of his elder brother, the German king Ferdinand IV., in July 1654, when he became his father's heir. In 1655 he was chosen king of Hungary and in 1656 king of Bohemia, and in July 1658, more than a year after his father's death, he was elected emperor at Frankfort, in spite of the intrigues of Cardinal Mazarin, who wished to place on the imperial throne Ferdinand, elector of Bavaria, or some other prince whose elevation would break the Habsburg succes- sion. Mazarin, however, obtained a promise from the new emperor that he would not send assistance to Spain, then at war with France, and, by joining a confederation of German princes, called the league of the Rhine, France secured a certain influence in the internal affairs of Germany. Leopold's long reign covers one of the most important periods of European history; for nearly the whole of its forty-seven years he was pitted against Louis XIV. of France, whose dominant personality completely overshadowed Leopold. The emperor was a man of peace and never led his troops in person; yet the greater part of his public life was spent in arranging and directing wars. The first was with Sweden, whose king Charles X. found a useful ally in the prince of Transylvania, George II. Rakocky, a re- bellious vassal of the Hungarian crown. This war, a legacy of the last reign, was waged by Leopold as the ally of Poland until peace was made at Oliva in 1660. A more dangerous foe next entered the lists. The Turks interfered in the affairs of Tran- sylvania, always an unruly district, and this interference brought on a war with the Empire, which after some desultory operations really began in 1663. By a personal appeal to the diet at Regens- burg Leopold induced the princes to send assistance for the campaign; troops were also sent by France, and in August 1664 the great imperialist general, Montecucculi, gained a notable victory at St Gotthard. By the peace of Vasvar the emperor made a twenty years' truce with the sultan, granting more generous terms than his recent victory seemed to render necessary. After a few years of peace began the first of three wars between France and the Empire. The aggressive policy pursued by Louis XIV. towards Holland had aroused the serious attention of Europe, and steps had been taken to check it. Although the French king had sought the alliance of several German princes and encouraged the Turks in their attacks on Austria the emperor at first took no part in this movement. He was on friendly terms with Louis, to whom he was closely related and with whom he had already discussed the partition of the lands of the Spanish monarchy; moreover, in 1671 he arranged with him a treaty of neutrality. In 1672, however, he was forced to take action. He entered into an alliance for the defence of Holland and war broke out; then, after this league had collapsed owing to the defection of the elector of Brandenburg, another and more durable alliance was formed for the same purpose, including, besides the emperor, the king of Spain and several German princes, and the war was renewed. At this time, twenty-five years after the peace of Westphalia, the Empire was virtually a confederation of independent princes, and it was very difficult for its head to conduct any war with vigour and success, some of its members being in alliance with the enemy and others being only lukewarm in their support of the imperial interests. Thus this struggle, which lasted until the end of 1678, was on the whole unfavourable to Germany, and the advantages of the treaty of Nijmwegen (February 1679) were with France. Almost immediately after the conclusion of peace Louis renewed his aggressions on the German frontier. Engaged in a serious struggle with Turkey, the emperor was again slow to move, and although he joined a league against France in 1682 he was glad to make a truce at Regensburg two years later. In 1686 the league of Augsburg was formed by the emperor and the imperial princes, to preserve the terms of the treaties of Westphalia and of Nijmwegen. The whole European position was now bound up with events in England, and the tension lasted until 1688, when William of Orange won the English crown and Louis invaded Germany. In May 1689 the grand alliance was formed, including the emperor, the kings of'England, Spain and Denmark, the elector of Brandenburg and others, and a fierce struggle against France was waged throughout almost the whole of western Europe. In general the several campaigns were favourable to the allies, and in September 1697 England and Holland made peace with Louis at Ryswick. LEOPOLD II. 459 To this treaty Leopold refused to assent, as he considered that his allies had somewhat neglected his interests, but in the follow- ing month he came to terms and a number of places were trans- ferred from France to Germany. The peace with France lasted for about four years and then Europe was involved in the War of the Spanish Succession. The king of Spain, Charles II., was a Habsburg by descent and was related by marriage to the Austrian branch, while a similar tie bound him to the royal house of France. He was feeble and childless, and attempts had been made, by the European powers to arrange for a peaceable division of his extensive kingdom. Leopold refused to consent to any partition, and when in November 1700 Charles died, leaving his crown to Philip, duke of Anjou, a grandson of Louis XIV., all hopes of a peaceable settlement vanished. Under the guidance of William III. a powerful league, the grand alliance, was formed against France; of this the emperor was a prominent member, and in 1703 he transferred his claim on the Spanish monarchy to his second son, the archduke Charles. The early course of the war was not favourable to the imperialists, but the tide of defeat had been rolled back by the great victory of Blenheim before Leopold died on the 5th of May 1705. In governing his own lands Leopold found his chief difficulties in Hungary, where unrest was caused partly by his desire to crush Protestantism. A rising was suppressed in 1671 and for some years Hungary was treated with great severity. In 1681, after another rising, some grievances were removed and a less repressive policy was adopted, but this did not deter the Hun- garians from revolting again. Espousing the cause of the rebels the sultan sent an enormous army into Austria early in 1683; this advanced almost unchecked to Vienna, which was besieged from July to September, while Leopold took refuge at Passau. Realizing the gravity of the situation somewhat tardily, some of the German princes, among them the electors of Saxony and Bavaria, led their contingents to the imperial army which was commanded by the emperor's brother-in-law, Charles, duke of Lorraine, but the most redoubtable of Leopold's allies was the king of Poland, John Sobieski, who was already dreaded by the Turks. On the I2th of September 1683 the allied army fell upon the enemy, who was completely routed, and Vienna was saved. The imperialists, among whom Prince Eugene of Savoy was rapidly becoming prominent, followed up the victory with others, notably one near Mohacz in 1687 and another at Zenta in 1697, and in January 1699 the sultan signed the treaty of Karlowitz by which he admitted the sovereign rights of the house of Habsburg over nearly the whole of Hungary. Before the conclusion of the war, however, Leopold had taken measures to strengthen his hold upon this country. In 1687 at the diet of Pressburg the constitution was changed, the right of the Habsburgs to succeed to the throne without election was admitted and the emperor's elder son Joseph was crowned hereditary king of Hungary. During this reign some important changes were made in the constitution of the Empire. In 1663 the imperial diet entered upon the last stage of its existence, and became a body perman- ently in session at Regensburg; in 1692 the duke of Hanover was raised to the rank of an elector, becoming the ninth member of the electoral college; and in 1700 Leopold, greatly in need of help for the impending war with France, granted the title of king of Prussia to the elector of Brandenburg. The net result of these and similar changes was to weaken the authority of the emperor over the members of the Empire, and to compel him to rely more and more upon his position as ruler of the Austrian archduchies and of Hungary and Bohemia, and Leopold was the first who really appears to have realized this altered state of affairs and to have acted in accordance therewith. The emperor was married three times. His first wife was Margaret Theresa (d. 1673), daughter of Philip IV. of Spain; his second Claudia Felicitas (d. 1676), the heiress of Tirol; and his third Eleanora, a princess of the Palatinate. By his first two wives he had no sons, but his third wife bore him two, Joseph and Charles, both of whom became emperors. He had also four daughters. Leopold was a man of industry and education, and during his later years he showed some political ability. Extremely tenacious of his rights, and regarding himself as an absolute sovereign, he was also very intolerant and was greatly influenced by the Jesuits. In person he was short, but strong and healthy. Although he had no inclination for a military life he loved exercises in the open air, such as hunting and riding; he had also a taste for music. Leopold's letters to Marco d'Aviano from 1680 to 1699 were edited by O. Klopp and published at Graz in 1888. Other letters are found in the Fontes rerunt Austriacarum, Bande 56 and 57 (Vienna, 1903-1904). See also F. Krones, Handbuch der Geschichte Osterreichs (Berlin, 1876-1879); R. Baumstark, Kaiser Leopold /. (1873) ; and A. F. Pribram, Zur WM Leopolds I. (Vienna, 1888). (A.W.H.*) LEOPOLD II. (1747-1792), Roman emperor, and grand-duke of Tuscany, son of the empress Maria Theresa and her husband, Francis I., was born in Vienna on the 5th of May 1747. He was a third son, and was at first educated for the priesthood, but the theological studies to which he was forced to apply himself are believed to have influenced his mind in a way unfavourable to the Church. On the death of his elder brother Charles in 1761 it was decided that he should succeed to his father's grand duchy of Tuscany, which was erected into a " secundogeniture " or apanage for a second son. This settlement was the condition of his marriage on the 5th of August 1764 with Maria Louisa, daughter of Charles III. of Spain, and on the death of his father Francis I. (i3th August 1765) he succeeded to the grand duchy. For five years he exercised little more than nominal authority under the supervision of counsellors appointed by his mother. In 1770 he made a journey to Vienna to secure the removal of this vexatious guardianship, and returned to Florence with a free hand. During the twenty years which elapsed between his return to Florence and the death of his eldest brother Joseph II. in 1790 he was employed in reforming the administra- tion of his small state. The reformation was carried out by the removal of the ruinous restrictions on industry and personal freedom imposed by his predecessors of the house of Medici, and left untouched during his father's life; by the introduction of a rational system of taxation; and by the execution of profitable public works, such as the drainage of the Val di Chiana. As he had no army to maintain, and as he suppressed the small naval force kept up by the Medici, the whole of his revenue was left free for the improvement of his state. Leopold was never popular with his Italian subjects. His disposition was cold and retiring. His habits were simple to the verge of sordidness, though he could display splendour on occasion, and he could not help offending those of his subjects who had profited by the abuses of the Medicean regime. But his steady, consistent and intelligent administration, which advanced step by step, making the second only when the first had been justified by results, brought the grand duchy to a high level of material prosperity. His ecclesiastical policy, which disturbed the deeply rooted convictions of his people, and brought him into collision with the pope, was not successful. He was unable to secularize the property of the religious houses, or to put the clergy entirely under the control of the lay power. During the last few years of his rule in Tuscany Leopold had begun to be frightened by the increasing disorders in the German and Hungarian dominions of his family, which were the direct result of his brother's headlong methods. He and Joseph II. were tenderly attached to one another, and met frequently both before and after the death of their mother, while the portrait by Pompeo Baltoni in which they appear together shows that they bore a strong personal resemblance to one another. But it may be said of Leopold, as of Fontenelle, that his heart was made of brains. He knew that he must succeed his childless eldest brother in Austria, and he was unwilling to inherit his unpopularity. When, therefore, in 1789 Joseph, who knew himself to be dying, asked him to come to Vienna, and become co-regent, Leopold coldly evaded the request. He was still in Florence when Joseph II. died at Vienna on the 2oth of February 1790, and he did not leave his Italian capital till the 460 LEOPOLD I. 3rd of March. Leopold, during his government in Tuscany, had shown a speculative tendency to grant his subjects a con- stitution. When he succeeded to the Austrian lands he began by making large concessions to the interests offended by his brother's innovations. He recognized the Estates of his different dominions as " the pillars of the monarchy," pacified the Hungarians and divided the Belgian insurgents by concessions. When these failed to restore order, he marched troops into the country, and re-established at the same time his own authority, and the historic franchises of the Flemings. Yet he did not surrender any part that could be retained of what Maria Theresa and Joseph had done to strengthen the hands of the state. He continued, for instance, to insist that no papal bull could be published in his dominions without his consent (placetum regium). If Leopold's reign as emperor, and king of Hungary and Bohemia, had been prolonged during years of peace, it is probable that he would have repeated his successes as a reforming ruler in Tuscany on a far larger scale. But he lived for barely two years, and during that period he was hard pressed by peril from west and east alike. The growing revolutionary disorders in France endangered the life of his sister Marie Antoinette, the queen of Louis XVI., and also threatened his own dominions with the spread of a subversive agitation. His sister sent him passionate appeals for help, and he was pestered by the royalist emigrants, who were intriguing both to bring about an armed intervention in France, and against Louis XVI. From the east he was threatened by the aggressive ambition of Catherine II. of Russia, and by the unscrupulous policy of Prussia. Catherine would have been delighted to see Austria and Prussia embark on a crusade in the cause of kings against the Revolution. While they were busy beyond the Rhine, she would have annexed what remained of Poland, and would have made conquests in Turkey. Leopold II. had no difficulty in seeing through the rather trans- parent cunning of the Russian empress, and he refused to be misled. To his sister he gave good advice and promises of help if she and her husband could escape from Paris. The emigrants who followed him pertinaciously were refused audience, or when they forced themselves on him were peremptorily denied all help. Leopold was too purely a politician not to be secretly pleased at the destruction of the power of France and of her influence in Europe by her internal disorders. Within six weeks of his accession he displayed his contempt for her weakness by practically tearing up the treaty of alliance made by Maria Theresa in 1756 and opening negotiations with England to impose a check on Russia and Prussia. He was able to put pressure on England by threatening to cede his part of the Low Countries to France, and then, when secure of English support, he was in a position to baffle the intrigues of Prussia. A personal appeal to Frederick William II. led to a conference between them at Reichenbach in July 1 790, and to an arrangement which was in fact a defeat for Prussia. Leopold's coronation as king of Hungary on the 1 5th of November 1 790, was preceded by a settlement with the diet in which he recognized the dominant position of the Magyars. He had already made an eight months' truce with the Turks in September, which prepared the way for the termination of the war begun by Joseph II. the peace of Sistova being signed in August 1791. The pacification of his eastern dominions left Leopold free to re-establish order in Belgium and to confirm friendly relations with England and Holland. During 1791 the emperor continued to be increasingly pre- occupied with the affairs of France. In January he had to dismiss the count of Artois, afterwards Charles X., king of France, in a very peremptory way. His good sense was revolted by the folly of the French emigrants, and he did his utmost to avoid being entangled in the affairs of that country. The insults inflicted on Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, however, at the time of their attempted flight to Varennes in June, stirred his indignation, and he made a general appeal to the sovereigns of Europe to take common measures in view of events which " immediately compromised the honour of all sovereigns, and the security of all governments." Yet he was most directly interested in the conference at Sistova, which in June led to a final peace with Turkey. On the 25th of August he met the king of Prussia at Pillnitz, near Dresden, and they drew up a declaration of their readiness to intervene in France if and when their assistance was called for by the other powers. The declara- tion was a mere formality, for, as Leopold knew, neither Russia nor England was prepared to act, and he endeavoured to guard against the use which he foresaw the emigrants would endeavour to make of it. In face of the agitation caused by the Pillnitz declaration in France, the intrigues of the emigrants, and the attacks made by the French revolutionists on the rights of the German princes in Alsace, Leopold continued to hope that intervention might not be required. When Louis XVI. swore to observe the constitution of September 1791, the emperor professed to think that a settlement had been reached in France. The attacks on the rights of the German princes on the left bank of the Rhine, and the increasing violence of the parties in Paris which were agitating to bring about war, soon snowed, however, that this hope was vain. Leopold met the threatening language of the revolutionists with dignity and temper. His sudden death on the ist of March 1792 was an irreparable loss to Austria. Leopold had sixteen children, the eldest of his eight sons being his successor, the emperor Francis II. Some of his other sons were prominent personages in their day. Among them were : Ferdinand III., grand duke of Tuscany; the archduke Charles, a celebrated soldier; the archduke John, also a soldier; the archduke Joseph, palatine of Hungary; and the archduke Rainer, viceroy of Lombardy-Venetia. Several volumes containing the emperor's correspondence have been published. Among these are: Joseph II. und Leopold von Toskana. Ihr Briefwechsel 1781-1790 (Vienna, 1872), and Marie Antoinette, Joseph II. und Leopold II. Ihr Briefwechsel (Vienna, 1866), both edited by A. Ritter von Arneth; Joseph II., Leopold II. und Kaunitz. Ihr Briefwechsel (Vienna, 1873); and Leopold II., Franz II. und Catharina. Ihre Correspondenz nebst einer Einleitung: Zur Geschichte der Politik Leopolds II. (Leipzig, 1874), both edited by A. Beer ; and Leopold II. und Marie Christine. Ihr Briefwechsel 1781-17(12, edited by A. Wolf (Vienna, 1867). See also H. von Sybel, fiber die Regierung Kaiser Leopolds II. (Munich, 1860); A. Schultze, Kaiser Leopold II. und die franzosische Revolution (Leipzig, 1899); and A. Wolf and H. von Zwiedeneck-Sudenhorst, Osterreich unter Maria Theresa, Joseph II. und Leopold II. (Berlin, 1882-1884). LEOPOLD I. (1790-1865), king of the Belgians, fourth son of Francis, duke of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, and uncle of Queen Victoria of England, was born at Coburg on the i8th of December 1790. At the age of eighteen he entered the military service of Russia, and accompanied the emperor Alexander to Erfurt as a member of his staff. He was required by Napoleon to quit the Russian army, and spent some years in travelling. In 1813 he accepted from the emperor Alexander the post of a cavalry general in the army of invasion, and he took part in the whole of the campaign of that and the following year, distinguishing himself in the battles of Leipzig, Liitzen and Bautzen. He entered Paris with the allied sovereigns, and accompanied them to England. He married in May 1816 Charlotte, only child of George, prince regent, afterwards George IV., heiress-pre- sumptive to the British throne, and was created duke of Kendal in the British peerage and given an annuity of £50,000. The death of the princess in the following year was a heavy blow to his hopes, but he continued to reside in England. In 1830 he declined the offer of the crown of Greece, owing to the refusal of the powers to grant conditions which he considered essential to the welfare of the new kingdom, but was in the following year elected king of the Belgians (4th June 1831). After some hesitation he accepted the crown, having previously ascertained that he would have the support of the great powers on entering upon his difficult task, and on the I2th of July he made his entry into Brussels and took the oath to observe the constitution. During the first eight years of his reign he was confronted with the resolute hostility of King William I. of Holland, and it was not until 1839 that the differences between the two states, which until 1830 had formed the kingdom of the Netherlands, were finally settled at the conference of London by the treaty LEOPOLD II. 461 of the 24 Articles (see BELGIUM). From this date until his death, King Leopold spent all his energies in the wise administra- tion of the affairs of the newly formed kingdom, which may be said to owe in a large measure its first consolidation and constant prosperity to the care and skill of his discreet and fatherly government. In 1848 the throne of Belgium stood unshaken amidst the revolutions which marked that year in almost every European country. On the 8th of August 1832 Leopold married, as his second wife, Louise of Orleans, daughter of Louis Philippe, king of the French. Queen Louise endeared herself to the Belgian people, and her death in 1850 was felt as a national loss. This union produced two sons and one daughter — (i) Leopold, afterwards king of the Belgians; (2) Philip, count of Flanders; (3) Marie Charlotte, who married Maximilian of Austria, the unfortunate emperor of Mexico. Leopold I. died at Laeken on the loth of December 1865. He was a most cultured man and a great reader, and did his utmost during his reign to encourage art, science and education. His judgment was universally respected by contemporary sovereigns and statesmen, and he was frequently spoken of as " the Nestor of Europe " (see also VICTORIA, QUEEN). See Th. Juste, Leopold I", roi des Beiges d'apres des doc. ined. 1793- 1865 (2 vols., Brussels, 1868), and Les Fondateurs de la monarchic Beige (22 vols., Brussels, 1878-1880); J. J. Thonissen, La Belgique sous le regne de Leopold I" (Lou vain, 1862). LEOPOLD II. [LEOPOLD Louis PHILIPPE MARIE VICTOR] (1835-1909), king of the Belgians, son of the preceding, was born At Brussels on the gth of April 1835. In 1846 he was created duke of Brabant and appointed a sub-lieutenant in the army, in which he served until his accession, by which time he had reached the rank of lieutenant-general. On attaining his majority he was made a member of the senate, in whose proceed- ings he took a lively interest, especially in matters concerning the development of Belgium and its trade. On the 22nd of August 1853 Leopold married Marie Henriette (1836-1902), daughter of the archduke Joseph of Austria, palatine of Hungary, by his wife Marie Dorothea, duchess of Wiirttemberg. This princess, who was a great-granddaughter of the empress Maria Theresa, and a great -niece of Marie Antoinette, endeared herself to the people by her elevated character and indefatigable benevolence, while her beauty gained for her the sobriquet of " The Rose of Brabant "; she was also an accomplished artist and musician, and a fine horsewoman. Between the years 1854 and 1865 Leopold travelled much abroad, visiting India and China as well as Egypt and the countries on the Mediter- ranean coast of Africa. On the loth of December 1865 he succeeded his father. On the 28th of January 1869 he lost his only son, Leopold (b. 1859), duke of Hainaut. The king's brother Philip, count of Flanders (1837-1905), then became heir to the throne; and on his death his son Albert (b. 1875) became heir-presumptive. During the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) the king of the Belgians preserved neutrality in a period of unusual difficulty and danger. But the most notable event in Leopold's career was the foundation of the Congo Free State (q.v.). While still duke of Brabant he had been the first to call the attention of the Belgians to the need of enlarging their horizon beyond sea, and after his accession to the throne he gave the first impulse towards the development of this idea by founding in 1876 the Association Internationale Africaine, He enlisted the services of H. M. Stanley, who visited Brussels in 1878 after exploring the Congo river, and returned in 1879 to the Congo as agent of the Comite d'£tudes du Haul Congo, soon afterwards reorganized as the " International Association of the Congo." This association was, in 1884-1885, recognized by the powers as a sovereign state under the name of the £tat Independant du Congo. Leopold's exploitation of this vast territory, which he administered autocratically, and in which he associated himself personally with various financial schemes, was understood to bring him an enormous fortune; it was the subject of acutely hostile criticism, to a large extent sub- stantiated by the report of a commission of inquiry instituted by the king himself in 1904, and followed in 1908 by the annexa- tion of the state to Belgium (see CONGO FREE STATE: History). In 1880 Leopold sought an interview with General C. G. Gordon and obtained his promise, subject to the approval of the British government, to enter the Belgian service on the Congo. Three years later Leopold claimed fulfilment of the promise, and Gordon was about to proceed to the Congo when the British government required his services for the Sudan. On the i5th of November 1902 King Leopold's life was attempted in Brussels by an Italian anarchist named Rubino. Queen Marie Henriette died at Spa on the igth of September of the same year. Besides the son already mentioned she had borne to Leopold three daughters — Louise Marie Amelie (b. 1858), who in 1875 married Philip of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and was divorced in 1906; Stephanie (b. 1864), who married Rudolph, crown prince of Austria, in 1881, and after his death in 1889 married, against her father's wishes, Elemer, Count Lonyay, in 1900; and Clementine (b. 1872). At the time of the queen's death an unseemly incident was occasioned by Leopold's refusal to see his daughter Stephanie, who in consequence was not present at her mother's funeral. The disagreeable impression on the public mind thus created was deepened by an unfortunate litigation, lasting for two years (1904-1906), over the deceased queen's will, in which the creditors of the princess Louise, together with princess Stephanie (Countess Lonyay), claimed that under the Belgian law the queen's estate was entitled to half of her husband's property. This claim was disallowed by the Belgian courts. The king died at Laeken, near Brussels, on the i7th of December 1909. On the 23rd of that month his nephew took the oath to observe the constitution, assuming the title of Albert I. King Leopold was personally a man of considerable attainments and much strength of character, but he was a notoriously dissolute monarch, who even to the last offended decent opinion by his indulgences at Paris and on the Riviera. The wealth he amassed from the Congo he spent, no doubt, royally not only in this way but also on public improvements in Belgium; but he had a hard heart towards the natives of his distant possession. LEOPOLD II. (1797-1870), of Habsburg-Lorraine, grand-duke of Tuscany, was born on the 3rd of October 1797, the son of the grand -duke Ferdinand III., whom he succeeded in 1824. During the first twenty years of his reign he devoted himself to the internal development of the state. His was the mildest and least reactionary of all the Italian despotisms of the day, and although always subject to Austrian influence he refused to adopt the Austrian methods of government, allowed a fair measure of liberty to the press, and permitted many political exiles from other states to dwell in Tuscany undisturbed. But when in the early 'forties a feeling of unrest spread throughout Italy, even in Tuscany demands for a constitution and other political reforms were advanced; in 1845-1846 riots broke out in various parts of the country, and Leopold granted a number of administrative reforms. But Austrian influence prevented him from going further, even had he wished to do so. The election of Pope Pius IX. gave fresh impulse to the Liberal movement, and on the 4th of September 1847 Leopold instituted the National Guard — a first step towards the constitution; shortly after the marchese Cosimo Ridolfi was appointed prime minister. The granting of the Neapolitan and Piedmontese constitutions was followed (i7th February 1848) by that of Tuscany, drawn up by Gino Capponi. The revolution in Milan and Vienna aroused a fever of patriotic enthusiasm in Tuscany, where war against Austria was demanded; Leopold, giving way to popular pressure, sent a force of regulars and volunteers to co-operate with Piedmont in the Lombard campaign. His speech on their departure was uncompromisingly Italian and Liberal. " Soldiers," he said, " the holy cause of Italian freedom is being decided to-day on the fields of Lombardy. Already the citizens of Milan have purchased their liberty with their blood and with a heroism of which history offers few examples. . . . Honour to the arms of Italy! Long live Italian independence!" The Tuscan contingent fought bravely, if unsuccessfully, at Curtatone and Montanara. On the a6th of June the first Tuscan parliament assembled, but the 462 LEOPOLD II.— LEOTYCHIDES disturbances consequent on the failure of the campaign in Lombardy led to the resignation of the Ridolfi ministry, which was succeeded by that of Gino Capponi. The riots continued, especially at Leghorn, which was a prey to actual civil war, and the democratic party of which F. D. Guerrazzi and G. Montanelli were leading lights became every day more influential. Capponi resigned, and Leopold reluctantly agreed to a Montanelli- Guerrazzi ministry, which in its turn had to fight against the extreme republican party. New elections in the autumn of 1848 returned a constitutional majority, but it ended by voting in favour of a constituent assembly. There was talk of instituting a central Italian kingdom with Leopold as king, to form part of a larger Italian federation, but in the meanwhile the grand-duke, alarmed at the revolutionary and republican agitations in Tuscany and encouraged by the success of the Austrian arms, was, according to Montanelli, negotiating with Field-Marshal Radetzky and with Pius IX., who had now abandoned his Liberal tendencies, and fled to Gaeta. Leopold had left Florence for Siena, and eventually for Porto S. Stefano, leaving a letter to Guerrazzi in which, on account of a protest from the pope, he declared that he could not agree to the proposed constituent assembly. The utmost confusion prevailed in Florence and other parts of Tuscany. On the gih of February 1849 the republic was proclaimed, largely as a result of Mazzini's exhortations, and on the i8th Leopold sailed for Gaeta. A third parliament was elected and Guerrazzi appointed dictator. But there was great discontent, and the defeat of Charles Albert at Novara caused consternation among the Liberals. The majority, while fearing an Austrian invasion, desired the return of the grand-duke who had never been unpopular, and in April 1849 the municipal council usurped the powers of the assembly and invited him to return, " to save us by means of the restoration of the constitu- tional monarchy surrounded by popular institutions, from the shame and ruin of a foreign invasion." Leopold accepted, although he said nothing about the foreign invasion, and on the ist of May sent Count Luigi Serristori to Tuscany with full powers. But at the same time the Austrians occupied Lucca and Leghorn, and although Leopold simulated surprise at their action it has since been proved, as the Austrian general d'Aspre declared at the time, that Austrian intervention was due to the request of the grand-duke. On the 24th of May the latter appointed G. Baldasseroni prime minister, on the 25th the Austrians entered Florence and on the 28th of July Leopold himself returned. In April 1850 he concluded a treaty with Austria sanctioning the continuation for an indefinite period of the Austrian occupation with 10,000 men; in September he dismissed parliament, and the following year established a concordat with the Church of a very clerical character. He feebly asked Austria if he might maintain the constitution, and the Austrian premier, Prince Schwarzenberg, advised him to consult the pope, the king of Naples and the dukes of Parma and Modena. On their advice he formally revoked the constitution (1852). Political trials were held, Guerrazzi and many others being condemned to long terms of imprisonment, and although in 1855 the Austrian troops left Tuscany, Leopold's popularity was gone. A part of the Liberals, however, still believed in the possibility of a constitutional grand-duke who could be induced for a second time to join Piedmont in a war against Austria, whereas the popular party headed by F. Bartolommei and G. Dolfi realized that only by the expulsion of Leopold could the national aspirations be realized. When in 1859 France and Piedmont made war on Austria, Leopold's government failed to prevent numbers of young Tuscan volunteers from joining the Franco-Piedmontese forces. Finally an agreement was arrived at between the aristocratic constitutionalists and the popular party, as a result of which the grand-duke's participation in the war was formally demanded. Leopold at first gave way, and entrusted Don Neri Corsini with the formation of a ministry. The popular demands presented by Corsini were for the abdica- tion of Leopold in favour of his son, an alliance with Piedmont and the reorganization of Tuscany in accordance with the eventual and definite reorganization of Italy. Leopold hesitated and finally rejected the proposals as derogatory 'to 'his dignity. On the 27th of April there was great excitement in Florence, Italian colours appeared everywhere, but order was maintained, and the grand-duke and his family departed for Bologna un- disturbed. Thus the revolution was accomplished without a drop of blood being shed, and after a period of provisional govern- ment Tuscany was incorporated in the kingdom of Italy. On the 2ist of July Leopold abdicated in favour of his son Ferdinand IV., who never reigned, but issued a protest from Dresden (26th March 1860). He spent his last years in Austria, and died in Rome on the 29th of January 1870. Leopold of Tuscany was a well-meaning, not unkindly man, and fonder of his subjects than were the other Italian despots; but he was weak, and too closely bound by family ties and Habsburg traditions ever to become a real Liberal. Had he not joined the conclave of autocrats at Gaeta, and, above all, had he not summoned Austrian assistance while denying that he had done so, in 1849, he might yet have preserved his throne, and even changed the whole course of Italian history. At the same time his rule, if not harsh, was enervating and demoralizing. See G. Baldasseroni, Leopoldo II (Florence, 1871), useful but reactionary in tendency, the author having been Leopold's minister. G. Montanelli, Memorie sull' Italia (Turin, 1853); F. D. Guerrazzi, Memorie (Leghorn, 1848); Zobi, Storia civile della Toscana, vols. iv.-v. (Florence, 1850-1852); A. von Reumont, Geschichte Toscanas (2 vols., Gotha, 1876-1877); M. Bartolommei-Gioli, // Rivolgimenlo Toscano e I'azipne popolare (Florence, 1905) ; C. Tivaroni, £ Italia durante il dominio Austriaco, vol. i. (Turin, 1892), and L' Italia degli Italiani, vol. i. (Turin, 1895). See also RICASOLI; BARTOLOMMEI^ CAPPONI, GINO; &c. (L. V.*) LEOPOLD II., a lake of Central Africa in the basin of the Kasai affluent of the Congo, cut by 2° S.' and 18° 10' E. It has a length N. to S. of about 75 m., is 30 m. across at its northern end, tapering towards its southern end. Numerous bays and gulfs render its outline highly irregular. Its shores are flat and marshy, the lake being (in all probability) simply the lowest part of a vast lake which existed here before the Kasai system breached the barrier — at Kwa mouth — separating it from the Congo. The lake is fed by the Lokoro (about 300 m. long) and smaller streams from the east. Its northern and western affluents are com- paratively unimportant. It discharges its waters (at its southern end) into the Mfini, which is in reality the lower course of the Lukenye. The lake is gradually diminishing in area; in the rainy season it overflows its banks. The surrounding country is very flat and densely wooded. See KASAI; and articles and maps in Le Mouvement geog., speci- ally vol. xiv., No. 29 (1897) and vol. xxiv., No. 38 (1907). LEOTYCHIDES, Spartan king, of the Eurypontid family, was descended from Theopompus through his younger son Anaxandridas (Herod, viii. 131), and in 491 B.C. succeeded Demaratus (" part after E. Burgess and V. L. Kellogg its scutum forming (Amer- Nat- xlv' XXJX->- most of the dorsal A, Front view of head, thoracic area and c, Clypeus. small plates— teg- e, Compound eye. ulae — are often m, Vestigial mandible, present at the base l< Labrum. of the forewings, as g, Galeae of 1st maxillae. in Hymenoptera. p, Labial palp. Magnified, B. [head. The tegulae which b, Base of first maxilla dissected out of the are beset with long P, Vestigial palp, hair-like scales are g, Galea. Further magnified. C, Part transverse section showing how the often conspicuous. The metathorax is smaller than the mesothorax. The legs are of the typical t, hexapodan form n, channel (A) of the proboscis is formed by the interlocking of the grooved inner faces of the flexible maxillae. Air-tube. Nerve. with five-segmented rn, Muscle-fibres. Highly magnified. feet ; the shins often bear terminal and median spurs articulated at their bases and the entire limbs are clothed with scales. The wings of the Lepidoptera may be said to dominate the structure of the insect; only exceptionally, in certain female moths, are they vestigial or absent (fig. 17). The forewing, with its prominent apex, is longer than the hindwing, and the neuration in both (see figs. 5 and 6) is for the most part longitudinal, only a few transverse ner- vures, which are, in fact, branches of the median trunk, marking off a dis- coidal areolet or "cell" (fig. 5, a). The five branches of the radial nervure (figs. 5, 6, j) (see HEXAPODA) are usually present in the forewing, but the hindwing, in most families, has only a single radial After A. S. Packard, M em. Nat. Acad. Sci. vol. vii. FIG. 5. — Wing-neuration of a Notodont 3, Moth. 2, Subcostal; 3, radial; 4, median; nervure; its anal 5, cubital; 7, 8, anal nervures. a, Discoidal area is, however, areolet or " cell " ; /, frenulum. Note that often more strongly the forewing has five branches (i — 5) of the developed than that radial nervure, the hindwing one only. The of the forewing. The nrst anal nervure (No. 6) is absent, two wings of a side are usually kept together during flight by a few stout bristles — the frenulum — (fig. 5, /) projecting from the base of the costa of the hindwing and fitting beneath a membranous fold or a few thickened scales— the retinaculum — on the under surface of the forewing. In butterflies there is no frenulum, but a costal outgrowth of the 466 LEPIDOPTERA hindwing subserves the same function. In the most primitive moths a small lobate outgrowth — the jugum (fig. 6, j.) — from the dorsum of the forewing is present, but it can be of little service in keeping the two wings together. A jugum may be also present on the hindwing. The legs, which are generally used for clinging rather than for walking, have five-segmented feet and are covered with scales. In some families the Front pair are reduced and without tarsal segments. Ten abdominal segments are recognizable in many Lepidoptera, but the terminal segments are reduced or modified to form external organs of reproduction. In 2 the male, according to the interpretation of C. Pey- 3 toureau, the lateral plates belonging to the ninth seg- ment form paired claspers beset with harpes, or series of ridges or teeth, while the tergum of the tenth seg- ment forms a dorsal hook — the uncus — and its ster- num a ventral process or -caphium. In the female the terminal segments form, in some cases, a protrusible ovipositor, but the typical hexapodan oyi- d, Mm. *+ ^. «. vo,. vii. Pp^or with hsuthn* pairs FIG. 6. — Wing neuration of a Swift in the Lepidoptera. Moth (Hepialid). j, Jugum. Ner- As already mentioned, vures numbered as in fig. 5. Note the characteristic scales on that there are five branches to the the wings, legs and body radial nervure (No. 3) in both fore- of the Lepidoptera are and hindwing, and that the median cuticular structures. A trunk nervures (No. 4) traverse the complete series of transi- discoidal areolet. tional forms can be traced between the most elaborate flattened scales (fig. 7, B) with numerous longitudinal striae and a simple arthropod " hair." Either a " hair " or a scale owes its origin to a special cell of the ectoderm (hypodermis), a process from which grows through the general cuticle and forms around itself the substance of the cuticular appendage. The scales on the wings are arranged in regular rows (fig. 7, A), and the general cuticle is drawn out into a narrow neck or collar around the base of each scale. The scales can be easily rubbed from the surface of the wing, and the series of collars in which the scales rest are then evident (fig. 7, A, c) on the wing-membrane. On the wings of many male butterflies there are specially modified scales — the androconia (fig. 7, C) — which are formed by glandular cells and diffuse a scented secretion. In some cases, the androconia are mixed among the ordinary scales; in others they are associated into conspicuous " brands " (see fig. 66). The admirable colours of the wings of the Lepidoptera are due partly to pigment in the scales — as in the case of yellows, browns, reds and blacks — partly to " interference " effects from the fine striae on the scales — as with the blues, purples and greens. A few points of interest in the in- ternal structure of the Lepidoptera deserve mention. The mouth opens into a sub-globular, muscular pharynx which is believed to suck the liquid food through the proboscis, and force it along the slender gullet into a crop- like enlargement or diverticulum of the fore-gut known as a " food-reservoir " FIG. 7.— A, Arrangement or " sucking-stomach.'' The true of scales in rows on wing stomach is tubular, and beyond it lies of Butterfly, n, Nervure* th? "Destine into which open the three collar-like outerowths Palrs of excretorv (Malpighian) tubes, of cutide. Magnified .B The terminal part of the intestine is single scale, and C, an °f wide diameter, and in some cases androconium more highly 8lves »ff a «hort caecum- The bram ifi ' ' and the sub-oesophageal ganglia are closely approximated; there are two or three thoracic and four (rarely five) abdominal ganglia. In the female each ovary has four ovarian tubes, in which the large egg-cells are enclosed in follicles and associated with nutritive cells. There is a special bursa which in the Hepialidae opens with the vagina on the eighth abdominal sternum. In the Micropterygidae, Enocraniidae and the lower Tineides, the duct of the bursa leads into the vagina, which still opens on the eighth sternum. But in most Lepidoptera, the bursa opens by a vestibule on the eighth sternum, distinct from the vagina, whose opening shifts back to the ninth, the duct of the bursa being connected with the vagina by a canal which opens opposite to the spermatheca. In the male, the two testes are usually fused into a single mass, and a pair of tubular accessory glands open into the vasa deferentia or into the ejaculatory duct. In a few families — the Hepialidae and Saturniidae for example — the testes retain the primitive paired arrangement. These details have been worked out by various students, among whom W. H. Jackson and W. Petersen deserve special mention. Summing up the developmental history of the genital ducts, Jackson remarks that there is an Ephemeridal stage, which ends towards the close of larval life, an Orthopteran stage, indicated during the quiescent period preceding pupation, and a Lepidopteran stage which begins with the commencement of pupal life." Development — Many observations have been made on the embryology of the Lepidoptera; for some of the more important FIG. 8 A. — Cossus macmurtrei. (MacMurtrie's Goat Moth.) N. America. results of these see HEXAPODA. The post-embryonic develop- ment of Lepidoptera is more familiar, perhaps, than that of any other group of animals. The egg shows great variation in its outward form, the outer envelope or chorion being in some families globular, in others flattened, in others again erect and sub-conical or cylindrical; while its surface often exhibits a beautifully regular series of ribs and furro-ws. Throughout the order the larva is of the form known as the caterpillar (fig. i, a, b, fig. 8 B) FIG. 8 B. — Larva of Cossus cossus. (Goat Moth.) Europe. characterized by the presence of three pairs of jointed and clawed legs on the thorax and a variable number of pairs of abdominal " prolegs " — sub-cylindrical outgrowths of the abdominal seg- ments, provided with a complete or incomplete circle of booklets at the extremity. There are ten abdominal segments — the ninth often small and concealed; prolegs are usually present on the third, fourth, fifth, sixth and tenth of these segments. The head of the caterpillar (fig. 9) is large with firmly chitinized cuticle ; it carries usually twelve simple eyes or ocelli, a pair of short feelers (fig. 9 At) and a pair of strong mandibles (fig. 9, Mn), for the caterpillar feeds by biting leaves or other plant- tissues. The first maxillae, so highly developed in the imago, are in the larva small and inconspicuous ap- pendages, each bearing two short jointed processes, — the galea and the palp (fig. 9, MX). The second maxillae form a plate-like labium on whose surface projects the spinneret which is usually regarded _ , ~ as a modified hypopharynx ?fig. 9, _ FlG- .9.— Head of ,Goat f rom _ . , _ FlG- .9.— Lm). The silk-glands whose ducts £at?n« open on this spinneret are paired hind. Magnified. (From Miall convoluted tubes lying alongside and Denny after Lyonnet.) the elongate cylindrical stomach. •"'• In the common " silkworm " these Mn, glands are five times as long as the Mx> body of the caterpillar. They are re- Lm, garded as modified salivary glands, though the correspondence has been doubted by some students. The body of the caterpillar is usually cylindrical and wormlike, with the l-Vi Mandible. £irst maxilla. Second maxillae (Lab- Iuir-) wlth spinneret. LEPIDOPTERA 467 segmentation well marked and the cuticle feebly chitinized and flexible. Firm chitinous plates are, however, not seldom present on the prothorax and on the hindmost abdominal segment. The seg- ments are mostly provided with bristle or spine-bearing tubercles, whose arrangement has lately been shown by H. G. Dyar to give partially trustworthy indications of relationship. On either side of the median line we find two dorsal or trapezoidal tubercles (Nos. I and 2), while around the spiracle are grouped (Nos. 3, 4 and 5) supra-, post-, and pre-spiracular tubercles; below are the sub- spiraculars, of which there may be two (Nos. 6, 7). The last-named is situated on the base of the abdominal proleg, and yet another tubercle (No. 8) may be present on the inner aspect of the proleg. The spiracles are very conspicuous on the body of a caterpillar, occurring on the prothorax and on the first eight abdominal seg- ments. Various tubercles may become coalesced or aborted (fig. 10, B); often, in conjunction with the spines that they bear, the tubercles serve as a valuable protective armature for the caterpillar. Much discussion has taken place as to whether the abdominal prolegs are or are not developed directly from the embryonic abdominal appendages. In the more lowly families of Lepidoptera, these organs are provided at the extremity with a complete circle of booklets, but in the more highly organized families, only the inner half of this circle is retained. The typical Lepidopteran pupa, or " chrysalis," as shown in the higher families, is an obtect pupa (fig. 1 1) with no trace of mandibles, the appendages being glued to the body by an exudation, and B, after Grote, Mitt, aus dem Roemer Museum. No. 6. FIG. 10. — Abdominal segments of Caterpillars, to show arrangement of tubercles; the arrows point anteriorly. A, Generalized condition; B, special- ized condition in the Saturniidae. i, Spiracle ; the numbering of the tubercles is explained in the text. Note that in FIG. n. — Pupa B No. 2 is much reduced and disappears of a Butterfly after the first moult. 4 and 5 are (Amathusia phi- coalesced, and 6 is absent. dippus). motion being possible only at three of the abdominal intersegmental regions, the fifth and s-ixth abdominal segments at most being " free." A flattened or pointed process — the cremaster — often prominent at the tail-end, may carry one or several hooks (fig. I, d) which serve to anchor the pupa to its cocoon or to suspend butterfly-pupae from their pad of silk (fig. n). In the lower families the pupa (fig. I, c) is only incompletely obtect, and a greater number of abdominal segments can move on one another. The seventh ab- dominal segment is, in all female lepidopterous pupae, fused with those behind it; in the male "incomplete" pupa this becomes " free " and so may the segments anterior to it, in both sexes, for- ward to and including the third. The presence of circles of spines on the abdominal segments enables the " incomplete " pupa as a whole to work its way partly out of the cocoon when the time for the emergence of the imago draws near. In the family of the Eriocraniidae (often called the Micropterygidae) the pupa resembles that of a caddis- fly (Trichopteron) being active before the emergence of the imago and provided with strong mandibles by means of which it bites its way out of the cocoon. The importance of the pupa in the phylogeny and classification of the Lepidoptera has lately been demonstrated by T. A. Chapman in a valuable series of papers. Sometimes organs are present in the pupa which are undeveloped in the imago, such as the maxillary palps of the Sesiidae (clearwing moths) and the pectination on the feelers of female Saturniids. E. B. Poulton has drawn attention to the ancestral value of such characters. Habits and Life- Relations. — The attractiveness of the Lepidop- tera and the conspicuous appearance of many of them have led to numerous observations on their habits. The method of feeding of the imago by the suction of liquids has already been mentioned in connexion with the structure of the maxillae and the food- canal. Nectar from flowers is the usual food of moths and butterflies, most of which alight on a blossom before thrusting the proboscis into the corolla of the flower, while others— the hawk moths (Sphingidae) for example — remain poised in the air in front of the flower by means of excessively rapid vibration of the wings, and quickly unrolling the proboscis sip the nectar. Certain flowers with remarkably long tubular corollas seem to be specially adapted for the visits of hawk moths. Some Lepidoptera have other sources of food-supply. The juices of fruit are often sought for, and certain moths can pierce the envelope of a succulent fruit with the rough cuticular outgrowths at the tips of the maxillae, so as to reach the soft tissue within. Animal juices attract other Lepidoptera, which have been observed to suck blood from a wounded mammal; while putrid meat is a familiar " lure " for the gorgeous " purple emperor " butterfly ( A patura iris) . The watenof streams or the dew on leaves may be frequently sought by Lepidoptera desirous of quenching their thirst, possibly with fatal results, the insects being sometimes drowned in rivers in large numbers. Members of several families of the Lepidoptera — the Hepialidae, Lasiocampidae and Saturniidae, for example — have the maxillae vestigial or aborted, and take no food at all after attaining the winged condition. In such insects there is a complete " division of labour " between the larval and the imaginal instars, the former being entirely devoted to nutritive, the latter to reproductive functions. Of much interest is the variety displayed among the Lepidop- tera in the season and the duration of the various instars. The brightly coloured vanessid butterflies, for example, emerge from the pupa in the late summer and live through the winter in sheltered situations, reappearing to lay their eggs in the succeed- ing spring. Many species, such as the vapourer moths (Orgyia), lay eggs in the autumn, which remain unhatched through the winter. The eggs of the well-known magpie moths (Abraxas) hatch in autumn and the caterpillar hibernates while still quite small, awaiting for its growth the abundant food-supply to be afforded by the next year's foliage. The codlin moths (Carpo- capsa) pass the winter as resting full-grown larvae, which seek shelter and spin cocoons in autumn, but do not pupate until the succeeding spring. Lastly, many of the Lepidoptera hibernate in the pupal stage; the death's head moth (Acherontia) and the cabbage- white butterflies (Pieris) are familiar examples of such. The last-named insects afford instances of the " double-brooded " condition, two complete life-cycles being passed through in the year. The flour moth (Ephestia kiihniella) is said to have five successive generations in a twelvemonth. On the other hand, certain species whose larvae feed in wood or on roots take two or three years to reach the adult stage. The rate of growth of the larva depends to a great extent on the nature of its food, and the feeding-habits of caterpillars afford much of interest and variety to the student. The contrast among the Lepidoptera between the suctorial mouth of the imago and the biting jaws of the caterpillar is very striking (cf. figs. 4 and 9), and the profound transformation in structure which takes place is necessarily accompanied by the change from solid to liquid food. The first meal of a young caterpillar is well known to be often its empty egg-shell; from this it turns to feed upon the leaves whereon its provident parent has laid her eggs. But in a few cases hatching takes place in winter or early spring, and the young larvae have then to find a temporary food until their own special plant is available. For example, the cater- pillars of some species of Xanthia and other noctuid moths feed at first upon willow-catkins. On the other hand, the caterpillars of the pith moth (Blastodacna) hatched at midsummer, feed on leaves when young, and burrow into woody shoots in autumn. All who have tried to rear caterpillars know that, while those of some species will feed only on one particular species of plant, others will eat several species of the same genus or family, while others again are still less particular, some being able to feed on almost any green herb. It is curious to note how certain species change their food hi different localities, a caterpillar confined to one plant in some localities being less particular elsewhere. Individual aberrations in food are of special interest in suggesting the starting-point for a change in the race. When we consider _ the vast numbers of the Lepidoptera and the structural modifica- j tions which they have undergone, their generally faithful I adherence to a vegetable diet is remarkable. The vast majority 468 of caterpillars eat leaves, usually devouring them openly, and, if of large size, quickly reducing the amount of foliage on the plant. But many small caterpillars keep, apparently for the sake of concealment, to the under surface of the leaf, while others burrow into the green tissue, forming a characteristic sinuous " mine " between the two leaf-skins. In several families we find the habit of burrowing in woody stems, — the " goat " (Cossus, fig. 8) and the clearwings (Sesiidae), for example, while others, like the larvae of the swift moths (Hepialidae) live underground devouring roots (fig 12). The richer nutrition in the green food is usually shown by the quicker growth of the numerous cater- pillars that feed on it, as compared with the slower development of the wood and root-feeding species. Aquatic larvae are very rare among the Lepidoptera. The caterpillars of the pyralid " china-mark " moths (Hydrocampa, fig. 13), however, live under water, feeding on duckweed (Lemna) and breathing atmospheric air, a film of which is enclosed in a spun-up shelter beneath the leaves, while the larvae of Paraponyx, which feed on Stratiotes, have closed spiracles and breathe dissolved air by means of branchial filaments along the sides of the body. LEPIDOPTERA FIG. 12. — Larva of Hepialus humuli (ghost moth). FIG. 13. — Hydro- campa 111/ 1111 t il 1 \ (water moth). We may now turn to instances of more anomalous modes of feeding. The clothes moths (Tineids) have invaded our dwellings and found a congenial food-stuff for their larvae in our garments. A few small species of the same group are reared in meal and other human food-stores; so are the caterpillars of some pyralid moths (Ephestia), while others (Asopia, Aglossa) feed upon kitchen refuse. Two species of crambid moths (Aphomia sociella and Galleria melonella) find a home in bee-hives, where their caterpillars feed upon the wax, while the waxy secretion from the body of the great American lantern-fly (Fulgora candelaria) serves both as shelter and food for the caterpillar of the moth Epipyrops anomala. Very few caterpillars have developed a thoroughly carnivorous habit. That of Cosmia trapezina feeds on oak and other leaves, but devours smaller caterpillars which happen to get in its way, and if shaken from the tree, eats other larvae while climbing the trunk. Xylina ornithopus and a few other species are said to be always carni- vorous when opportunity offers; the small looping caterpillar of a " pug " moth (Eupithecia coronata) has been observed to eat a larva three times as big as itself. The caterpillars of Orthosia pistacina live together in peace while their food is moist, but devour each other when it dries up; this is true cannibalism — a term which should not be applied to the habit of preying on another species. A few carnivorous caterpillars do not attack other caterpillars, but prey upon insects of another order; among these Fenescia tarquinius, which eats aphides, and Erastria scitida, which feeds upon scale insects, must be reckoned as bene- factors to mankind. The life-history of the latter moth has been worked out by H. Rouzaud. It inhabits the shores of the Medi- terranean, and its caterpillar devours the coccids upon various fruit-trees, especially the black-scale (Lecanium oleae) of the olive. The moth, which is a small noctuid, the white markings on whose wings give it the appearance of a bird^dropping when at rest in the daytime, appears in May, and lays her eggs, singly and far apart, upon the trees infested by the coccids. When hatched, the young caterpillar selects a large female coccid, eats its way through the scale, and devours the insect beneath; having done this it makes its way to a fresh victim. As it increases in size it forms a case for itself made of the scales of its victims, excrement, &c., bound together by silk which it spins, and, protected by this covering, which closely resembles the smut-covered bark of the tree, it roams about during its later stages, devouring several coccids every day. So nutritious is the food, that four or five successive broods follow each other through the summer. The habit just mentioned of forming some kind of protective covering out of foreign substances spun together by silk is practised by caterpillars of different families. The clothes moth larvae (Tinea, fig. 14), for example, make a tubular dwelling out After Marlatt (after Rfley), Ball. 4, Din. Ent. U.S. Dept. Agr. FIG. 14. — Clothes Moth (Tinea pellionella), with larva in and out of its case. Magnified. of the pellets of wool passed from their own intestines, while the allied Tortricid caterpillars roll up leaves and spin for themselves cylindrical shelters. The habit of spinning over the food plant a protective mass of web, whereon the caterpillars of a family can live together socially is not uncommon. In the case of the small ermine moths (Hyponomeuta) the caterpillars remain associated throughout their lives and pupate in cocoons on the mass of web produced by their common labour. But the larger, spiny caterpillars of the vanessid butterflies usually scatter away from the nest of their infancy when they have attained a certain size. Spines and hairs seem to be often effective protections for caterpillars; the experiments of E. B. Poulton and others tend to show that hairy caterpillars (fig. 15) are distasteful to birds. Many caterpillars are protected by the harmony of their general green coloration with their surroundings. When the insect attains a large size — as in the case of the hawk moth (Sphingid) cater- pillars— the extensive , green surface becomes broken up by diagonal dark markings (fig. 466), thus simulating the effect of light and shade among the foli- age. A remarkable result of Poulton 's experiments has been the establishment of a reflex effect through the skin on the colour of a caterpillar. Some species of " loopers " (Geometridae, fig. 43) for example, if placed when young among surroundings of a certain colour, become closely assimilated thereto — dark brown among dark twigs, green among green leaves. These colour-reflexes in conjunction with the elongate twig-like shape of the caterpillars and their habit of stretching themselves straight out from a branch, afford some of the best and most familiar examples of " protective resemblance." The " terrifying attitude " of caterpillars, and the supposed resemblance borne by some of them to serpents and other formidable vertebrates or arthropods, are discussed in the article MIMICRY. The silk produced by a caterpillar is, as we have seen, often advantageous in its own life-relations, but its great use is in connexion with the pupal stage. In the life-history of many Lepidoptera, the last act of the caterpillar is to spin a cocoon which may afford protection to the pupa. In some cases this is formed entirely of the silk produced by the spinning-glands, and may vary from the loose meshwork that clothes the pupa of the FIG. 15. — Larva of Orgyia gonostigma. Europe. LEPIDOPTERA 469 After Ratzeburg, Insect Life, vol. 2 (U.S. Dept. Agr.). FIG. 16. — Pupa of leaves joined by silken threads. Below is the cast larval cuticle. diamond-back moth (Plutella cruciferarum) to the densely woven cocoon of the silkworms (Bombycidae and Saturniidae) or the hard shell-like covering of the eggars (Lasiocampidae). Fre- quently foreign substances are worked up with the silk and serve to strengthen the cocoon, such as hairs from the body of the caterpillar itself, as among the " tigers " (Arctiidae) or chips of wood, as with the timber-burrowing larva of the " goat " (Cossus). In many families of Lepidoptera we can trace a degenera- tion of the cocoon. Thus, the pupae of most owl moths (Noctuidae) and hawk moths (Sphingidae) lie buried in an earthen cell. Among the butterflies we find that- the cocoon is reduced to a pad of silk which gives attachment to the cremaster; in the Pieridae there is in addition a girdle of silk around the waist-region of the pupa, but the pupae of the Nymphalidae (figs, n, 65) simply hang from the supporting pad by the tail-end. Poulton has shown that the colours of some exposed pupae vary with the nature of the surroundings of the larva during the final stage. When the pupal stage is complete the insect has to make its way out of the cocoon. In the lower families of moths it is the pupa which comes out at least partially, working itself onwards by the spines on its abdominal segments; the pupa of the primitive Micropteryx has functional mandibles with which it bites through the cocoon. In the higher Lepidoptera the pupa is immovable, and the imago, after the ecdysis of the pupal cuticle, must emerge. This emergence is in some cases facilitated by the secretion of an acid or alkaline solvent discharged from the mouth or from the hind-gut, which weakens the cocoon—so that the delicate moth can break through without injury. As might be expected, the conditions to which larva and pupa are subjected have often a marked influence on the nature of the imago. An indifferent food-supply for the larva leads to a dwarfing of the moth or butterfly. Many converging lines of experiment and observation tend to show that cool conditions during the pupal stage frequently induce darkening of pigment in the imago, while a warm temperature brightens the colours of the perfect insect. For example, in many species of butterfly that are double-brooded, the spring brood emerging from the wintering pupae are more darkly coloured than the summer brood, but if the pupae producing the latter be subjected artifici- ally to cold conditions, the winter form of imago results. It is usually impossible, however, to produce the summer form of the species from wintering pupae by artificial heat. From this A. Weismann argued that the more stable winter form must be regarded as representing the ancestral race of the species. Further examples of this " seasonal dimorphism " are afforded by many tropical butterflies which possess a darker " wet-season " and a brighter " dry-season " generation. So different in appearance are often these two seasonal forms that before their true relationship was worked out they had been naturally regarded as independent species. The darkening of wing- patterns in many species of Lepidoptera has been carefully studied in our own British fauna. Melanic or melanochroic varieties are specially characteristic of western and hilly regions, and some remarkable dark races (fig. 43) of certain geometrid moths have arisen and become perpetuated in the manufacturing districts of the north of England. The production of these melanic forms is explained by J. W. Tutt and others as largely due to the action of natural selection, the damp and sooty conditions of the districts where they occur rendering unusually dark the surfaces — such as rocks, tree-trunks and palings — • on which moths habitually rest and so favouring the survival of dark, and the elimination of pale varieties, as the latter would be conspicuous to their enemies. Breeding experiments have shown that these melanic races are sometimes " dominant " to their parent-stock. An evidently adaptive connexion can be frequently traced between the resting situation and attitude of the insect and the colour and pattern of its wings. Moths that rest with the hindwings concealed beneath the forewings (fig. 34, /) often have the latter dull and mottled, while the former are sometimes highly coloured. Butterflies whose normal resting attitude is with the wings closed vertically over the back (fig. 63) so that the under surface is exposed to view, often have this under surface mottled and inconspicuous although the upper surface may be bright with flashing colours. Various degrees of such " protective resemblance " can be traced, culminating in the wonderful " imitation " of its surroundings shown by the tropical " leaf -butterflies " (Kallima), the under surfaces of whose wings, though varying greatly, yet form in every case a perfect representation of a leaf in some stage or other of decay, the butterfly at the same time disposing of the rest of its body so as to bear out the deception. How this is effected is best told by A. R. Wallace, who was the first to observe it, in his work The Malay Archipelago: — " The habit of the species is always to rest on a twig and among dead or dried leaves, and in this position, with the wings closely pressed together, their outline is exactly that of a moderately sized leaf slightly curved or shrivelled. The tail of the hindwings forms a perfect stalk and touches the stick, while the insect is supported by the middle pair of legs, which are not noticed among the twigs and fibres that surround it. The head and antennae are drawn back between the wings so as to be quite concealed, and there is a little notch hollowed out at the very base of the wings, which allows the head to be retracted sufficiently." But the British Vanessids often rest on a bare patch of ground with the brightly coloured upper surface of their wings fully exposed to view, and even make themselves still more conspicuous by fanning their wings up and down. Some genera and families of Lepidoptera, believed to secrete noxious juices that render them distasteful, are adorned with the staring contrasts of colour usually regarded as " warning," while other genera, belonging to harmless families sought for as food by birds and lizards, are believed to obtain complete or partial immunity by their likeness to the conspicuous noxious groups. (See MIMICRY.) Sexual dimorphism is frequent among the Lepidoptera. In many families this takes the form of more elaborate feelers in the male than in the female moth. Such complex feelers (fig. 2) bear numerous sensory (olfactory) nerve-endings and give to the males that possess them a wonderful power of dis- covering their mates. A single captive female of the Endromidae or Lasiocampidae often causes hundreds of males of her species to " assemble " around her prison, and this character is made use of by collectors who want to secure specimens. In many butterflies — notably the " blues " (Lycaenidae) — the male is brilliant while the female is dull, and in other groups (the Danainae for example) he is provided with scent-producing glands believed to be " alluring " in function. The apparent evidence given by the sexual differences among the Lepidoptera in favour of C. Darwin's theory of sexual selection finds no support from a study of their habits. The male indeed usually seeks the female, but she appears to exercise no choice in pairing. In some cases the female is attracted by the male, and here a modified form of sexual selection appears to be opera- tive. The ghost swift moth (Hepialushumuli] FIG. 17 — VapourerMotMOcnmadefrita). affords a curious and S' Eur°Pe' A- Male' B' Female' interesting example of this condition, the female showing the usual brown and buff coloration of her genus, while the wings of the male are pure white, rendering him conspicuous in the dusky evening when pairing takes place. But in the northernmost 470 LEPIDOPTERA haunts of the species, where there is no midsummer night, the male closely resembles the female in wing patterns, the development of the conspicuous white being needless. A very interesting sexual dimorphism is seen in the wingless condition of several female' moths — the winter moths (Hybernia and Cheimatobia) among the Geometridae and the vapourers (Orgyia and Ocneria) among the Lymantriidae for example (fig. 17). It might be thought that the loss of power of flight by the female would seriously restrict the range of the species. In such insects, however, the caterpillars are often active and travel far. Distribution and Migration. — The range of the Lepidoptera is practically world- wide; they are absent from the most remote and inhospitable of the arctic and antarctic lands, but even Kerguelen possesses a few small indigenous moths. Many of the large and dominant families have a range wide as that of the order, and certain species that have attached themselves to man — like the meal moths and the clothes moths — have become almost cosmopolitan. Interesting and suggestive restrictions of range can, however, be often traced. Although butterflies have been found in 82° N. latitude in Greenland, they are unknown in Iceland, and only a few species of the group reach New Zealand. Three large sections — the Ithomiinae, Heliconiinae and Brassolinae — of the great butterfly family Nymphalidae are peculiar to the Neotropical region, while the Morphinae, a characteristically South American group, have a few Oriental genera in India and Indo-Malaya. The Acraeinae, another section of the same family, have the vast majority of their species in Ethiopian Africa, but are represented eastwards in the Oriental and Australian regions and westwards in South America. A comparison of the lepidopterous faunas of Ireland, Great Britain and the European continent is very instructive, and suggests strongly that, despite their power of flight the Lepidoptera are mostly dependent on land-connexions for the extension of their range. For example, Ireland has only forty of the seventy species of British butterflies. The range of many Lepidoptera is of course determined by the distribution of the plants on which their larvae feed. Nevertheless certain species of powerful flight, and some that might be thought feeble on the wing, often cross sea-channels and establish or reinforce distant colonies. Caterpillars of the great death's head moth (Acherontia atropos) are found every summer feeding in British and Irish potato fields, but it is doubt- ful if any of the pupae resulting from them survive the winter in our climate. It is believed by Tutt that the species is only maintained by a fresh immigration of moths from the South each summer. Hosts of white butterflies (Pieris) have been frequently observed crossing the English Channel from France to Kent. Migrating swarms of Lepidoptera have often been met by sailors in mid-ocean; thus, Tutt records the presence around a sailing ship in the Atlantic of such a swarm of the rather feeble moth Deiopeia pulchella, nearly 1000 m. from its nearest known habitat. This migratory instinct is connected with the gregarious habits of many Lepidoptera. For example, H. W. Bates states that at one place in South America he noticed eighty different species flying about in enormous numbers in the sunshine, and these, with few exceptions, were males, the females remaining within the forest shades. Darwin describes a "butterfly shower," which he observed 10 m. off the South American coast, extending as far as the eye could reach; " even by the aid of the telescope," he adds, " it was not possible to see a space free from butterflies." Sir J. Emerson Tennent, witnessed in Ceylon a mighty host of butterflies of white or pale yellow hue, " apparently miles in breadth and of such prodigious extension as to occupy hours and even days uninterruptedly in their passage." Observations at Heligoland by H. Gatke have shown that migrating moths " travel under the same conditions as migrating birds, and for the most part in their company, in an east to west direction; they fly in swarms, the numbers of which defy all attempts at computation and can only be expressed by millions." The painted lady butterfly (Pyrameis cardui) comes in repeated swarms from the Mediter- ranean region into northern and western Europe, while in North America companies of the monarch (Anosia archippus) invade Canada every summer from the United States, and are believed to return southwards in autumn. This latter species has, during the last half-century, extended its range south-westwards across the Pacific and reached the Austro-Malayan islands, while several specimens have occurred in southern and western England, though it has not established itself on this side of the Atlantic. It is noteworthy that the introduction of its food-plant — Asdepias — into the Sandwich Islands in 1850 apparently enabled it to spread across the Pacific. Fossil History. — Our knowledge of the geological history of the Lepidoptera is but scanty. Certain Oolitic fossil insects from the lithographic stone of Solenhofen, Bavaria, have been described as moths, but it is only in Tertiary deposits that undoubted Lepidoptera occur, and these, all referable to existing families, are very scarce. Most of them come from the Oligocene beds of Florissant, Colorado, and have been described by S. H. Scudder. The paucity of Lepidoptera among the fossils is not surprising when we consider the delicacy of their structure, and though their past history cannot be traced back beyond early Cainozoic times, we can have little doubt from the geographical distribution of some of the families that the order originated with the other higher Endopterygota in the Mesozoic epoch. Classification. — The order Lepidoptera contains more than fifty families, the discussion of whose mutual relationships has given rise to much difference of opinion. The generally received distinction is between butterflies or Rhopalocera (Lepidoptera with clubbed feelers, whose habit is to fly by day) and moths or Heterocera (Lepidoptera with variously shaped feelers, mostly crepuscular or nocturnal in habit). This distinction is quite untenable as a zoological conception, for the relationship of butterflies to some moths is closer than that of many families of Heterocera to each other. Still more objectionable is the division of the order into Macrolepidoptera (including the butter- flies and large moths) and the Microlepidoptera (comprising the smaller moths). Most of the recent suggestions for the division of the Lepidoptera into sub-orders depend upon some single character. Thus J. H. Comstock has proposed to separate the three lowest families, which have — like caddis-flies (Trichoptera) — a jugum on each forewing, as a sub-order Jugatae, distinct from all the rest of the Lepidoptera — the Frenatae, mostly posses- sing a frenulum on the hindwing. A. S. Packard places one family (Micropterygidae) with functional mandibles and a lacinia in the first maxilla alone in a sub-order Laciniata, all the rest of the order forming the sub-order Haustellata. T. A. Chapman divides the families with free or incompletely obtect and mobile pupae (Incompletae) from those with obtect pupae which never leave the cocoon (Obtectae), and this is probably the most natural primary division of the Lepidoptera that has as yet been suggested. Dyar puts forward a classification founded entirely on the structure of the larva, while Tutt divides the Lepidoptera into three great stirps characterized by the shape of the chorion of the egg. The primitive form of the egg is oval, globular, or flattened with the micropyle at one end; from this has apparently been derived the upright form of egg with the micropyle on top which characterizes the butterflies and the higher moths. These schemes, though helpful in pointing out important differences, are unnatural in that they lay stress on single, often adaptive, characters to the exclusion of others equally important. Although it is perhaps best to establish no division among the Lepidoptera between the order and the family, an attempt has been made in the classification adopted in this article to group the families into tribes or super-families which may indicate their probable affinities. The systematic work of G. F. Hampson, A. R. Grote and E. Meyrick has done much to place the classification of the Lepidoptera on a sound basis, so far as the characters of the imago are concerned, but attention must also be paid to the preparatory stages if a truly natural system is to be reached. Jugatae. Three families are included in this group having in common certain primitive characters of the wings and ncuration (see fig. 6), LEPIDOPTERA 47 as well as of the larva and pupa. There is a membranous lobe or jugum near the base of the wing, and the neuration of the hindwing is closely like that of the forewing, the radial nervure being five- branched in both. The pupa has four or five movable segments, and the larval prolegs have complete circles of hooklets. The three families of the Jugatae are not very closely related to each other. The Micropterygidae (often known as Eriocephalidae), comprising a few small moths with metallic wings, are the most primitive of all Lepidoptera. They are provided with functional mandibles, while the maxillae have distinct laciniae, well-developed palps and galeae not modified for suction (see fig. 3). The larva is remarkable on account of its long feelers, the presence of pairs of jointed prolegs on the first eight abdominal segments, an anal sucker beneath the last segment and bladder-like outgrowths on the cuticle. These curious larvae feed on wet moss. The family has only a few genera scattered widely over the earth's surface (Europe, America, Australia, New Zealand). The EriocranOdae resemble the Micropterygidae in appearance, but the imago has no mandibles, and the maxillae, though short and provided with conspicuous palps, have no laciniae and form a proboscis as in Lepidoptera generally. The abdomen of the female carries a serrate piercing process, and the eggs are laid in the leaves of deciduous trees, the white larvae, with aborted legs, mining in the leaf tissue. The fully-fed larva winters in an underground cocoon and then changes into the most remarkable of all known lepidopter- ous pupae, with relatively enormous toothed mandibles which bite a way out of the cocoon in preparation for the final change. These pupal mandibles of the Eriocraniidae, together with the nature of the imaginal maxillae in the Micropterygidae (Eriocephalidae) and the wing-neuration in both families, point strongly to a relationship between the Lepidoptera and the Trichoptera. The Hepialidae or swift moths — the third family of the Jugatae — are in some respects specialized. The moths are of large or moderate size with the maxillae in a vestigial condition, no food being taken after the attainment of the perfect state. The larvae (fig. 12) feed either on roots or in the wood of trees and shrubs, not attaining their growth in less than a year and some large exotic species living for two or three. The family is world-wide in range, and Australia possesses some almost gigantic and strangely coloured genera. Tineides. A large assemblage of moths, mostly of small size, are included in this group. The wings have no jugum, but there is a frenulum on the hindwing, which has, as in all the groups above the Jugatae, only a single radial nervure. Three anal nervures are present in the hindwing in those families whose wings are well developed, but in several families of small moths the wings of both pairs are very narrow and pointed, and the neuration is consequently reduced,. The sub-costal nervure of the hindwing is usually present and distinct from the radial nervure. The egg is flat except in the Cpssidae and Castniidae in which it is upright. The larval prolegs, with few exceptions, have a complete circle of hooklets, and the larvae usually feed in some concealed situation. The pupa is incom- pletely obtect, with three (in some females only two) to five free abdominal segments, and emerges partly from the cocoon before the moth appears. The cremaster serves to anchor the pupa to its cocoon at the correct degree of emergence, and thus facilitates the eclosion of the imago. The Cossidae are a small family of large moths (figs. 8, 18, 19) belonging to this section, characterized by their heads with erect rough scales or hairs, the pectinate feelers of the males, their reduced maxillae so that no food is taken in the perfect state, and their FIG. 18. — Stygia australis. S. Europe. FIG. 19. — Zeuzera scalaris. India. wings with the fifth radial nervure arising from the third, and the main median nervure forking in the discoidal areolet. The larvae feed in plant stems, often in the wood of trees, forming tunnels and galleries, and usually taking a year or more to reach maturity. The pupa which has three or four free segments in the male and four or five in the female, rests in a cocoon within the food plant, often strengthened by chips of wood, or in a subterranean cocoon. The family is fairly well represented in the tropics; the British fauna possesses only three species, of which the " goat " (Gossus cossus) and the " leopard " (Zeuzera pyrina) are well known, the cater- pillars of both being often injurious to timber and fruit trees. The Tortricidae are a large family of small moths (see fig. i), nearly allied to the Cossidae. The fifth radial nervure does not arise from the third, the maxillae are well developed, but their palps are obsolete; the head is densely clothed with erect scales; the terminal segment of the labial palp is short and obtuse. The female pupa has three, the male four, free segments. All the larvae of these moths have some method of concealing themselves while feeding. A frequent plan is to roll up a leaf of the food-plant, fastening the twisted portion with silken threads so as to make a tubular retreat; this is the habit of the caterpillar of the green bell moth (Tortrix viridana) which often ravages the foliage of oak plantations. The larvae of the pine-shoot moths (Retinia) shelter in solidified resinous exudations from their coniferous food-plants, while the codlin-moth caterpillar (Carpocapsa pomonetta) feeds in apples and pears, growing with the growth of the fruit which affords them both provender and home. The antics of " jumping-beans " are due to the movements of tortricid caterpillars within the substance of the seed. The Psychidae are a small but widely-distributed family of moths whose males have the head, densely clothed with rough hairs, bearing complex, bipectinated feelers, but with the maxillae reduced and useless. The larvae live in portable cases made of grass, pieces of leaf or stick, with a silken lining, and these cases serve as cocoons for the pupae which agree in structure with those of the Tortricidae. But the most remarkable feature of the family is the extreme degradation of the female, which, wingless, legless and without jaws or feelers, never emerges from the cocoon. The Castniidae are a small family of large, conspicuous, day-flying exotic moths (fig. 20) whose clubbed feelers and bright colours give them a resemblance to butterflies, al- though their wing- neuration is of the primitive t i n e o i d type; the smooth larvae feed on the stems or roots of plants and the pupal structure agrees with that of _ „ the Tortricidae and FlG.2O.—Castmaacraeut was surrendered by the French in 1813, and finally annexed o Austria in 1815. LESION (through Fr. from Lat. laesio, injury, laedere, to hurt), an injury, hurt, damage. In Scots law the term is used of lamage suffered by a party in a contract sufficient to enable lim to bring an action for setting it aside. In pathology, the :hief use, the word is applied to any morbid change in the tructure of an organ, whether shown by visible changes or by tisturbance of function. LESKOVATS (LESKOVATZ or LESKOVAC), a town in Servia, between Nish and Vranya, on the railway line from Nish to Salonica. Pop. (1901) 13,70?- It is the headquarters of the Servian hemp industry, the extensive plain in which the town ies growing the best flax and hemp in all the Balkan peninsula. The plain is not only the most fertile portion of Servia, but also he best cultivated. Besides flax and hemp, excellent tobacco s grown. Five valleys converge on the plain from different directions, and the inhabitants of the villages in these valleys are all occupied in growing flax and hemp, which they send to ,eskovats to be stored or manufactured into ropes. After Belgrade and Nish, Leskovats is the most prosperous town ir> Servia. LESLEY, JOHN (1527-1596), Scottish bishop and historian, was born in 1527. His father was Gavin Lesley, rector of Kingussie. He was educated at the university of Aberdeen, where he took the degree of M.A. In 1538 he obtained a dis- pensation permitting him to hold a benefice, notwithstanding his being a natural son, and in June 1 546 he was made an acolyte in the cathedral church of Aberdeen, of which he was afterwards appointed a canon and prebendary. He also studied at Poitiers, at Toulouse and at Paris, where he was made doctor of laws in 1S53- IQ J558 he took orders and was appointed Official of Aberdeen, and inducted into the parsonage and prebend of Oyne. At the Reformation Lesley became a champion of Catholicism. He was present at the disputation held in Edin- burgh in 1561, when Knox and Willox were his antagonists. He was one of the commissioners sent the same year to bring over the young Queen Mary to take the government of Scotland. He returned in her train, and was appointed a privy councillor and professor of canon law in King's College, Aberdeen, and in 1565 one of the senators of the college of justice. Shortly afterwards he was made abbot of Lindores, and in 1565 bishop of Ross, the election to the see being confirmed in the following year. He was one of the sixteen commissioners appointed to revise the laws of Scotland, and the volume of the Actis and Constitutionis of the Realme of Scotland known as the Black Acts was, chiefly owing to his care, printed in 1566. The bishop was one of the most steadfast friends of Queen Mary. After the failure of the royal cause, and whilst Mary was a captive in England, Lesley (who had gone to her at Bolton) continued to exert himself on her behalf. He was one of the commissioners at the conference at York in 1568. He appeared as her ambassador at the court of Elizabeth to complain of the injustice done to her, and when he found he was not listened to he laid plans for her escape. He also projected a marriage for her with the duke of Norfolk, which ended in the execution of that noble- man. For this he was put under the charge of the bishop of London, and then of the bishop of Ely (in Holborn), and after- wards imprisoned in the Tower of London. During his confine- ment he collected materials for his history of Scotland, by which his name is now chiefly known. In 1571 he presented the latter portion of this work, written in Scots, to Queen Mary to amuse her in her captivity. He also wrote for her use his Piae Consola- tiones, and the queen devoted some of the hours of her captivity to translating a portion of it into French verse. In 1573 he was liberated from prison, but was banished from England. For two years he attempted unsuccessfully to obtain the assistance of Continental princes in favour of Queen Mary. While at Rome in 1578 he published his Latin history De Origine, Moribus, el Rebus Gestis Scotorum. In 1579 he went to France, and was made suffragan and vicar-general of the archbishopric LESLEY, J. P.— LESLIE, C. R. 491 of Rouen. Whilst visiting his diocese, however, he was thrown into prison, and had to pay 3000 pistoles to prevent his being given up to Elizabeth. During the remainder of the reign of Henry III. he lived unmolested, but on the accession of the Protestant Henry IV. he again fell into trouble. In 1590 he was thrown into prison, and had to purchase his freedom at the same expense as before. In 1593 he was made bishop of Cout- ances in Normandy, and had licence to hold the bishopric of Ross till he should obtain peaceable possession of the former see. He retired to an Augustinian monastery near Brussels, where he died on the 3ist of May 1596. The chief works of Lesley are as follows : A Defence of the Honour of . . . Marie, Queene of Scotland, by Eusebius Dicaeophile (London, 1569), reprinted, with alterations, at Liege in 1571, under the title, A Treatise concerning the Defence of the Honour of Marie, Queene of Scotland, made by Morgan Philippes, Bachelar of Divinitie, Piae afflicti animi consolationes, ad Mariam Scot. Reg. (Paris, 1574); De origins, moribus et rebus gestis Scotorum libri decem (Rome, 1578; re-issued 1675); De illustrium feminarum in republica administranda authoritate libellus (Reims, 1580; a Latin version of a tract on "The Lawfulness of the Regiment of Women": cf. Knox's pamphlet) ; De titulo et jure Marine Scot. Reg., quo regni Angliae successionem sibi juste vindicat (Reims, 1580; translated in 1584). The history of Scotland from 1436 to 1561 owes much, in its earlier chapters, to the accounts of Hector Boece (?.».) and John Major (q.v.) , though no small portion of the topographical matter is first-hand. In the later sections he gives an independent account (from the Catholic point of view) which is a valuable supplement and a correc- tive in many details, to the works of Buchanan and Knox. A Scots version of the history was written in 1596 by James Dalrymple of the Scottish Cloister at Regensburg. It has been printed for the Scottish Text Society (2 vols., 1888-1895) under the editorship of the Rev. E. G. Cody, O.S.B. A slight sketch by Lesley of Scottish history from 1562 to 1571 has been translated by Forbes-Leith in his Narrative of Scottish Catholics (1885), from the original MS. now in the Vatican. LESLEY, J. PETER (1810-1903), American geologist, was born in Philadelphia on the i;th of September 1819. It is recorded by Sir A. Geikie that " He was christened Peter after his father and grandfather, and at first wrote his name ' Peter Lesley, Jr.,' but disliking the Christian appellation that had been given to him, he eventually transformed his signature by putting the J. of ' Junior ' at the beginning." He was educated for the ministry at the university of Pennsylvania, where he graduated in 1838; but the effects of close study having told upon his health, he served for a time as sub-assistant on the first geological survey of Pennsylvania under Professor H. D. Rogers, and was after- wards engaged in a special examination of the coal regions. On the termination of the survey in 1841 he entered Princeton seminary and renewed his theological studies, at the same time giving his leisure time to assist Professor Rogers in preparing the final report and map of Pennsylvania. He was licensed to preach in 1844; he then paid a visit to Europe and entered on a short course of study at the university of Halle. Returning to America he worked during two years for the American Tract Society, and at the close of 1847 he joined Professor Rogers again in preparing geological maps and sections at Boston. He then accepted the pastorate of the Congregational church at Milton, a suburb of Boston, where he remained until 1851, when, his views having become Unitarian, he abandoned the ministry and entered into practice as a consulting geologist. In the course of his work he made elaborate surveys of the Cape Breton coal- field, and of other coal and iron regions. From 1855 to 1859 he was secretary of the American Iron Association; for twenty- seven years (1858-1885) he was secretary and librarian of the American Philosophical Society; from 1872 to 1878 he was professor of geology and dean of the faculty of science in the university of Pennsylvania, and from 1874-1893 he was in charge of the second geological survey of the state. He then retired to Milton, Mass., where he died on the ist of June 1903. He published Manual of Coal and its Topography (1856); The Iron Manufacturer's Guide to the Furnaces, Forges and Rolling Mills of the United Stales (1859). See Memoir by Sir A. Geikie in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. (May 1904) ; and Memoir (with portrait) by B. S. Lyman, printed in advance with portrait, and afterwards in abstract only in Trans. Amer. Inst. Mining Engineers, xxxiv. (1904) p. 726. LESLIE, CHARLES (1650-1722), Anglican nonjuring divine, son of JohnLeslie (1571-1671), bishop of Raphoe and afterwards of Clogher, was born in July 1650 in Dublin, and was educated at Enniskillen school and Trinity College, Dublin. Going to England he read law for a time, but soon turned his attention to theology, and took orders in 1680. In 1687 he became chancellor of the cathedral of Connor and a justice of the peace, and began a long career of public controversy by responding in public disputation at Monaghan to the challenge of the Roman Catholic bishop of Clogher. Although a vigorous opponent of Roman Catholicism, Leslie was a firm supporter of the Stuart dynasty, and, having declined at the Revolution to take the oath to William and Mary, he was on this account deprived of his benefice. In 1689 the growing troubles in Ireland induced him to withdraw to England, where he employed himself for the next twenty years in writing various controversial pamphlets in favour of the nonjuring cause, and in numerous polemics against the Quakers, Jews, Socinians and Roman Catholics, and especi- ally in that against the Deists with which his name is now most commonly associated. He had the keenest scent for every form of heresy and was especially zealous in his defence of the sacra- ments. A warrant having been issued against him in 1710 for his pamphlet The Good Old Cause, or Lying in Truth, he resolved to quit England and to accept an offer made by the Pretender (with whom he had previously been in frequent correspondence) that he should reside with him at Bar-le-Duc. After the failure of the Stuart cause in 1715, Leslie accompanied his patron into Italy, where he remained until 1721, in which year, having found his sojourn amongst Roman Catholics extremely unpleasant, he sought and obtained permission to return to his native country. He died at Glaslough, Monaghan, on the i3th of April 1722. The Theological Works of Leslie were collected and published by himself in 2 vols. folio in 1721; a later edition, slightly enlarged, appeared at Oxford in 1832 (7 vols. 8yo). Though marred by per- sistent arguing in a circle they are written in lively style and show considerable erudition. He had the somewhat rare distinction of making several converts by his reasonings, and Johnson declared that " Leslie was a reasoner, and a reasoner who was not to be reasoned against." An historical interest in all that now attaches to his subjects and his methods, as may be seen when the promise given in the title of his best-known work is contrasted with the actual performance. The book professes to be A Short and Easy Method with the Deists, wherein the certainty of the Christian Religion is Demonstrated by Infallible Proof from Four Rules, which are incom- patible to any imposture that ever yet has been, or that can possibly be (1697). The four rules which, according to Leslie, have only to be rigorously applied in order to establish not the probability merely but the absolute certainty of the truth of Christianity are simply these: (i) that the matter of fact be such as that men's outward senses, their eyes and ears, may be judges of it ; (2) that it be done publicly, in the face of the world; (3) that not only public monuments be kept up in memory of it, but some outward actions be performed; (4) that such monuments and such actions or observances be in- stituted and do commence from the time that the matter of fact was done. Other publications of Leslie are The Snake in the Grass (1696), against the Quakers; A Short Method with the Jews (1689) ; Gallienus Redivivus (an attack on William III., 1695); The Socinian Con- troversy Discussed (1697); The True Notion of the Catholic Church (1703); and Tlic Case Stated between the Church of Rome and the Church of England (1713). LESLIE, CHARLES ROBERT (1794-1859), English genre- painter, was born in London on the I9th of October 1794. His parents were American, and when he was five years of age he returned with them to their native country. They settled in Philadelphia, where their son was educated and afterwards apprenticed to a bookseller. He was, however, mainly interested in painting and the drama, and when George Frederick Cooke visited the city he executed a portrait of the actor, from re- collection of him on the stage, which was considered a work of such promise that a fund was raised to enable the young artist to study in Europe. He left for London in 1811, bearing introductions which procured for him the friendship of West, Beechey, Allston, Coleridge and Washington Irving, and was admitted as a student of the Royal Academy, where he carried off two silver medals. At first, influenced by West and Fuseli, he essayed " high art," and his earliest important subject depicted Saul and the Witch of Endor; but he soon discovered his true 492 LESLIE, F.— LESLIE, T. E. C. aptitude and became a painter of cabinet-pictures, dealing, not like those of Wilkie, with the contemporary life that sur- rounded him, but with scenes from the great masters of fiction, from Shakespeare and Cervantes, Addison and Moliere, Swift, Sterne, Fielding and Smollett. Of individual paintings we may specify "Sir Roger de Coverley going to Church" (1819); " May-day in the Time of Queen Elizabeth " (1821); " Sancho Panza and the Duchess " (1824); " Uncle Toby and the Widow Wadman " (1831); La Malade Imaginaire, act iii. sc. 6 (1843); and the " Duke's Chaplain Enraged leaving the Table," from Don Quixote (1849). Many of his more important subjects exist in varying replicas. He possessed a sympathetic imagina- tion, which enabled him to enter freely into the spirit of the author whom he illustrated, a delicate perception for female beauty, an unfailing eye for character and its outward manifestation in face and figure, and a genial and sunny sense of humour, guided by an instinctive refinement which prevented it from overstepping the bounds of good taste. In 1821 Leslie was elected A.R.A., and five years later full academician. In 1833 he left for America to become teacher of drawing in the military academy at West Point, but the post proved an irksome one, and in some six months he returned to England. He died on the 5th of May 1859. In addition to his skill as an artist, Leslie was a ready and pleasant writer. His Life of his friend Constable, the landscape painter, appeared in 1843, and his Handbook for Young Painters, a volume embodying the substance of his lectures as professor of painting to the Royal Academy, in 1855. In 1860 Tom Taylor edited his Auto- biography and Letters, which contain interesting reminiscences of his distinguished friends and contemporaries. LESLIE, FRED [FREDERICK HOBSON] (1855-1892), English actor, was born at Woolwich on the ist of April 1855. He made his first stage appearance in London as Colonel Hardy in Paul Pry in 1878. He had a good voice, and in 1882 made a great hit as Rip Van Winkle in Planquette's opera of that name at the Comedy. In 1885 he appeared at the Gaiety as Jonathan Wild in H. P. Stephens and W. Yardley's burlesque Little Jack Sheppard. His extraordinary success in this part determined his subsequent career, and for some years he and Nelly Farren, with whom he played in perfect association, were the pillars of Gaiety burlesque. Leslie's " Don Caesar de Bazan " in Ruy Bias, or the Blase Roue, was perhaps the most popular of his later parts. In all of them it was his own versatility and entertaining personality which formed the attraction; whether he sang, danced, whistled or " gagged," his performance was an unending flow of high spirits and ludicrous charm. Under the pseudonym of " A. C. Torr " he was acknowledged on the programmes as part-author of these burlesques, and while on occasion he acted in more serious comedy, for which he had undoubted capacity, his fame rests on his connexion with them. In 1881 and 1883 he played in America. He died on the 7th of December 1892. See W. T. Vincent, Recollections of Fred Leslie (1894). LESLIE, SIR JOHN (1766-1832), Scottish mathematician and physicist, was born of humble parentage at Largo, Fifeshire, on the i6th of April 1766, and received his early education there and at Leven. In his thirteenth year, encouraged by friends who had even then remarked his aptitude for mathematical and physical science, he entered the university of St Andrews. On the completion of his arts course, he nominally studied divinity at Edinburgh until 1787; in 1788-1789 he spent rather more than a year as private tutor in a Virginian family, and from 1790 till the close of 1792 he held a similar appointment at Etruria in Staffordshire, with the family of Josiah Wedgwood, em- ploying his spare time in experimental research and in preparing a translation of Buffon's Natural History of Birds, which was published in nine 8vo vols. in 1793, and brought him some money. For the next twelve years (passed chiefly in London or at Largo, with an occasional visit to the continent of Europe) he continued his physical studies, which resulted in numerous papers contri- buted by him to Nicholson's Philosophical Journal, and in the publication (1804) of the Experimental Inquiry into the Nature and Properties of Heat, a work which gained him the Rumford Medal of the Royal Society of London. In 1805 he was elected to succeed John Playfair in the chair of mathematics at Edin- burgh, not, however, without violent though unsuccessful opposi- tion on the part of a narrow-minded clerical party who accused him of heresy in something he had said as to the " unsophisti- cated notions of mankind " about the relation of cause and effect. During his tenure of this chair he published two volumes of a Course of Mathematics — the first, entitled Elements of Geo- metry, Geometrical Analysis and Plane Trigonometry, in 1809, and the second, Geometry of Curve Lines, in 1813; the third volume, on Descriptive Geometry and the Theory of Solids was never completed. With reference to his invention (in 1810) of a process of artificial congelation, he published in 1813 A Short Account of Experiments and Instruments depending on the relations of Air to Heat and Moisture; and in 1818 a paper by him " On certain impressions of cold transmitted from the higher atmosphere, with an instrument (the aethrioscope) adapted to measure them," appeared in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. In 1819, on the death of Playfair, he was promoted to the more congenial chair of natural philosophy, which he continued to hold until his death, and in 1823 he pub- lished, chiefly for the use of his class, the first volume of his never-completed Elements of Natural Philosophy. Leslie's main contributions to physics were made by the help of the " differential thermometer," an instrument whose invention was contested with him by Count Rumford. By adapting to this instrument various ingenious devices he was enabled to employ it in a great variety of investigations, connected especially with photometry, hygroscopy and the temperature of space. In 1820 he was elected a corresponding member of the Institute of France, the only distinction of the kind which he valued, and early in 1832 he was created a knight. He died at Coates, a small property which he had acquired near Largo, on the 3rd of November 1832. LESLIE, THOMAS EDWARD CLIFFE (1827-1882), English economist, was born in the county of Wexford in (as is believed) the year 1827. He was the second son of the Rev. Edward Leslie, prebendary of Dromore, and rector of Annahilt, in the county of Down. His family was of Scottish descent, but had been connected with Ireland since the reign of Charles I. Amongst his ancestors were that accomplished prelate, John Leslie (1571-1671), bishop first of Raphoe and afterwards of Clogher, who, when holding the former see, offered so stubborn a resistance to the Cromwellian forces, and the bishop's son Charles (see above), the nonjuror. Cliffe Leslie received his elementary education from his father, who resided in England, though holding church preferment as well as possessing some landed property in Ireland; by him he was taught Latin, Greek and Hebrew, at an unusually early age; he was afterwards for a short time under the care of a clergyman at Clapham, and was then sent to King William's College, in the Isle of Man, where he remained until, in 1842, being then only fifteen years of age, he entered Trinity College, Dublin. He was a distinguished student there, obtaining, besides other honours, a classical scholarship in 1845, and a senior moderatorship (gold medal) in mental and moral philosophy at his degree examination in 1846. He became a law student at Lincoln's Inn, was for two years a pupil in a conveyancer's chambers in London, and was called to the English bar. But his attention was soon turned from the pursuit of legal practice, for which he seems never to have had much inclination, by hrs appointment, in 1853, to the professorship of jurisprudence and political economy in Queen's College, Belfast. The duties of this chair requiring only short visits to Ireland in certain terms of each year, he continued to reside and prosecute his studies in London, and became a frequent writer on economic and social questions in the principal reviews and other periodicals. In 1870 he collected a number of his essays, adding several new ones, into a volume entitled Land Systems and Industrial Economy of Ireland, England and Con- tinental Countries. J. S. Mill gave a full account of the contents of this work in a paper in the Fortnightly Review, in which he pronounced Leslie to be " one of the best living writers on applied political economy." Mill had sought'his acquaintance on reading LESLIE 493 his first article in Macmillan's Magazine; he admired his talents and took pleasure in his society, and treated him with a respect and kindness which Leslie always gratefully acknowledged. In the frequent visits which Leslie made to the continent, especially to Belgium and some of the less-known districts of France and Germany, he occupied himself much in economic and social observation, studying the effects of the institutions and system of life which prevailed in each region, on the material and moral condition of its inhabitants. In this way he gained an extensive and accurate acquaintance with continental rural economy, of which he made excellent use in studying parallel phenomena at home. The accounts he gave of the results of his observations were among his happiest efforts; " no one," said Mill, " was able to write narratives of foreign visits at once so instructive and so interesting." In these excursions he made the acquaintance of several distinguished persons, amongst others of M. Leonce de Lavergne and M. fimile de Laveleye. To the memory of the former of these he afterwards paid a graceful tribute in a biographical sketch (Fortnightly Review, February 1881) ; and to the close of his life there existed between him and M. de Laveleye relations of mutual esteem and cordial intimacy. Two essays of Leslie's appeared in volumes published under the auspices of the Cobden Club, one on the " Land System of France" (2nd ed., 1870), containing an earnest defence of la petite culture and still more of la petite propriete; the other on " Financial Reform " (1871), in which he exhibited in detail the impediments to production and commerce arising from indirect taxation. Many other articles were contributed by him to reviews between 1875 and 1879, including several discussions of the history of prices and the movements of wages in Europe, and a sketch of life in Auvergne in his best manner; the most important of them, however, related to the philosophical method of political economy, notably a memorable one which appeared in the Dublin University periodical, Hcrmathena. In 1879 the provost and senior fellows of Trinity College published for him a volume in which a number of these articles were collected under the title of Essays in Political and Moral Philosophy. These and some later essays, together with the earlier volume on Land Systems, form the essential contribution of Leslie to economic literature. He had long contemplated, and had in part written, a work on English economic and legal history, which would have been his magnum opus — a more substantial fruit of his genius and his labours than anything he has left. But the MS. of this treatise, after much pains had already been spent on it, was unaccountably lost at Nancy in 1872; and, though he hoped to be able speedily to reproduce the missing portion and finish the work, no material was left in a state fit for publication. What the nature of it would have been may be gathered from an essay on the " History and Future of Profit " in the Fortnightly Review for November 1881, which is believed to have been in substance an extract from it. That he was able to do so much may well be a subject of wonder when it is known that his labours had long been impeded by a painful and depressing malady, from which he suffered severely at intervals, whilst he never felt secure from its recurring attacks. To this disease he in the end succumbed at Belfast, on the 27th of January 1882. Leslie's work may be distributed under two heads, that of applied political economy and that of discussion on the philosophical method of the science. The Land Systems belonged principally to the former division. The author perceived the great and growing importance for the social welfare of both Ireland and England of what is called " the land question," and treated it in this volume at once with breadth of view and with a rich variety of illustrative detail. His general purpose was to show that the territorial systems of both countries were so encumbered with elements of feudal origin as to be altogether unfitted to serve the purposes of a modern industrial society. The policy he recommended is summed up in the following list of requirements, " a simple jurisprudence relating to land, a law of equal intestate succession, a prohibition of entail, a legal security for tenants' improvements, an open registration of title and transfer and a considerable number of peasant properties." The volume is full of practical good sense, and exhibits a thorough knowledge of home and foreign agricultural economy ; and in the handling of the subject is everywhere shown the special power which its author possessed of making what he wrote interesting as well as instructive. The way in which sagacious observation and shrewd comment are constantly intermingled in the discussion not seldom reminds us of Adam Smith, whose manner was more congenial to Leslie than the abstract and arid style of Ricardo. But what, more than anything else, marks him as an original thinker and gives him a place apart among contemporary econo- mists, is his exposition and defence of the historical method in political economy. Both at home and abroad there has for some time existed a profound and growing dissatisfaction with the method and many of the doctrines of the hitherto dominant school, which, it is alleged, under a " fictitious completeness, symmetry and exact- ness " disguises a real hollowness and discordance with fact. It is urged that the attempt to deduce the economic phenomena of a society from the so-called universal principle of " the desire of wealth " is illusory, and that they cannot be fruitfully studied apart from the general social conditions and historic development of which they are the outcome. Of this movement of thought Leslie was the principal representative, if not the originator, in England. There is no doubt, for he has himself placed it on record, that the first influence which impelled him in the direction of the historical method was that of Sir Henry Maine, by whose personal teaching of jurisprudence, as well as by the example of his writings, he was led " to look at the present economic structure and state of society as the result of a long evolution." The study of those German economists who represent similar tendencies doubtless confirmed him in the new line of thought On which he had entered, though he does not seem -to have been further indebted to any of them except, perhaps, in some small degree to Roschcr. And the writings of Comte, whose " prodigious genius," as exhibited in the Philosophic Positive, he admired and proclaimed, though he did not accept his system as a whole, must have powerfully co-operated to form in him the habit of regarding economic science as only a single branch of sociology, which should always be kept in close relation to the others. The earliest writing in which Leslie's revolt against the so-called " orthodox school " distinctly appears is his Essay on Wages, which was first published in 1868 and was reproduced as an appendix to the volume on Land Tenures. In this, after exposing the inanity of the theory of the wage-fund, and showing the utter want of agree- ment between its results and the observed phenomena, he concludes by declaring that " political economy must be content to take rank as an inductive, instead of a purely deductive science," and that, by this change of character, " it will gain in utility, interest and real truth far more than a full compensation for the forfeiture of a fictitious title to mathematical exactness and certainty." But it is in the essays collected in the volume of 1879 that his attitude in relation to the question of method is most decisively marked. In one of these, on " the political economy of Adam Smith," he exhibits in a very interesting way the co-existence in the Wealth of Nations of historical-inductive investigation in the manner of Montesquieu with a priori speculation founded on theologico-metaphysical bases, and points out the error of ignoring the former element, which is the really characteristic feature of Smith's social philosophy, and places him in strong contrast with his soi-disant followers of the school of Ricardo. The essay, however, which contains the most brilliant polemic against the " orthodox school," as well as the most luminous account and the most powerful vindication of the new direction, was that of which we have above spoken as having first appeared in Hermathena. It may be recommended as supplying the best extant presentation of one of the two contending views of economic method. On this essay mainly rests the claim of Leslie to be regarded as the founder and first head of the English historical school of political economy. Those who share his views on the philosophical constitu- tion of the science regard the work he did, notwithstanding its un- systematic character, as in reality the most important done by any English economists in the latter half of the igth century. But even the warmest partisans of the older school acknowledge that he did excellent service by insisting on a kind of inquiry, previously too much neglected, which was of the highest interest and value, in whatever relation it might be supposed to stand to the establishment of economic truth. The members of both groups alike recognized his great learning, his patient and conscientious habits of investiga- tion and the large social spirit in which he treated the problems of his science. (J. K. I.) LESLIE, a police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 3587. It lies on the Leven, the vale of which is overlooked by the town, 4 m. W. of Markinch by the North British railway. The industries include paper-making, flax-spinning, bleaching and linen-weaving. The old church claims to be the " Christ's Kirk on the Green " of the ancient ballads of that name. A stone on the Green, called the Bull Stone, is said to have been used when bull-baiting was a popular pastime. Leslie House, the seat of the earl of Rothes, designed by Sir William Bruce, rivalled Holyrood in magnificence. It was noted for its tapestry and its gallery of family portraits and other pictures, including a 494 portrait of Rembrandt by himself. Daniel Defoe considered its park the glory of the kingdom. The mansion sustained serious damage from fire in 1763. Norman Leslie, master of Rothes, was concerned in the killing of Cardinal Beaton (1546), and the dagger with which John Leslie, Norman's uncle, struck the fatal blow is preserved in Leslie House. MARKINCH (pop. 1499), a police burgh situated between Conland Burn and the Leven, 71 m. N. by E. of Kirkcaldy by the North British railway, is a place of great antiquity. A cell of the Culdees was established here by one of the last of the Celtic bishops, the site of which may possibly be marked by the ancient cross of Balgonie. Markinch is also believed to have been a residence of the earlier kings, where prior to the nth century they occasionally administered justice; and in the reign of William the Lion (d. 1 2 14) the warrantors of goods alleged to have been stolen were required to appear here. Its industries com- prise bleaching, flax-spinning, paper-making, distilling and coal- mining. Balgonie Castle, close by, the keep of which is 80 ft. high, was a residence of Alexander Leslie, the first earl of Leven, and at Balfour Castle were born Cardinal Beaton and his uncle and nephew the archbishops of Glasgow. LESPINASSE, JEANNE JULIE ELEONORE DE (1732-1776), French author, was born at Lyons on the gth of November 1732. A natural child of the comtesse d'Albon, she was brought up as the daughter of Claude Lespinasse of Lyons. On leaving her convent school she became governess in the house of her mother's legitimate daughter, Mme de Vichy, who had married the brother of the marquise du Deffand. Here Mme du Deffand made her acquaintance, and, recognizing her extraordinary gifts, per- suaded her to come to Paris as her companion. The alliance lasted ten years (1754-1764) until Mme du Deffand became jealous of the younger woman's increasing influence, when a violent quarrel ensued. Mile de Lespinasse set up a salon of her own which was joined by many of the most brilliant members of Mme du Deffand's circle. D'Alembert was one of the most assiduous of her friends and eventually came to live under the same roof. There was no scandal attached to this arrangement, which ensured d'Alembert's comfort and lent influence to Mile de Lespinasse's salon. Although she had neither beauty nor rank, her ability as a hostess made her reunions the most popular in Paris. She owes her distinction, however, not to her social success, but to circumstances which remained a secret during her lifetime from her closest friends. Two volumes of Leltres pub- lished in 1809 displayed her as the victim of a passion of a rare intensity. In virtue of this ardent, intense quality Sainte Beuve and other of her critics place her letters in the limited category to which belong the Latin letters of Heloise and those of the Portuguese Nun. Her first passion, a reasonable and serious one, was for the marquis de Mora, son of the Spanish ambassador in Paris. De Mora had come to Paris in 1765, and with some intervals remained there until 1772 when he was ordered to Spain for his health. On the way to Paris in 1774 to fulfil promises exchanged with Mile de Lespinasse, he died at Bordeaux. But her letters to the comte de Guibert, the worthless object of her fatal infatuation, begin from 1773. From the struggle between her affection for de Mora and her blind passion for her new lover they go on to describe her partial disenchantment on Guibert's marriage and her final despair. Mile de Lespinasse died on the 23rd of May 1776, her death being apparently hastened by the agitation and misery to which she had been for the last three years of her life a prey. In addition to the Leltres she was the author of two chapters intended as a kind of sequel to Sterne's Sentimental Journey. Her Lettres . . . were published by Mme de Guibert in 1809 and a spurious additional collection appeared in 1820. Among modern editions may be mentioned that of Eugene Asse (1876-1877). Lettres inedites de Mademoiselle de Lespinasse a Condorcet, a D'Alem- bert, a Guibert, au comte de Crillon, edited by M. Charles Henry (1887), contains copies of the documents available for her biography. Mrs Humphry Ward's novel, Lady Rose's Daughter, owes something to the character of Mile de Lespinasse. LES SABLES D'OLONNE, a seaport of western France, capital of an arrondissement of the department of Vendee, on an inlet of LESPINASSE— LESSEPS, F. DE the Atlantic seaboard, 23 m. S.W. of La Roche-sur-Yon by rail. Pop. (1906) 11,847. The town stands between the sea on the south and the port on the north, while on the west it is separated by a channel from the suburb of La Chaume, built at the foot of a range of dunes 65 ft. high, which terminates southwards in the rocky peninsula of L'Aiguille. The beautiful smoothly sloping beach, i m. in length, is much frequented by bathers. To the north of Sables extend salt-marshes and oyster-parks, yielding 6,000,000 to 8,000,000 oysters per annum. Sables has a church built in the Late Gothic style towards the middle of the i7th century. The port, consisting of a tidal basin and a wet-dock, is accessible to vessels of 2000 tons, but is dangerous when the winds are from the south-west. The lighthouse of Barges, a mile out at sea to the west, is visible for 17 to 18 nautical miles. The inhabitants are employed largely in sardine and tunny fishing; there are imports of coal, wood, petroleum and phosphates. Boat-building and sardine-preserving are carried on. The town has a sub-prefecture and a tribunal of first instance. Founded by Basque or Spanish sailors, Sables was the first place in Poitou invaded by the Normans in 817. Louis XL, who went there in 1472, granted the inhabitants various privileges, improved the harbour, and fortified the entrance. Captured and recaptured during the Wars of Religion, the town afterwards became a nursery of hardy sailors and privateers, who harassed the Spaniards and afterwards the English. In 1696 Sables was bombarded by the combined fleets of England and Holland. In the middle of the i8th century hurricanes caused grievous damage to town and harbour. LES SAINTES-MARIES, a coast village of south-eastern France in the department of Bouches-du-Rh6ne, 24 m. S.S.W. of Aries by rail. Pop. (1906) 544. Saintes-Maries is situated in the plain of the Camargue, 15 m. E. of the mouth of the Petit-Rh6ne. It is the object of an ancient and famous pilgrimage due to the tradition that Mary, sister of the Virgin, and Mary, mother of James and John, together with their black servant Sara, Lazarus, Martha, Mary Magdalen and St Maximin fled thither to escape persecution in Judaea. The relics of the two Maries, who are said to have been buried at Saintes-Maries, are bestowed in the upper storey of the apse of the fortress-church, a remarkable building of the I2th century with crenelated and machicolated walls. Two festivals are held in the town, a less important one in October, the other, on the 24th and 25th of May, unique for its gathering of gipsies who come in large numbers to do honour to the tomb of their patroness Sara, contained in the crypt below the apse. LESSE, one of the most romantic of the smaller rivers of Belgium. It rises at Ochamps in the Ardennes, and flowing in a north-westerly course reaches the Meuse at Anseremme, a few miles above Dinant. The river is only 49 m. long, but its meander- ing course may be judged by the fact that it is no more than 29 m. from Ochamps to Anseremme in a straight line. There is a good deal of pretty scenery along this river, as, for instance, atCiergnon, but the most striking part of the valley is contained in the last 1 2 m. from Houyet to Anseremme. In this section the river is confined between opposing walls of cliff ranging from 300 to 500 ft. above the river. Here were discovered in the caves near Walzin the bones of prehistoric men, and other evidence of the primitive occupants of this globe at a period practically beyond computa- tion. Another curious natural feature of the Lesse is that on reaching the hill of Han it disappears underground, reappearing about i m. farther on at the village of that name. Here are the curious and interesting Han grottoes. The Lesse receives altogether in its short course the water of thirteen tributaries. LESSEPS, FERDINAND DE (1805-1894). French diplomatist and maker of the Suez Canal, was born at Versailles on the i9th of November 1805. The origin of his family has been traced back as far as the end of the I4th century. His ancestors, it is believed, came from Scotland, and settled at Bayonne when that region was occupied by the English. One of his great-grandfathers was town clerk and at the same time secretary to Queen Anne of Neuberg, widow of Charles II. of Spain, exiled to Bayonne after the accession of Philip V. From the middle of the i8th century LESSEES, F. DE 495 the ancestors of Ferdinand de Lesseps followed the diplomatic career, and he himself occupied with real distinction several posts in the same calling from 1825 to 1849. His uncle was ennobled by King Louis XVI., and his father was made a count by Napoleon I. His father, Mathieu de Lesseps (1774-1832), was in the consular service; his mother, Catherine de Grivegnee, was Spanish, and aunt of the countess of Montijo, mother of the empress Eugenie. His first years were spent in Italy, where his father was occupied with his consular duties. He was educated at the College of Henry IV. in Paris. From the age of 18 years to 20 he was employed in the commissary department of the army. From 1825 to 1827 he acted as assistant vice- consul at Lisbon, where his uncle, Barthelemy de Lesseps, was the French charge d'affaires. This uncle was an old companion of La Perouse and a survivor of the expedition in which that navigator perished. In 1828 Ferdinand was sent as an assist- ant vice-consul to Tunis, where his father was consul-general. He courageously aided the escape of Youssouff, pursued by the soldiers of the bey, of whom he was one of the officers, for viola- tion of the seraglio law. Youssouff acknowledged this protection given by a Frenchman by distinguishing himself in the ranks of the French army at the time of the conquest of Algeria. Ferdinand de Lesseps was also entrusted by his father with missions to Marshal Count Clausel, general-in-chief of the army of occupation in Algeria. The marshal wrote to Mathieu de Lesseps on the i8th of December 1830: " I have had the pleasure of meeting your son, who gives promise of sustaining with great credit the name he bears." In 1832 Ferdinand de Lesseps was appointed vice-consul at Alexandria. To the placing in quaran- tine of the vessel which took him to Egypt is due the origin of his great conception of a canal across the isthmus of Suez. In order to help him to while away the time at the lazaretto, M. Mimaut, consul-general of France at Alexandria, sent him several books, among which was the memoir written upon the Suez Canal, according to Bonaparte's instructions, by the civil engineer Lapere, one of the scientific members of the French expedition. This work struck de Lesseps's imagination, and gave him the idea of piercing the African isthmus. This idea, moreover, was conceived in circumstances that were to prepare the way for its realization. Mehemet Ali, who was the viceroy of Egypt, owed his position, to a certain extent, to the recommendations made in his behalf to the French government by Mathieu de Lesseps, who was consul-general in Egypt when Mehemet Ali was a simple colonel. The viceroy therefore wel- comed Ferdinand affectionately, while Said Pacha, Mehemet's son, began those friendly relations that he did not forget later, when he gave him the concession for making the Suez Canal. In 1833 Ferdinand de Lesseps was sent as consul to Cairo, and soon afterwards given the management of the consulate- general at Alexandria, a post that he held until 1837. While he was there a terrible epidemic of the plague broke out and lasted for two years, carrying off more than a third of the inhabitants of Cairo and Alexandria. During this time he went from one city to the other, according as the danger was more pressing, and constantly displayed an admirable zeal and an imperturbable energy. Towards the close of the year 1837 he returned to France, and on the 2ist of December married Mile Agathe Delamalle, daughter of the government prosecuting attorney at the court of Angers. By this marriage M. de Lesseps became the father of five sons. In 1839 he was appointed consul at Rotterdam, and in the following year transferred to Malaga, the place of origin of his mother's family. In 1842 he was sent to Barcelona, and soon afterwards promoted to the grade of consul- general. In the course of a bloody insurrection in Catalonia, which ended in the bombardment of Barcelona, Ferdinand de Lesseps showed the most persistent bravery, rescuing from death, without distinction, the men belonging to the rival factions, and protecting and sending away not only the Frenchmen who were in danger, but foreigners of all nationalities. From 1848 to 1849 he was minister of France at Madrid. In the latter year the government of the French Republic confided to him a mission to Rome at the moment when it was a question whether the expelled pope would return to the Vatican with or without bloodshed. Following his interpretation of the instructions he had received, de Lesseps began negotiations with the existing government at Rome, according to which Pius IX. should peace- fully re-enter the Vatican and the independence of the Romans be assured at the same time. But while he was negotiating, the elections in France had caused a change in the foreign policy of the government. His course was disapproved; he was re- called and brought before the council of state, which blamed his conduct without giving him a chance to justify himself. Rome, attacked by the French army, was taken by assault after a month's sanguinary siege. M. de Lesseps then retired from the diplomatic service, and never afterwards occupied any public office. In 1853 he lost his wife and daughter at a few days' interval. Perhaps his energy would not have been sufficient to sustain him against these repeated blows of destiny if, in 1854, the accession to the viceroyalty of Egypt of his old friend, Said Pacha, had not given a new impulse to the ideas that had haunted him for the last twenty-two years concerning the Suez Canal. Said Pacha invited M. de Lesseps to pay him a visit, and on the 7th of November 1854 he landed at Alexandria; on the 3Oth of the same month Said Pacha signed the concession authoriz- ing M. de Lesseps to pierce the isthmus of Suez. A first scheme, indicated by him, was immediately drawn out by two French engineers who were in the Egyptian service, MM. Linant Bey and Mougel Bey. This project, differing from others that had been previously presented or that were in opposi- tion to it, provided for a direct communication between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. After being slightly modified, the plan was adopted in 1856 by an international commission of civil engineers to which it had been submitted. Encouraged by this approval, de Lesseps no longer allowed anything to stop him. He listened to no adverse criticism and receded before no obstacle. Neither the opposition of Lord Palmerston, who considered the projected disturbance as too radical not to endanger the commercial position of Great Britain, nor the opinions entertained, in France as well as in England, that the sea in front of Port Said was full of mud which would obstruct the entrance to the canal, that the sands from the desert would fill the trenches — no adverse argument, in a word, could dishearten Ferdinand de Lesseps. His faith made him believe that his adversaries were in the wrong; but how great must have been this faith, which permitted him to undertake the work at a time when mechanical appliances for the execution of such an undertaking did not exist, and when for the utilization of the proposed canal there was as yet no steam mercantile marine ! Impelled by his convictions and talent, supported by the emperor Napoleon III. and the empress Eugenie, he succeeded in rousing the patriotism of the French and obtaining by their subscriptions more than half of the capital of two hundred millions of francs which he needed in order to form a company. The Egyptian government subscribed for eighty millions' worth of shares. The company was organized at the end of 1858. On the 25th of April 1859 the first blow of the pickaxe was given by Lesseps at Port Said, and on the I7th of November 1869 the canal was officially opened by the Khedive, Ismail Pacha (see SUEZ CANAL). While in the interests of his canal Lesseps had resisted the opposition of British diplomacy to an enterprise which threatened to give to France control of the shortest route to India, he acted loyally towards Great Britain after Lord Beaconsfield had acquired the Suez shares belonging to the Khedive, by frankly admitting to the board of directors of the company three representatives of the British government. The consolidation of interests which resulted, and which has been developed by the addition in 1884 of seven other British directors, chosen from among shipping merchants and business men, has augmented, for the benefit of all concerned, the commercial character of the enterprise. Ferdinand de Lesseps steadily endeavoured to keep out of politics. If in 1869 he appeared to deviate from this principle by being a candidate at Marseilles for the Corps Legislatif, it was because he yielded to the entreaties of the Imperial 496 LESSING government in order to strengthen its goodwill for the Suez Canal. Once this goodwill had been shown, he bore no malice towards those who rendered him his liberty by preferring Gam- betta. He afterwards declined the other candidatures that were offered him: for the Senate in 1876, and for the Chamber in 1877. In 1873 he became interested in a project for uniting Europe and Asia by a railway to Bombay, with a branch to Peking. He subsequently encouraged Major Roudaire, who wished to transform the Sahara desert into an inland sea. The king of the Belgians having formed an International African Society, de Lesseps accepted the presidency of the French committee, facilitated M. de Brazza's explorations, and acquired stations that he subsequently abandoned to the French government. These stations were the starting-point of French Congo. In 1879 a congress assembled in the rooms of the Geographical Society at Paris, under the presidency of Admiral de la Ronciere le Noury, and voted in favour of the making of the Panama Canal. Public opinion, it may be declared, designated Ferdinand de Lesseps as the head of the enterprise. It was upon that occasion that Gambetta bestowed upon him the title of Le Grand Fran$ais. He was not a man to shirk responsibility, and notwithstanding that he had reached the age of 74, he undertook to carry out the Panama Canal project (see PANAMA CANAL and FRANCE: History). Politics, which de Lesseps had always avoided, was his greatest enemy in this matter. The winding-up of the Panama Company having been declared in the month of December 1888, the adversaries of the French Republic, seeking for a scandal that would imperil the govern- ment, hoped to bring about the prosecution of the directors of the Panama Company. Their attacks were so vigorously made that the government was obliged, in self-defence, to have judicial proceedings taken against Ferdinand de Lesseps, his son Charles (b. 1849) and his co-workers Fontane and Cottu. Charles de Lesseps, a victim offered to the fury of the politicians, tried to divert the storm upon his head and prevent it from reaching his father. He managed to draw down upon himself alone the burden of the condemnations pronounced. One of the consequences of the persecutions of which he was the object was to oblige him to spend three years, from 1896 to 1899, in England, where his participation in the management of the Suez Canal had won for him some strong friendships, and where he was able to see the great respect in which the memory and name of his father were held by Englishmen. Ferdinand de Lesseps died at La Chenaie on the 7th of December 1894. He had contracted a second marriage in 1869 with Mile Autard de Bragard, daughter of a former magistrate of Mauritius; and eleven out of twelve children of this marriage survived him. M. de Lesseps was a member of the French Academy, of the Academy of Sciences, of numerous scientific societies, Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour and of the Star of India, and had received the freedom of the City of London. According to some accounts he was unconscious of the disastrous events that took place during the closing months of his life. Others report that, feeling himself powerless to scatter the gathered clouds, and aware of his physical feebleness, he had had the moral courage to pass in the eyes of his family, which he did not wish to afflict, as the dupe of the efforts they employed to conceal the truth from him. This last version would not be surprising if we relied upon the following portrait, sketched by a person who knew him intimately: — " Simple in his tastes, never thinking of himself, constantly preoccupied about others, supremely kind, he did not and would not recognize such a thing as evil. Of a confiding nature, he was inclined to judge others by himself. This naturally affectionate abandonment that every one felt in him had procured him profound attachments and rare devotions. He showed, while making the Suez Canal, what a gift he possessed for levying the pacific armies he con- ducted. He set duty above everything, had in the highest degree a reverence for honour, and placed his indomitable courage at the service of everything that was beneficial with an abnegation that nothing could tire. His marvellous physical and moral equilibrium gave him an evenness of temper which always rendered his society charming. Whatever his cares, his work or his troubles, I have never noticed in him aught but generous impulses and a love of humanity carried even to those heroic imprudences of which they alone are capable who devote them- selves to the amelioration of humanity." No doubt this eulogy requires some reservations. The striking and universal success which crowned his work on the Suez Canal gave him an absolute- ness of thought which brooked no contradiction, a despotic temper before which every one must bow, and against which, when he had once taken a resolution, nothing could prevail, not even the most authoritative opposition or the most legiti- mate entreaties. He had resolved to construct the Panama Canal without locks, to make it an uninterrupted navigable way. All attempts to dissuade him from this resolution failed before his tenacious will. At his advanced age he went with his youngest child to Panama to see with his own eyes the field of his new enterprise. He there beheld the Culebra and the Chagres; he saw the mountain and the stream, those two greatest obstacles of nature that sought to bar his route. He paid no heed to them, but began the struggle against the Culebra and the Chagres. It was against them that was broken his invincible will, sweeping away in the defeat the work of Panama, his own fortune, his fame and almost an atom of his honour. But this atom, only grazed by calumny, has already been restored to him by posterity, for he died poor, having been the first to suffer by the disaster to his illusions. Political agitators, in order to sap the power of the Opportunist party, did not hesitate to drag in the mud one of the greatest citizens of France. But when the Panama " scandal " has been forgotten, for centuries to come the traveller in saluting the statue of Ferdinand de Lesseps at the entrance of the Suez Canal will pay homage ta one of the most powerful embodiments of the creative genius of the i 9th century. See G. Barnett Smith, The Life and Enterprises of Ferdinand de Lesseps (London, 1893); and Souvenirs de quarante ans, by Ferdi- nand de Lesseps (trans, by C. B. Pitman). (DE B.) LESSING, GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM (1720-1781), German critic and dramatist, was born at Kamenz in Upper Lusatia (Oberlausitz), Saxony, on the 22nd of January 1729. His father, Johann Gottfried Lessing, was a clergyman, and, a few years after his son's birth, became pastor primarius or chief pastor of Kamenz. After attending the Latin school of his native town, Gotthold was sent in 1741 to the famous school of St Afra at Meissen, where he made such rapid progress, especially in classics and mathematics, that, towards the end of his school career, he was described by the rector as " a steed that needed double fodder." In 1746 he entered the university of Leipzig as a theological student. The philological lectures of Johann Fried- rich Christ (1700-1756) and Johann August Ernesti (1707-1781) proved, however, more attractive than those on theology, and he attended the philosophical disputations presided over by his friend A. G. Kastner, professor of mathematics and also an epigrammatist of repute. Among Lessing's chief friends in Leipzig were C. F. Weisse (1726-1804) the dramatist, and Christ- lob Mylius (1722-1754), who had made some name for himself as a journalist. He was particularly attracted by the theatre then directed by the talented actress Karoline Neuber (1697- 1760), who had assisted Gottsched in his efforts to bring the German stage into touch with literature. Frau Neuber even accepted for performance Lessing's first comedy, Der junge Gelehrte (1748), which he had begun at school. His father naturally did not approve of these new interests and acquaint- ances, and summoned him home. He was only allowed to return to Leipzig on the condition that he would devote himself to the study of medicine. Some medical lectures he did attend, but as long as Frau Neuber's company kept together the theatre had an irresistible fascination for him. In 1748, however, the company broke up, and Lessing, who had allowed himself to become surety for some of the actors' debts, was obliged to leave Leipzig too, in order to escape their creditors. He went to Wittenberg, and afterwards, towards the end of the year, to Berlin, where his friend Mylius had LESSING 497 established himself as a journalist. In Berlin Lessing now spent three years, maintaining himself chiefly by literary work. He translated three volumes of Charles Rollin's Histoire ancienne, wrote several plays — Der Misogyn, Der Freigeist, Die Juden — and in association with Mylius, began the Beitrage zur Historic und Aufnahme des Theaters (1750), a periodical — which soon came to an end — for the discussion of matters connected with the drama. Early in 1751 he became literary critic to the Vossische Zeitung, and in this position laid the foundation for his reputation as a reviewer of learning, judgment and wit. At the end of 1751 he was in Wittenberg again, where he spent about a year engaged in unremitting study and research. He then returned to Berlin with a view to making literature his pro- fession; and the next three years were among the busiest of his life. Besides translating for the booksellers, he issued several numbers of the Theatralische Bibliothek, a periodical similar to that which he had begun with Mylius; he also continued his work as critic to the Vossische Zeitung. In 1 7 54 he gave a particu- larly brilliant proof of his critical powers in his Vademecum fur Herrn S. G. Lange; as a retort to that writer's overbearing criticism, Lessing exposed with scathing satire Lange's errors in his popular translation of Horace. By 1753 Lessing felt that his position was sufficiently assured to allow of him issuing an edition of his collected writings (Schriften, 6 vols., 1753-1755). They included his lyrics and epigrams, most of which had already appeared during his first residence in Berlin in a volume of Kleinigkeiten, published anonymously. Much more important were the papers entitled Rettungen, in which he undertook to vindicate the character of various writers — Horace and writers of the Reformation period, such as Cochlaeus and Cardanus — who had been mis- understood or falsely judged by preceding generations. The Schriften also contained Lessing's early plays, and one new one, Miss Sara Sampson (1755). Hitherto Lessing had, as a drama- tist, followed the methods of contemporary French comedy as cultivated in Leipzig; Miss Sara Sampson, however, marks the beginning of a new period in the history of the German drama. This play, based more or less on Lillo's Merchant of London, and influenced in its character-drawing by the novels of Richard- son, is the first btirgerliches Trauerspiel, or " tragedy of common life " in German. It was performed for the .first time at Frank- fort-on-Oder in the summer of 1755, and received with great favour. Among Lessing's chief friends during his second residence in Berlin were the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn (1720-1786), in association with whom he wrote in 1755 an admirable treatise, Pope ein Metaphysikert tracing sharply the lines which separate the poet from the philosopher. He was also on intimate terms with C. F. Nicolai (1733-1811), a Berlin bookseller and rationalistic writer, and with the " German Horace" K. W. Ramler (1725-1798); he had also made the acquaintance of J. W. L. Gleim (1710-1803), the Halberstadt poet, and E. C. von Kleist (1715-1759), a Prussian officer, whose fine poem, Der Fruhling, had won for him Lessing's warm esteem. In October 1755 Lessing settled in Leipzig with a view to devoting himself more exclusively to the drama. In 1756 he accepted the invitation of Gottfried Winkler, a wealthy young merchant, to accompany him on a foreign tour for three years. They did not, however, get beyond Amsterdam, for the out- break of the Seven Years' War made it necessary for Winkler to return home without loss of time. A disagreement with his patron shortly after resulted in Lessing's sudden dismissal; he demanded compensation and, although in the end the court decided in his favour, it was not until the case had dragged on for about six years. At this time Lessing began the study of medieval literature to which attention had been drawn by the Swiss critics, Bodmer and Breitinger, and wrote occasional criticisms for Nicolai's Bibliothek der schonen Wissenschaften. In Leipzig Lessing had also an opportunity of developing his friendship with Kleist who happened to be stationed there. The two men were mutually attracted, and a warm affection sprang up betweem them. In 1758 Kleist's regiment being ordered to new quarters, Lessing decided not to remain behind him and returned again to Berlin. Kleist was mortally wounded in the following year at the battle of Kunersdorf. Lessing's third residence in Berlin was made memorable by the Briefe, die neueste Literatur betrejfend (1759-1765), a series of critical essays — written in the form of letters to a wounded officer — on the principal books that had appeared since the beginning of the Seven Years' War. The scheme was sug- gested by Nicolai, by whom the Letters were published. In Lessing's share in this publication, his critical powers and methods are to be seen at their best. He insisted especially on the necessity of truth to nature in the imaginative presentation of the facts of life, and in one letter he boldly proclaimed the superiority of Shakespeare to Corneille, Racine and Voltaire. At the' same time he marked the immutable conditions to which even genius must submit if it is to succeed in its appeal to our sympathies. While in Berlin at this time, he edited with Ramler a selection from the writings of F. von Logau, an epigrammatist of the 1 7th century, and introduced to the German public the Lieder eines preussischen Grenadiers, by J. W. L. Gleim. In 1759 he published Philotas, a prose tragedy in one act, and also a complete collection of his fables, preceded by an essay on the nature of the fable. The latter is one of his best essays on criticism, defining with perfect lucidity what is meant by "action" in works of the imagination, and distinguishing the action of the fable from that of the epic and the drama. In 1760, feeling the need of some change of scene and work, Lessing went to Breslau, where he obtained the post of secretary to General Tauentzien, to whom Kleist had introduced him in Leipzig. Tauentzien was not only a general in the Prussian army, but governor of Breslau, and director of the mint. During the four years which Lessing spent in Breslau, he associated chiefly with Prussian officers, went much into society, and developed a dangerous fondness for the gaming table. He did not, however, lose sight of his true goal; he collected a large library, and, after the conclusion of the Seven Years' War, in 1763, he resumed more enthusiastically than ever the studies which had been partially interrupted. He investigated the early history of Christianity and penetrated more deeply than any contemporary thinker into the significance of Spinoza's philosophy. He also found time for the studies which were ultimately to appear in the volume entitled Laokoon, and in fresh spring mornings he sketched in a garden the plan of Minna von Barnhelm. After resigning his Breslau appointment in 1765, he hoped for a time to obtain a congenial appointment in Dresden, but nothing came of this and he was again compelled, much against his will, to return to Berlin. His friends there exerted themselves to obtain for him the office of keeper of the royal library, but Frederick had not forgotten Lessing's quarrel with Voltaire, and declined to consider his claims. During the two years which Lessing now spent in the Prussian capital, he was restless and unhappy, yet it was during this period that he published two of his greatest works, Laokoon, oder iiber die Grenzen der Malerei und Poesie (1766) and Minna von Barnhelm (1767). The aim of Laokoon, which ranks as a classic, not only in German but in European literature, is to define by analysis the limitations of poetry and the plastic arts. Many of his conclusions have been corrected and extended by later criticism; but he indicated more decisively than any of his predecessors the fruitful principle that each art is subject to definite conditions, and that it can accomplish great results only by limiting itself to its special function. The most valuable parts of the work are those which relate to poetry, of which he had a much more intimate knowledge than of sculpture and painting. His exposition of the methods of Homer and Sophocles is especially suggestive, and he may be said to have marked an epoch in the appreciation of these writers, and of Greek literature generally. The power of Minna von Barnhelm, Lessing's greatest drama, was also immediately recognized. Tellheim, the hero of the comedy, is an admirable study of a manly and sensitive soldier, with somewhat exagger- ated ideas of conventional honour; and Minna, the heroine, is one of the brightest and most attractive figures in German LESSING comedy. The subordinate characters are conceived with even more force and vividness; and the plot, which reflects precisely the struggles and aspirations of the period that immediately followed the Seven Years' War, is simply and naturally unfolded. In 1767 Lessing settled in Hamburg, where he had been invited to take part in the establishment of a national theatre. The scheme promised well, and, as he associated himself with Johann Joachim Christoph Bode (1730-1793), a literary man whom he respected, in starting a printing establishment, he hoped that he might at last look forward to a peaceful and prosperous career. The theatre, however, was soon closed, and the printing estab- lishment failed, leaving behind it a heavy burden of debt. In despair, Lessing determined towards the end of his residence in Hamburg to quit Germany, believing that in Italy he might find congenial labour that would suffice for his wants; The Hamburgische Dramaturge (1767-1768), Lessing's commentary on the performances of the National Theatre, is the first modern handbook of the dramatist's art. By his original interpretation of Aristotle's theory of tragedy, he delivered German dramatists from the yoke of the classic tragedy of France, and directed them to the Greek dramatists and to Shakespeare. Another result of Lessing's labours in Hamburg was the Antiquarische Briefe (1768), a series of masterly letters in answer to Christian Adolf Klotz (1738-1771), a professor of the university of Halle, who, after flattering Lessing, had attacked him, and sought to establish a kind of intellectual despotism by means of critical journals which he directly or indirectly controlled. In connexion with this controversy Lessing wrote his brilliant little treatise, Wie die Alien den Tod gebiidet (1769), contrasting the medieval representation of death as a skeleton with the Greek conception of death as the twin-brother of sleep. Instead of settling in Italy, as he intended, Lessing accepted in 1770 the office of librarian at Wolfenbuttel, a post which was offered to him by the hereditary prince of Brunswick. In this position he passed his remaining years. For a time he was not unhappy, but the debts which he had contracted in Hamburg weighed heavily on him, and he missed the society of his friends; his health, too, which had hitherto been excellent, gradually gave way. In 1775 he travelled for nine months in Italy with Prince Leopold of Brunswick, and in the following year he married Eva Konig, the widow of a Hamburg merchant, with whom he had been on terms of intimate friendship. But then- happiness lasted only for a brief period; in 1778 she died in childbed. Soon after settling in Wolfenbuttel, Lessing found in the library the manuscript of a treatise by Berengarius of Tours on transubstantiation in reply to Lanfranc. This was the occasion of Lessing's powerful essay on Berengarius, in which he vindicated the latter's character as a serious and consistent thinker. In 1771 he published his Zerstreute Anmerkungen ubtrdas Epigramm, und einige der .vornehmsten Epigrammatisten — a work which Herder described as " itself an epigram." Lessing's theory of the origin of the epigram is somewhat fanciful, but no other critic has offered so many pregnant hints as to the laws of epigrammatic verse, or defended with so much force and in- genuity the character of Martial. In 1772 he published Emilia Galotti, a tragedy which he had begun many years before in Leipzig. The subject was suggested by the Roman legend of Virginia, but the scene is laid in an Italian court, and the whole play is conceived in the spirit of the " tragedy of common life." Its defect is that its tragic conclusion does not seem absolutely inevitable, but the characters — especially those of the Grafin Orsina and Marinelli, the prince of Guastalla's chamberlain who weaves the intrigue from which Emilia escapes by death, are powerfully drawn. Having completed Emilia Galotti, which the younger generation of playwrights at once accepted as a model, Lessing occupied himself for some years almost exclusively with the treasures of the Wolfenbuttel library. The results of these researches he embodied in a series of volumes, Zur Geschichte und Literatur, the first being issued in 1773, the last in the year of his death. The last period of Lessing's life was devoted chiefly to theo- logical controversy. \ H. S. Reimarus (1694-1768), professor of oriental languages in Hamburg, who commanded general respect as a scholar and thinker, wrote a book entitled Apologie oder Schutzscltrift fiir die terniinftigen Verehrer Gottes. His standpoint was that of the English deists, and he investigated, without hesitation, the evidence for the miracles recorded in the Bible. The manuscript of this work was, after the author's death, entrusted by his daughter to Lessing, who published extracts from it in his Zur Geschichte und Literatur in 1774-1778. These extracts, the authorship of which was not publicly avowed, were known as the Wolfenbutteler Fragmente. They created profound excitement among orthodox theologians, and evoked many replies, in which Lessing was bitterly condemned for having published writings of so dangerous a tendency. His most for- midable assailant was Johann Melchior Goeze (1717-1786), the chief pastor of Hamburg, a sincere and earnest theologian, but utterly unscrupulous in his choice of weapons against an opponent. To him, therefore, Lessing addressed in 1778 his most elaborate answers — Eine Parabel, Axiomata, eleven letters with the title Anti-Goeze, and two pamphlets in reply to an inquiry by Goeze as to what Lessing meant by Christianity. These papers are not only full of thought and learning; they are written with a grace, vivacity and energy that make them hardly less interesting to-day than they were to Lessing's con- temporaries. He does not undertake to defend the conclusions of Reimarus; his immediate object is to claim the right of free criticism in regard even to the highest subjects of human thought. The argument on which he chiefly relies is that the Bible cannot be considered necessary to a belief in Christianity, since Chris- tianity was a living and conquering power before the New Testament in its present form was recognized by the church. The true evidence for what is essential in Christianity, he contends, is its adaptation to the wants of human nature; hence the religious spirit is undisturbed by the speculations of the boldest thinkers. The effect of this controversy was to secure wider freedom for writers on theology, and to suggest new problems regarding the growth of Christianity, the formation of the canon and the essence of religion. The Brunswick government having, in deference to the consistory, confiscated the Fragments and ordered Lessing to discontinue the controversy, he resolved, as he wrote to Elise Reimarus, to try " whether they would let him preach undisturbed from his old pulpit, the stage." In Nathan der Weise, written in the winter of 1778-1779, he gave poetic form to the ideas which he had already developed in prose. Its governing conception is that noble character may be associated with the most diverse creeds, and that there can, therefore, be no good reason why the holders of one sect of religious principles should not tolerate those who maintain wholly different doctrines. The play, which is written in blank verse, is too obviously a continuation of Lessing's theological con- troversy to rank high as poetry, but the representatives of the three religions — the Mahommedan Saladin, the Jew Nathan and the Christian Knight Templar — are finely conceived, and show that Lessing's dramatic instinct had, in spite of other interests, not deserted him. In 1 780 appeared Die Erziehung des Menschen- geschlechts, the first half of which he had published in 1777 with one of the Fragments. This work, composed a hundred brief paragraphs, was the last, and is one of the most suggestive of Lessing's writings. The doctrine on which its argument is based is that no dogmatic creed can be regarded as final, but that every historical religion had its share in the development of the spiritual life of mankind. Lessing also maintains that history reveals a definite law of progress, and that occasional retrogression may be necessary for the advance of the world towards its ultimate goal. These ideas formed a striking contrast to the principles both of orthodox and of sceptical writers in Lessing's day, and gave a wholly new direction to religious philosophy. Another work of Lessing's last years, Ernst und Folk (a series of five dialogues, of which the first three were published in 1777, the last two in 1780), also set forth many new points of view. Its nominal subject is freemasonry, but its real aim is to plead for a humane and charitable spirit in opposition to a narrow LESSON— LE SUEUR 499 patriotism, an extravagant respect for rank, and exclusive devotion to any particular church. Lessing's theological opinions exposed him to much petty persecution, and he was in almost constant straits for money. Nothing, however, broke his manly and generous spirit. To the end he was always ready to help those who appealed to him for aid, and he devoted himself with growing ardour to the search for truth. He formed many new plans of work, but in the course of 1780 it became evident to his friends that he would not be able much longer to continue his labours. His health had been undermined by excessive work and anxiety, and after a short illness he died at Brunswick on the i$th of February 1781. " We lose much in him," wrote Goethe after Lessing's death, " more than we think." It may be questioned whether there is any other writer to whom the Germans owe a deeper debt of gratitude. He was succeeded by poets and philosophers who gave Germany for a time the first place in the intellectual life of the world, and it was Lessing, as they themselves acknowledged, who prepared the way for their achievements. Without attaching himself to any particular system of philosophical doctrine, he fought error incessantly, and in regard to art, poetry and the drama and religion, suggested ideas which kindled the en- thusiasm of